Very-high resolution reflection seismics

Method Type:
Seismic Techniques
Assigned Problems:
+
Cavity detection
Civil Engineering
+
Depth of Overburden-bedrock interface
Civil Engineering
+
Fractures
Groundwater
+
Gravel, clay, limestone, salt exploration
Natural Resources
+
Groundwater table
Groundwater
+
Host sediments, hydogeological settings
Hazardous Waste
+
Ice thickness
Natural Hazards
+
Landslides
Natural Hazards
0
Earthquakes / paleoseismology
Natural Hazards
0
Heat mining
Natural Resources
0
Location of buried materials
Hazardous Waste
0
Permafrost and ice detection
Natural Hazards
0
Porosity / Permeability
Groundwater
0
Quality / Thickness of aquifer/aquitard
Groundwater
0
Quality and thickness (Natural resources)
Natural Resources
0
Quantity/ Thickness
Hazardous Waste
0
Soil / rock quality
Civil Engineering
0
Young's / shear modulus, Poisson's ratio
Civil Engineering
US Building stability
Buildings and Structures
US Quality / Thickness of concrete
Buildings and Structures
'+' = Technique applicable; '0' = Application possible/limited use; 'US' = Ultra-Sonic (different equipment).

Principle:
Measurement of elastic waves reflected at interfaces in the underground (depth range several m
to several tens of m)
Keywords:
Seismic Techniques;; ultra-shallow reflection seismics; critical refraction; seismic velocity contrast;
velocity-depth functions; subsurface models
Prerequisites:
- Target must be characterized by a seismic impedance contrast
- Significant absorption of seismic energy in shallowest subsurface layers (i.e., heterogeneous
materials (moraines)) may result in low quality data
- Applicability of very high-resolution reflection seismics is limited to sites with homogeneous
layers with low seismic velocities
- Ambient seismic noise (e.g., air blast, traffic, rain, wind) may reduce data quality significantly
- Areas with rough surface topography can be very problematic for processing
- Extensive processing is required, typically done by professionals
- Complex subsurface geology may lead to misinterpretation in 2-D profiles
- Areas around high-voltage and train power lines should be avoided
- Permission of land owner and local authorities (permitting)
- Detailed maps of cables (e.g., electricity and phone) and pipes (e.g., drainage, water, gas)
- Licences for handling of explosives (contractor)
Resolution:

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Vertical and horizontal resolution depend on seismic velocity and the dominant signal frequency.
Because seismic velocities generally increase with depth whereas the dominant frequency
decreases with depth, seismic resolution decreases with depth.Typical resolutions are:
Depth of investigation (Dry, unconsolidated sediments / Watersaturated,
unconsolidatedconsolidated sediments, hard rock): few m / few tens of m
Vertical resolution (Dry, unconsolidated sediments / Watersaturated, unconsolidatedconsolidated
sediments, hard rock): several dm / few m
Horizontal resolution (Dry, unconsolidated sediments / Watersaturated,
unconsolidatedconsolidated sediments, hard rock): few m / few tens of m
Expected Results:
- Measured parameter: velocity of ground motion (in mV) vs. time (in ms)
- Data Analysis processing of reflection seismic data yields an image of reflectors (either in traveltime or depth: seismic time or depth section). Depth conversion is required for one-to-one
correlation with other geophysical data. Pitfalls: identification of reflections, direct, refracted,
guided and surface waves. Features dipping greater than 45 on stacked (unmigrated) seismic
sections are unlikely to be real reflections.
- Interpretation seismic interpretation that is not calibrated with borehole data (e.g., synthetic
seismograms or VSP), assumes that the resolved reflectors represent true lithological
interfaces. In general, geological interpretation is done by correlation with geological core
logging combined with borehole logs and - if available - VSP data.
Combination with other Methods:
- Required additional information: geological information, necessary for the interpretation
- Related add-on information: refraction seismic and surface-based tomographic data (may be
helpful for processing and interpretation); Sonic-log data (Synthetic seismograms)
- Independent additional information: if overlapping depth of investigation: ground penetrating
Radar (GPR); geoelectrical measurements; electromagnetic measurements
Operation Expense:
- Crew size: 1 key person; 2 - 3 assistants
- Acquisition speed: is given by the number of geophones / channels (number of channels
depend on equipment), geophone and shot-point spacing, type of employed source and
topographic conditions (terrain, access): ~50 to 200 shot-points per day
- Processing: requires in general 3 - 4 days per acquisition day
- Equipment rental costs: high
Parameters to specify:
- Seismograph: Channel number (usually 24 - 48 channels or more), dynamic range (20 bit or
more dynamic range)
- Sampling rate (usually around 0.25 ms)
- Record length depend on target depth and seismic velocity
- Geophone properties
- Geophone spacing (usually few dm)
- Maximum offset (usually between 5 m and 20 m)
- Source type/ Source parameters (e.g., amount of explosive, sledgehammer) depend on surface
condition and depth of investigation (test required)
- Source-point interval (usually between one and three times the geophone spacing)
QC Documents:
- On-site equipment tests (seismograph; geophones; sources)
- Trigger accuracy
- Daily checks: Noise level; Impedance of geophones and cables; dynamic range and gain
adjustment of seismograph
- Field notes (e.g., all activities, effective time schedule, present personnel)
- Coordinates and map of shot and geophone locations

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Products:
- Measurement of noise level (test measurement)
- Raw data and geometry files
- Data after pre-stack processing
- Seismic time section (stacked data)
- Migrated section
- Subsurface models / Interpretation

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