Havighursts Developmental Tasks Theory

BY PSYCHOLOGY NOTES HQ
0
6
2
22

Although many theorists are responsible for contributing to the Developmental

Tasks Theory, it was Robert J. Havighurst who elaborated on this theory in the
most systematic and extensive manner.
Havighursts main assertion is that development is continuous throughout the
entire lifespan, occurring in stages, where the individual moves from one
stage to the next by means of successful resolution of problems or
performance of developmental tasks. These tasks are those that are typically
encountered by most people in the culture where the individual belongs. If the
person successfully accomplishes and masters the developmental task, he
feels pride and satisfaction, and consequently earns his community or

societys approval. This success provides a sound foundation which allows the
individual to accomplish tasks to be encountered at later stages. Conversely, if
the individual is not successful at accomplishing a task, he is unhappy and is
not accorded the desired approval by society, resulting in the subsequent
experience of difficulty when faced with succeeding developmental tasks. This
theory presents the individual as an active learner who continually interacts
with a similarly active social environment.
Havighurst proposed a bio psychosocial model of development, wherein the
developmental tasks at each stage are influenced by the individuals biology
(physiological maturation and genetic makeup), his psychology (personal
values and goals) and sociology (specific culture to which the individual
belongs).
Some developmental tasks evolve out of the biological character of humans
and are therefore faced similarly by all individuals from any culture. An
example of this is learning how to walk for infants. Being a skill that depends
on maturation and genetically determined factors, the mechanics involved in
learning how to walk are virtually the same and occur at generally the same
time for children from all cultures.
Other tasks that stem from biological mechanisms include learning to talk,
exercising control over bodily functions, learning skills typically utilized in
childrens games, and coping with physiological changes related to aging, to
name a few. Havighurst stressed the importance of sensitive periods which he
considered to be the ideal teachable moments during which an individual
demonstrates maturation at a level that is most conducive to learning and
successfully performing the developmental tasks.
Psychological factors that emerge from the individuals maturing personality
and psyche are embodied in personal values and goals. These values and
goals are another source of some developmental tasks such as establishing
ones self-concept, developing relationships with peers of both sexes and
adjusting to retirement or to the loss of a spouse.

There are other tasks, however, that arise from the unique cultural standards
of a given society and as such, may be observed in different forms in varying
societies or, alternatively, may be observed is some cultures but not in others.
One such task would be preparing oneself for an occupation. An individual
who belongs to an agricultural community, for instance, might make the
preparations for an occupation such as becoming a farmer at an early age,
possibly in middle childhood or in adolescence. A member of an industrialized
society, on the other hand, requires longer and more specialized preparation
for an occupation, thus, embarking on this developmental task sometime
during early adulthood. Other culturally-based tasks include achieving genderappropriate roles and becoming a responsible citizen.
An enumeration of developmental tasks, therefore, will differ across cultures.
Nevertheless, Havighurst did propose a list of common critical developmental
tasks, categorized into six stages of development which offers a rough picture
of what these specific developmental tasks are. Below is a partial list of
Havighursts developmental tasks.
Infancy and Early Childhood birth to 5 years

Learning to walk
Learning to control bodily wastes
Learning to talk
Learning to form relationships with family members

Middle Childhood 6 12 years

Learning physical skills for playing games

Developing school-related skills such as reading , writing, and counting
Developing conscience and values
Attaining independence

Adolescence 13 17 years

Establishing emotional independence from parents

Equipping self with skills needed for productive occupation

Achieving gender-based social role
Establishing mature relationships with peers of both sexes

Early Adulthood 18 35 years

Choosing a partner
Establishing a family
Managing a home
Establishing a career

Middle Age 36 60 years

Maintaining economic standard of living

Performing civic and social responsibilities
Relating to spouse as a person
Adjusting to physiological changes

Later Maturity over 60 years

Adjusting to deteriorating health and physical strength

Adjusting to retirement
Meeting social and civil obligations
Adjusting to death or loss of spouse

The assertions and principles presented by Havighurst are quite easily

understandable and clear. The applications of the theory extend to the field of
education and have asserted influence over educators and psychologists
worldwide. Although the theory has its roots in the 1930s, it continues to
stimulate the insights of contemporary psychologists, prompting the
publication of new manuscripts and books based on the concepts of the
developmental task theory.
Over the years, the reception and interpretation of Havighursts theory of
developmental tasks have evolved with the upsurge of new findings.

Nevertheless, this theory has remained robust in its testimony that

development is continuous throughout the entire lifespan.
Photo credit: M Glasgrow
A- Havighursts Developmental Task Theory

Robert Havighurst emphasized that learning is basic and that it continues throughout
life span. Growth and Development occurs in six stages.
Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood:
1. Learning to walk.
2. Learning to take solid foods
3. Learning to talk
4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
6. Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.
7. Getting ready to read
Middle Childhood:
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
3. Learning to get along with age-mates
4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
8. Achieving personal independence
9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions
Developmental Tasks of Adolescence:
1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively
4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
5. Preparing for marriage and family life Preparing for an economic career
6. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing

an ideology
7. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood
1. Selecting a mate
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Learning to live with a marriage partner
4. Starting a family
5. Rearing children
6. Managing a home
7. Getting started in an occupation
8. Taking on civic responsibility
9. Finding a congenial social group
Developmental Tasks of Middle Age
1. Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
2. Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living
3. Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
4. Developing adult leisure-time activities
5. Relating oneself to ones spouse as a person
6. Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age
7. Adjusting to aging parents.
Developmental Tasks of Later Maturity
1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3. Adjusting to death of a spouse
4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with ones age group
5. Meeting social and civil obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement (http://faculty.mdc.edu).

Robert J. Havighurst -Characteristics of Developmental Task-

Robert J. Havighurst

Robert James Havighurst (June 5, 1900 in De Pere, Wisconsin January 31, 1991 in Richmond,
Indiana) was a professor, physicist, educator, and aging expert. Both his father, Freeman Alfred
Havighurst, and mother, Winifred Weter Havighurst, had been educators at Lawrence University.
Havighurst worked and published well into his 80s. According to his family, Havighurst died of
Alzheimer's disease at the age of ninety.

Stages of Development
"A successful mother sets her children free and becomes free herself in the process."
Robert J. Havighurst

Havighurst identified six major stages in human life. They are:

1. Infancy & early childhood (Birth till 6)
2. Middle childhood (6-12)
3. Adolescence (13-18)
4. Early Adulthood (19-30)
5. Middle Age (30-60)

6. Later maturity (60 and over)

Sources of Developmental Tasks

"The 2 basic principle processes of education are knowing and valuing."
Robert J. Havighurst

In Havighursts bio psychosocial model, the first important issue is biology, second is psychology and the
last one is the sociology.
Havighurst identified 3 sources of developmental tasks:

1. Tasks that arise from physical maturation: Learning to walk, talk, control of bowel and urine, behaving
in a acceptable manner to opposite sex, adjusting to menopause.
2. Tasks that arise from personal values: Choosing an occupation, figuring out ones philosophical outlook.
3. Tasks that have their source in the pressures of society: Learning to read, learning to be responsible
citizen.
Developmental Tasks
(Ages 0-6)
Learning to walk.
Learning to crawl.
Learning to take slid food.
Learning to talk.
Learning to control the elimination of body wastes.
Learning sex differences and sexual modesty.
Getting ready to read.
Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.

(Ages 6-12)
Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
Learning to get along with age mates.
Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism.
Learning on appropriate masculine or feminine social role.

Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.

Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values.
Achieving personal independence. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions.

(Ages 12-18)
Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
Accepting ones physique and using the body effectively.
Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults.
Preparing for marriage and family life.
Acquiring a st of values and an ethical system as a guide to behaviour.
Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.

(Ages 18-30)
Selecting a mate.
Learning to live with a partner.
Starting family.
Rearing children.
Managing home.
Getting started in occupation.
Taking on civic responsibility.
Finding a congenial social group.

(Ages 30-60)
Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults.
Achieving adult social and civic responsibility.
Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in ones occupational career.
Developing adult leisure time activities.

Relating oneself to ones spouse as a person.

To accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age.
Adjusting to aging parents.

(60 and over)

Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health.
Adjusting to retirement and reduced income.
Adjusting to death of a spouse.
Establishing an explicit affiliation with ones age group.
Adopting and adapting social roles in a flexible way.
Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements.

Robert J. Havighurst - Conclusion

Completing the Tasks

Havighurst categorised the tasks, in first category are the tasks, which has to be completed in certain
period, and the second are the tasks that continue for a long, sometimes for a lifetime.

So what happens if the task is not completed in that stage or completed in a later date. Havighurst reply to
that it is critical that the tasks should be completed during the appropriate stage, otherwise result will be
the failure to achieve success in future tasks.

Criticism
Havighursts developmental Task theory talks about the problem are faced by us in all stages of life and he
explains them really well. We can all relate that biology has some kind of effects in our development, as
well as psychology and society.

One things Havighurst seems to miss is that his solutions to this problems, it is not so clear in this theory
how we sort out this problems.

When it comes to if hes theory is scientific, it is hard to say, some part of his theory can be tested, equally
some parts are very difficult to test.

Havighursts theory is easy to understand, and it is clear, there is no ambiguity. It is applicable to many
cultures, even though he concentrated on middle class Americans.

It is disappointing that not many theorists are influenced by his theory.

get it from (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Havighurst)

Robert Havighurst (1900 - 1991)

Summary of Theory
One of earliest writers on adult development, Havighurst identified roles and expectations and linked
them to adult development. Havighursts stages and ages have largely been refined by more current
research, but two important concepts he proposed are fundamental assumptions that underlie all of the
schools of thought in developmental theory.
First, he defined a "developmental task" as that "which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the
individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with later tasks, while
failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the society, and difficulty with later tasks"
(Havighurst 1953, p. 2).

Havighurst (1972) also coined the termed "teachable moments," in which people are ready to learn and
apply information because of their life situation. This ideas was adopted by Knowles as readiness to
learn in his assumptions of androgogy (Baumgartner, 2001).

Where are my learners in this scheme?

My learners are transitioning between adolescence and early adulthood.

In general, what does this mean?

Havighurst (1970) identified the tasks for adolescence and young adulthood as follows:
Adolescence (Ages 12-18)

Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes.

Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.

Accepting ones physique and using the body effectively.

Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults.

Preparing for marriage and family life.

Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior.

Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.

Young Adulthood (Ages 19-29 years)

Selecting a mate

Learning to live with a marriage partner

Starting a family

Rearing children

Managing a home

Getting started in an occupation

Taking on civic responsibility

Finding a congenial social group

What does this mean to me?

Havighurst's adulthood tasks arise from a combination of social expectations and personal values. These
tasks emerge as part of the life cycle and "make different demands on education and offer different
opportunities to the educator" (Havighurst 1964, p. 18). The tasks offer teachable moments. To foster
development, educators need to introduce students to these critical tasks at the right time. "When the
body is ripe, and society requires, and the self is ready to achieve a certain task, the teachable moment has
come" (Havighurst, 1953, p. 5).

Transcript of Robert Havighurst

Robert Havighurst
Overview of Theories
Havighurst is credited with the establishment of two main theories:
1. The Development Task Theory:
Havighurst defined a developmental task as that which arises at or about a certain
period in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to his
happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the
individual, disapproval by the society, and difficulty with later tasks" (Havighurst
1953, p. 2).
2. The term "teachable moments":
In 1972, Havighurst also created the term teachable moments which refers to a
stage when an individual is suitably developed in order effectively learn and use
certain information.
The stages of development outlined by Robert Havighurst
Havighurst identifies three sources of developmental tasks:
Tasks that arise from physical maturation: e.g. learning to walk, talk and behave
acceptably with the opposite sex during adolescence, adjusting to menopause
during middle age
Tasks that arise from personal success: those that arise from the maturing
personality, personal values and aspiration, learning necessary skills for job success
Tasks that have their source in the pressure of society: e.g. reading or learning to be
a responsible citizen

Six stages of development

The cultural and historical context of Robert Havighurst's work
Robert J. Havighurst was a prolific writer, civil rights activist, researcher and
professor
Havighurst was born in 1900 in Wisconsin, United States
Havighurst began with studying the social, emotional and moral development of

children and adolescents in various American sub-cultures as well as in other

countries
Havighurst later directed the National Study of Indian Education which enabled for
Native Americans to have an increased voice in their education

The major criticisms of Havighurst's work

The book Counselling Youth by Tina Besley expresses that the Major Criticism to
Robert Havighursts theorems are that the tasks are far too vague and the art/end
time of said tasks.
Criticism that the achievement of emotional independence, preparing for marriage
and accepting ones physique is required as the criteria for successful aging as
such choices are highly dependant on the individual.
The theory centralises that when one is ready to achieve a task, a teachable
moment has come however the flaw to this logic is that one is constantly learning
and adapting to achieve the requirements of each stage.
Brought to you by Marjory (Potato) Jiang, Justina Chu (Chu Chu train), Mavis Tian
and Stephanie Bian

The Developmental Tasks and Education*

The Developmental Task Concept*
From examining the changes in your own lifespan and reading about the events in Colin powell's
life, you can see that critical tasks arise at certain times in our lives. Mastery of these tasks is
satisfying and encourages us to go on to new challenges. Difficulty with them slows progress
toward future accoplishments and goals. As a mechanism for understanding the changes that
occur during the lifespan. Robert Havighust(1952, 1972, 1982) has identified critical
developmental tasks that occur throughout the lifespan. Although our interpretations of these
tasks naturally change over the years and with new research findings. Havighurst's

developmental tasks offer lasting testimony to the belief that we continue to devlop throughout
our lives.
Havighurst (1972) defines a developmental tasks as one that arises at a certain period in our
lives, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks; while
leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks. Havighurst uses lightly
different age groupings, but the basic divisions are quite similar to those used in this book. He
identifies three sources of developmental tasks (Havighurst, 1972)
* Tasks that arise from physical maturation. For example, learning to walk, talk, and behave
acceptablly with the opposite sex during adolescence; adjusting to menopause during middle age.
* Tasks that from personal sources. For example, those that emerge from the maturing
personality and take the form of personal values and aspirations, such as learning the necessary
skills for job success.
* Tasks that have their source in the pressures of society. For example, learning to read or
learning the role of a responsible citizen.
According to our biopsychosocial model, the first source corresponds to the "bio" part of the
model, the second to the "psycho," and the third to the "social" aspect.
Havighurst has identified six major age periods: infancy and early childhood(0-5 years), middle
childhood (6-12 years), daolescence (13-18 years), early adulthood (19-29 years), middle
adulthood (30-60 years), and later maturity (61+). Table presents typical developmental tasks for
each of these periods.
The developmental tasks concept has a long and rich tradition. Its acceptance has been partly due
to a recognition of sensitive periods in our lives and partly due to the practical nature of
Havighurst's tasks. Knowing that a youngster of a certain age is encountering one of the tasks of
that period(learning an appropriate sex role) helps adults to understand a child's behavior and
establish an environment that helps the child to master the tasks. Another good example is that of
acquiring personal independence, an important task for the middle childhood period. Youngsters
test authority during this phase and, if teachers and parents realize that this is a nomal, even
necessary phase of development, they react differently than if they see it as a personal
challenge(Hetherington and Parke, 1986)
For example, note Havighurst's developmental tasks for middle adulthood, one of which is a
parent's need to help children become happy and responsible adults. Adults occasionally find it
hard to "let go" od their children. They want to keep their children with them far beyond any
reasonable time. For their own good, as well as that of their children. Once they do, they can
enter a happy time in their own lives if husbands and wives are not only spouses but friends and
partners as well.
Havighurst is not alone in the importance he places on the developmental task concept (Cole,
1986; Goetting, 1986; Cristante & Lucca, 1987; Cangemi and Kowalski, 1987). For example,
Goetting (1986) has examined the developmental tasks of siblings and identified those that last a
lifetime, such as companionship and emotional support. Other tasks seem to be related to a

particular stage in the life cycle, such as creataking during childhood and later the care of elderly
parents.
Identifying and mastering developmental tasks help us to understand the way change affects our
lives. Another way to understand lifespan changes is to identify those needs that must be satisfied
if personal goals are to be achieved. To help you recognize the role that needs play in our lives,
let's examine the work of Abraham Maslow and his needs hierarchy.

Needsn Across the Lifespan

Assume that Amy, a high school senior, is concerned that her English class is not helping her to
prepare for college work. In other words, this student believes that her needs are not being met;
there is a lack of need satisfaction. One of Maslow's most famous concepts is that of selfactualization, which means that we use our abilities to the limit of our potentialities (Maslow &
others, 1987). If people are convinced that they should and canfulfill their promise, they are
then on the path to self-actualization. Self-Actualization is a growth concept. and individuals
move toward this goal (physical and psychological health) as they satisfy their basic needs.
Needs for
self-actualization
Esteem needs
Love and belongingness needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
Figure; Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Source: Data for diagram based on Hierarchy of Needs, in "A Theory of Human Motivation" in
Motivation and Personality, 2d ed., 1970, by Abraham H. Maslow.

Need Satisfaction
Growth toward self-actualization requires the satisfaction of a hierarchy of needs. In Maslow's
theory there are five basic needs: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and selfactualization. Figure illustrates the hierarchy of needs, with those needs at the base of the
hierarchy assumed to be more basic relative to the needs above them in the hierarchy.
* Physiological needs. Physiological needs, such as hunger and sleep, are doinant and are the
basis of motivation. Unless they are satisfied, everything else recedes. For example, students
who frequently do not eat breakfast or suffer from poor nutrition generally become lethargic and
withdrawn; their learning potential is severely lowered. Note: This is particularly true of
adolescents who can be extremely sensitive to their weight.
* Safety needs. Safety needs represent the importance of security, protection, stability, freedom
from fear and ansiety, and the need for structure and limits. For example, individuals who are
afraid of school, of peers, of a superior, or of a parent's reaction have their safety needs
threatened and their well-being can be affected.

* Love and Belongingness needs. Love and belongingness needs refers to the need for family
and friends. Healthy, motivated people wish to avoid feelings of loneliness and isolation. People
who feel alone, not part of the group, or who lack any sense of belongingness usually have poor
relationships with others, which can then affect their achievement in life.
* Esteem needs. Esteem needs refer to the reactions of others to us as individuals and also to our
opinion of ourselves. We want a favorable judgment from others, which should be based on
honest achievement. Our own sense of competence combines with the reactions of others to
produce a sense of self-esteem. Consequently, we must acquire competence and find the
opportunities that permit us to achieve and to secure reinforcement, both from others and our
own sense of satisfaction in what we have done.
* Needs for Self-actualization. By self-actualization needs, Maslow was referring to that
tendency, in spite of the lower needs being satisfied, to feel restless unless we are doing what we
think we are capable of doing. As Maslow noted (Maslow & others, 1987), musiccians must
make music, artists must paint, and writers must write. The form that needs take isn't important:
one person may desire to be a great parent: another may desire to be an outstanding athlete.
Regardless of professions, what human beings can be, they must be (Maslow & others, 1987, p.
22).
Closely allied to these basic needs are cognitive needs (the desire to know and understand) and
aesthetic needs. But as Maslow noted, we must be careful not to make too sharp a distinction
between these and the basic needs; they are tightly interrelated (Maslow & others, 1987). As you
can see, Maslow's remarkably perceptive analysis furnishes us with rich general insights into
human behavior, especially those needs that lead to developmental changes during the lifespan.
Using these ideas in the following pages, we'll attempt to identify those factors that lead to
success and adjustment (high self-esteem, parental warmth and love, family support). We must
also attempt to discover how self-esteem develops and why parental love and support are so
significant; that is, what mechanisms are involved. In your reading and in your search for
answers to the important questions raised throughout this book, don't let yourself be lulled into
an easy acceptance of age as the solution. Remember that individuals mature at quite different
rates, and that various aspects of development (physical, cognitive, psychosocial ) proceed at
different rates within the same individual. Here once again you can see the usefulness of the
biopsychosocial model. If you understand it, you'll not be content with merely identifying one
cause of a person's behavior. you'll search for the interaction of factors and thus acquire a deeper
and richer explanation of that behavior. Look for the causes, search for the processes, and you'll
discover the excitment of studying the lifespan!
A developmental task is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the
individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with later
tasks, while filure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the society, and
difficulty with later tasks.
1. Infancy and Childhood(0-5)

1) Learning to walk: Once the basic skills are mastered, he learns during later years to run,
jump, and skip.
2) Learning to take solid foods: The way the child is treated during the weaning period, the
schedule on which he is fed, and the age and suddenness of weaning, all have profound effects
upon his personality.
3) Learning to talk: Between ths ages of twelve and eighteen months, the great moment of speech
arrives. The two theories agree to this extent, namely (1) that the human infant develops a
repertory of speech - sounds without having to learn them, and (2) that the people around him
teach him to attach certain meanings to these sounds.
4) Learning to control the elimination of body waste: To learn to urinate and defecate at socially
acceptable times and places. Toilet training is the first moral training that the child receives. The
stamp of this first moral training probably persists in the child's later character.
5) Learning sex differences and sexual modesty: The kinds of sexual behavior he learns and the
attiitudes and feelings he develops about sex in these early years probably have an abiding effect
upon his sexuality throughout his life.
6) Achieving physiological stability: It takes as many as five years for the child's body to settle
down to something like the physiological stability of the child.
7) Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality: And, when his nervous system is
ready, he must have the experience and the teachers to enable him to form a stock of concepts
and learn the names for them. On this basis his later mental development is built.
8) Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings, and other people: The way he
achieves this task of relating himself emotioanlly to other people will have a large part in
determining whether he will be friendly or cold, outgoing or introversive, in his soical relations
in later life.
9) Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing a conscience: During the later years
of early childhood he takes into himself the warning and punishing voices of his parents, in ways
that depend upon their peculiar displays of affection and punishment toward him. Thus he
develops the bases of his conscience, upon which a later structure of values and moral character
will be built.
2. Childhood(6-12)
1) Learning to physical skills necessary for ordinary games: To learn the physical skills that are
necessary for the games and physical activities that are highly valued in childhood--such skills
as throwing and catching, kicking, tumbling, swimming, and handling simple tools.
2) Building wholesome attitudes towards oneself as a growing organism: To develop habits of
care of the body, of cleanliness and safety, consistent with a wholesome, realistic attitude which

includes a sense of physical normality and adequacy, the ability to enjoy using the body, and a
wholesome attitude toward sex. Sex education should be a matter of agreement between school
and parents, with the school doing what the parents feel they cannot do so well. The facts about
animal and human reproduction should be taught before puberty.
3) Learning to get along with age-mates: To learn the give-and-take of social life among peers.
To learn to make friends and to get along with enemies. To develop a "social personality."
4) Learning an appropriate masculin or feminine social role: To learn to be a boy or a girl--to
act the role that is expected and rewarded. The sex role is taught so vigorously by so many
agencies that the school probably has little more than a remedial function, which is to assist
boys and girls who are having difficulty with the task.
5) Developing fundamental skills reading, writing, and calculating: To learn to read, write, and
calculate well enough to get along in society.
6) Developing concepts necessary for everyday living: A concept is an idea which stands for a
large number of particular sense perceptions, or which stands for a number of ideas of lesser
degrees of abstraction. The task is to acquire a store of concepts sufficient for thinking effectively
about ordinary occupational, civic, and social matters.
7) Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values: To develop an inner moral control,
respect for moral rules, and the beginning of a rational scale of values. Morality, or respect for
rules of behavior, is imposed on the child first by the parents. Later, according to Piaget, the
child learns that rules are necessary and useful to the conduct of any social enterprise, from
games to government, and thus learns a "morality of cooperation or agreement" which is a true
moral autonomy and necessary in a modern democratic society.
8) Achieving personal independence: To become an autonomous person, able to make plans and
to act in the present and immediate future independently of one's parents and other adults. The
young child has become physically independent of his parents but remains emotionally
dependent on them.
9) Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions: To develop social attitudes that
are basically democratic. Attitudes, or emotionalized dispositions to act, are learned mainly in
three ways; (1) by imitation of people with prestige in the eyes of the learner; (2) by collection
and combination of pleasant or unpleasant experiences associated with a given object or
situation; (3) by a single deeply emotional experience--pleasant or unpleasant--associated with
a given object or situation.
3. Adolescent(13-18)
1) Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes: The goal: to learn to
look upon girls as women and boys as men; to become an adult among adults; to learn to work
with others for a common purpose, disregarding personal feelings; to learn to lead without
dominating.

2) Achieving a masculine or feminine social role: To accept and to learn a socially approved
adult masculine or feminine social role.
3) Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively: The goal: to become proud, or at
least tolerant, of one's body; to use and protect one's body effectively and with personal
satisfaction.
4) Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults: The goal: to become free from
childish dependence on parents; to develop affection for parents without dependence upon them.
5) Achieving assurance of economic independence: The goal: to feel able to make a living, if
necessary. This is primarily a task for boys, in our society, but it is of increasing importance to
girls.
6) Selecting and preparing for an occupation: The goal: to choose an occupation for which one
has the necessary ability; to prepare for this occupation.
7) Preparing for marriage and family life: The goal: to develop a positive attitude toward family
life and having children; and (mainly for girls) to get the knowledge necessary for home
management and child rearing.
8) Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence: The goal: to
develop concepts law, government, economics, politics, geography, human nature, and social
institutions which fit the modern world; to develop language skills and reasoning ability
necessary for dealing effectively with the problems of a modern democracy. Individual
differences in mental development show themselves principally as differences in: (a) acquiring
language and meanings, (2) acquiring concepts, (3) interests and motivation.
9) Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior: The goal: to participate as a
responsible adult in the life of the community, region, and nation; to take account of the values of
society in one's personal behavior.
10) Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide behavior: The goal: to form a set
of values that are possible of realization; to develop a conscious purpose of realizing these
values; to define man's place in the physical world and in relation to other human beings; to
keep one's world picture and one's values in harmony with each other. Definition: a value is an
object or state of affairs which is desired.
4. Early Adulthood(19-30)
This simple age-grading stops in our culture somewhere around sixteen to twenty. It is like
reaching the end f the ladder and stepping off onto a new, strange cloud-land with giants and
whiche to be circumvented and the goose that lays the golden egges to be captured if only one
can discover the know-how.

1) Select ing a mate: Until it is accomplished, the task of finding a marriage partner is at once
the most interesting and the most disturbing of the tasks of early adulthood.
2) Learning to live with a marriage partner: After the wedding there comes a period of learning
how to fit two lives together. In the main this consists of learning to express and control one's
feeling--anger, joy, disgust, live --so that one can live intimately and happily with one's spouse.
3) Starting a family: To have a first child successfully.
4) Rearing children: With the gaining of children the young couple take over a responsibility far
greater than any responsibitily they have ever had before. Now they are responsible for human
life that is not their own. To meet this responsibility they must learn to meet the physicial and
emotional needs of young children. This means learning how to manage the child, and also
learning to adapt their own daily and weekly schedules to the needs of growing children.
5) Managing a home: Family life is build around a physical center, the home, and depends for its
success greatly upon how well-managed this home is. Good home management is only partly a
matter of keeping the house clean, the furniture and plumbing and lighting fixtures in repair,
having meals well-cooked, and the like.
6) Getting started in an occupation: This task takes an enormous amount of the young man's
time and energy during young adulthood. Often he becomes so engrossed in this particualr task
that he neglect others. He may put off finding a wife altogether too long for his own happiness.
7) Taking on civic responsibility: To assume responsibility for the welfare of a group outside of
the family--a neighborhood or community group or church or lodge or political organization.
8) Finding a congenial social group: Marriage oftne imvolves the breaking of soical ties for one
or both young people, and the forming of new friendships. Either the man or the woman is apt to
move away from former friends. In any case, whether old friendships are interrupted by distance
or not, the young couple faces something of a new task in forming a leisure-time pattern and
finding others to share it with. The young man loses interest in some of his former bachelor
activities, and his wife drops out of some of her purely feminine associations.
5. Middle Age(30-60)
In the middle years, from about thirty to about fifty-five, men and women reach the peak of their
influence upon society, and at the same time the society makes its maximum demands upon them
for social and civic responsibility. It is the period of life to which they have looked forward
during their adolescence and early adulthood. And the time passes so quickly during these full
and actvie middle years that most people arrive at the end of middle age and the beginning
oflater maturity with surprise and a sense of having finished the journey while they were still
preparing to commence it.

The biological changes of ageing, which commence unseen and unfelt during the twenties, make
themselves known during the middle years. Espectally for the woman, the latter years of middle
age are full of profound physiologically-based psychological change.
The developmental tasks of the middle years arise from changes within the organism, from
environmental pressure, and above all from demands or obligations laid upon the individual by
his own values and aspirations.
Since most middle-aged people are members of families, with teen-age children,it is useful to
look at the tasks of husband, wife, and children as these people live and grow in relation to one
another. Each family member has several functions or roles.
The Man of the Family

The Woman of the Family

The Teen-Ager

a man

a woman

a person

a husband

a wife

a family member

a father

a mother

a provider

a homemaker and

a homemaker

family manager

Unless the man performs well as a provider, it will be difficult for the moman to perform well as
a homemaker. Unless the woman performs well as a mother, it will be difficult for the teen-age
child to meet the tasks of adolescence. The developmental tasks of family members then, are
reciprocal; they react upon one another.
1) Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
2) Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living
3) Assisting teen-age children to become responsible and happy adults
4) Developing adult leisure-time activities
5) Relating onself to one's spouse as a person
6) Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age
7) Adjusting to ageing parents
6. Later Maturity(60- )
The fact that man learns his way through life is made redically clear by consideration of the
learning tasks of older people. They still have new experiences ahead of them, and new
situations to meet. At age sixty-five when a man often retires from his occupation, his changes
are better than even of living another ten yeras. During this time the man or his wife very likely
will experience several of the followoing things: decreased income, moving to a smaller house,
loss of spouse by death, a crippling illness or accident, a turn in the business cycle with a

consequent change of the cost of living. After any of these events the situation may be so
changed that the old person must learn new ways of living.
The developmental tasks of later maturity differ in only one fumdemental respect from those of
other ages. They involve more of a defensive strategy--of holding on the life rather than of
seizing more of it. In the physical, mental and economic spheres the limitations become
especially evident; the older person must work hard to hold onto what he already has. In the
social sphere there is a fair chance of offsetting the narrowing of certain social contacts and
interests by the broadening of others. In the spritual sphere there is perhaps no necessary
shrinking of the boundaries, and perhaps there is even a widening of them.
1) Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
2) Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3) adjusting to death of spouse
4) Establishing an explicit affiliation with one's age group
5) Meeting social and civic obiligations
6) Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements: The principal values that older
people look for in housing, according to studies of this matter, are: (1) quiet, (2) privacy, (3)
independence of action, (4) nearness to relatives and friends, (5) residence among own cultural
group, (6) cheapness, (7) closeness to transportation lines and communal institutions --libraries,
shops, movies, churches, etc.

******* The Development Tasks

Infancy and Early
Childhood (0-5)

1. Learning to walk
2. Learning to take solid
foods

*******
Middle Childhood
(6-12)

1. Learning physical skills

necessary for ordinary
games

3. Learning to talk

2. Building a wholesome
attitude toward oneself

4. Learning to control the

elimination of body wastes

3. Learning to get along with

age-mates

5. Learning sex differences

and sexual modesty

4. Learning an appropriate
sex role

6. Acquiring concepts and

language to describe social
and physical reality

5. Developing fundamental
skills in reading, writing,

Adole
(

1. Achieving mature r
with both sexes

2. Achieving a mascu
feminine social role

3. Accepting one's ph

4. Achieving emotion
independence of adu

5. Preparing for marr

family life

6. Preparing for an ec
career

and calculating
7. Readiness for reading
8. Learning to distinguish
right from wrong and
developing a conscience

6. Developing concepts
necessary for everyday
living
7. Developing conscience,
morality, and a scale of
values

7. Acquiring values a
ethical system to gu
behavior

8. Desiring and achie

socially responsible
behavior

8. Achieving personal
independence
9. Developing acceptable
attitudes toward society

Early Adulthood
(19-20)

1. Selecting a mate
2. Learning to live with a
partner
3. Starting a family
4. Rearing children

Middle Adulthood
(30-60)

1. Helping teenage children

to become happy and
responsible adults
2. Achieving adult social and
civic responsibility
3. Satisfactory career
achievement

5. Managing a home
6. Starting an occupation

4. Developing adult leisure

time activities

7. Assuming civic
responsibility

5. Relating to one's spouse

as a person
6. Accepting the
physiological changes of
middle age
7. Adjusting to aging parent

Later M

1. Adjusting to decrea
strength and health

2. Adjusting to retirem
and reduced incom

3. Adjusting to death
spouse

4. Establishing relatio
one's own age grou

5. Meeting social and

obligations

6. Establishing satisfa
living quarters

Source : From Robert Havighurst, Developmental Tasks and Education, 3d ed. Copyright
1972
David McKay Company, Inc., a division of Random House, New York. N.Y. Reprinted by
permission.