The basic low pass filter voltage gain falls off at the

rate of at the rate of 20 dB per decade.

Ideally when the gain of a filter is falling the slope of
the gain/frequency graph should be as steep as
possible.
Second order low pass filter, has a frequency
response that falls off at the rate of 40 dB per decade
above the upper cutoff frequency.

A complex filter can be visualized as being made up of

several 2nd-order and first-order filters connected in
series.

(S +b11S +b10)(S +b21S +b20)L

H(s) = K 2
2
(S +a11S +a10)(S +a21S +a20)L
2

Butterworth approximation:

Chebyshev approximation:

Elliptical approximation:

Bessel approximation:

Butterworth approximation:
The Butterworth low-pass filter provides maximum pass band flatness.
Therefore, a Butterworth low-pass is often used as anti-aliasing filter in
data converter applications where precise signal levels are required
across the entire pass band. 20N dB per decade roll-off, where

N is the order of the filter.

Chebyshev approximation:
The Chebyschev low-pass filters provide an even higher gain roll off
above fC. However, the pass band gain is not monotone, but contains
ripples of constant magnitude instead. For a given filter order, the
higher the pass band ripples, the higher the filters roll off.
Chebyschev filters are often used in filter banks, where the frequency
content of a signal is of more importance than a constant amplification

Elliptical approximation:
9Shows pass-band and stop-band ripple
9Even sharper cut-off.

Bessel approximation:
9no signal distortion in pass-band (i.e. linear phase
response)

The gain and phase response of a low-pass filter can

be optimized to satisfy one of the following three
criteria:
1) A maximum pass band flatness,
2) An immediate passband-to-stopband transition,
3) A linear phase response.

The general transfer function of a low-pass filter is

The filter coefficients ai and bi distinguish between Butterworth,

Chebyschev and Bessel filters.
These coefficients define the complex pole locations for each secondorder filter stage, thus determining the behavior of its transfer function

The Butterworth coefficients, optimizing the pass band for

maximum flatness,
Chebyscheff coefficients, sharpening the
transition from pass band into the stop band, Bessel coefficients,
linearzing the phase response up to fC

Butterworth Filter
Maximally flat response.
Roll off smooth and monotonic.
20db/decade for every pole (order of filter)
5th order would have an attenuation rate of 100 db
for every factor of 10fold increase in frequency
beyond cutoff.

Monotonically decreasing transmission with all the transmission zeroes

at = , making it an all pole filter.

An Important parameter that has a great effect on the shape of an

LP or HPs response in the pass band, stop band and transition
region is termed as damping coefficient (0 to 2).
Filters with lower damping tend to exhibit peaking in the pass
band and more rapidly varying transition region response.
Filters with higher damping coefficients tend to pass through the
transition region more smoothly.

Quality Factor Q
The quality factor Q is an equivalent design parameter to the filter order n.
Instead of designing an nth order low-pass, the problem can be expressed as
designing a low-pass filter with a certain Q.
For band-pass filters, Q is defined as the ratio of the mid frequency, fm, to
the bandwidth at the two 3 dB points: Q = fm/(f2-f1)
For low-pass and high-pass filters, Q represents the pole quality and is defined
as: Q = bi /ai
High Qs can be graphically presented as the distance between the 0-dB line
and the peak point of the filters gain response
The higher the Q value, the more a filter inclines to instability.

Bessel (Q=0.57),
Butterworth (Q=0.707)-------( response is maximally flat)
Chebyshev (Q=1.124)
Elliptic (Q=10)

Q=

H L

0
BW

We will discuss the realization up to second-order

active filters, because a second-order active filter is
sufficient in basic applications, and we can obtain
higher-order structures just by cascading the firstorder and second-order filters.

The transfer function of second order a low-pass filter is

For Butterworth second order Filter coefficients

a1 = 1.414
b1 =1
Q= 0.71

H ( j ) ( MFM ) =

1
s +
2

2s + 1

( N = 2)

For any c ( in general : replace s

H ( j ) ( MFM ) =

s2 +

c2
( N = 2)
2
2 c s + c

REALIZATION OF ACTIVE FILTERS

(A) SallenKey (VCVS) based filters
(B) Multiple feedback (MFB) filters
(C) Transfer function synthesis
(D) Switched capacitor filters

SallenKey (VCVS) based filters

The SallenKey circuit referred to as a voltage-controlled
voltage source (or VCVS) filter.

KCL@V1
(VS V1 )Y1 = (V1 V2 )Y2 + (V1 V0 )Y3 (1)
KCL@V2
(V1 V2 )Y2 = V2Y4
V1Y2 = V2 (Y4 + Y2 )
(Y4 + Y2 )
V1 = V2
Y2
QVo = KV2 (2)
(Y4 + Y2 )
V1 =
Vo (3)
KY2

from (1), (2) & (3) :

Vo
(Y4 + Y2 )
(Y4 + Y2 )
(Y4 + Y2 )
(VS
Vo )Y1 = (
Vo )Y2 + (
Vo V0 )Y3
KY2
KY2
K
KY2

(Y4 + Y2 )
(Y4 + Y2 ) 1
(Y4 + Y2 )
Y1 + (
VS Y1 = Vo
)Y2 + (
1)Y3
KY2
KY2
K

KY2

Vo
KY1Y2
H (s) = =
Vs Y1Y2 + (1 K )Y2Y3 + Y4 (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 )

VCVS low-pass filter

V2
V1

KCL@V1
(VS V1 ) (V1 V2 )
=
+ sC1 (V1 V0 ) (1)
R1
R2
KCL@V2
(V1 V2 )
= sC2V2
R2

(2)

RB
Vo = (1 + )V2 (3)
RA

RB
K = 1+
,
RA

1
1
Y1 =
, Y2 =
, Y 3 = sC 1 , Y 4 = sC 2
R1
R2

VO ( s )
K c2
H (s) =
= 2
Vs (s)
s + 2 k c s + c2

c2 =

1
R1 R 2 C 1C 2

1
1
1
1 K
(R1 R 2 C 1C 2 )2
+
+
2 k =
R1C 1 R 2 C 1 R 2 C 2
For butterwort filter :
1
Q =
= 0 . 707 2 k = 1 . 414
2k

Scaling:
To design a filter first design a filter for unity corner frequency and
impedance value of unity. Then the circuit is scaled to the desired
corner frequency and impedance values using scaling.
Impedance Scaling:
KZ = Znew / Zold
R = KZR and C = C/KZ
Frequency scaling:
K = new/ old
C = C/K
Rnew = KZR and CNew = (1/KzK)C

By replacing the resistors of a low-pass filter with capacitors, and

its capacitors with resistors, a high-pass filter is created.

The general transfer function of a high-pass filter is

The general transfer function of second order highpass filter is

VCVS high-pass filter

K = 1+
Y3 =

RB
, Y1 = sC1 , Y2 = sC2 ,
RA

1
1
, Y4 =
R1
R2

VO ( s)
Ks 2
= 2
H ( s) =
Vs ( s ) s + 2kc s + c2
1
=
R1 R2C1C2
2
c

1
1
1
1 K
(R1 R2C1C2 )2
2k =
+
+
R1C1 R2C2 R2C2
For butterworth filter :
1
= 0.707 2k = 1.414
Q=
2k

V2
V1