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11.

a) i) Derive an normalized frequency of an optical fiber and explain its use


Normalizedfrequency.
Electromagneticwavesboundtoanopticalfiberaredescribedbythefiber's
normalizedfrequency.Thenormalizedfrequencydetermineshowmanymodesafiber
cansupport.Normalizedfrequencyisadimensionlessquantity.
Normalizedfrequencyisalsorelatedtothefiber'scutoffwavelength.Normalized
frequency(V)isdefinedas:

wheren1isthecoreindexofrefraction,n 2isthecladdingindexofrefraction,ais
thecorediameter,andλisthewavelengthoflightinair.
ThenumberofmodesthatcanexistinafiberisafunctionofV.AsthevalueofV
increases,thenumberofmodessupportedbythefiberincreases.Opticalfibers,single
modeandmultimode,cansupportadifferentnumberofmodes
SingleModeFiber(SingleModeFiberOpticCable):
Whenthefibercoreissosmallthatonlylightrayat0incidentanglecanstably
passthroughthelengthoffiberwithoutmuchloss,thiskindoffiberiscalledsinglemode
fiber.Thebasicrequirementforsinglemodefiberisthatthecorebesmallenoughto
restricttransmissiontoasingemode.Thislowestordermodecanpropagateinallfibers
withsmallercores(aslongaslightcanphysicallyenterthefiber).
The most common type of single mode fiber has a core diameter of 8 to 10 m
andisdesignedforuseinthenearinfrared(themostcommonare1310nmand1550nm).
Pleasenotethatthemodestructuredependsonthewavelengthofthelightused,sothat
thisfiberactuallysupportsasmallnumberofadditionalmodesatvisiblewavelengths.
Multimodefiber,bycomparison,ismanufacturedwithcorediametersassmallas50um
andaslargeashundredsofmicrons.
Thefollowingpictureshowsthefiberstructureofasinglemodefibe

ConditionsforSingleModeTransmission
TocalculatethenumberofmodesNminastepindexfiber,Nmcanbesimplified
as:

Reducingthecorediametersufficientlycanlimittransmissiontoasinglemode.
Thefollowingformuladefinesthemaximumcorediameter,D,whichlimitstransmission
toasinglemodeataparticularwavelength,:

Ifthecoreisanylarger,thefibercancarrytwomodes.
ModeFieldDiameter(MFD)
Thetypicalcorediameterofcommunicationsinglemodefibersisfrom8~10um
foroperatingwavelength1.31umto1.5um.Fiberwithacorediameterlessthanaboutten
timesthewavelengthofthepropagatinglightcannotbemodeledusinggeometricoptics
aswedidintheexplanationofstepindexmultimodefiber.Instead,itmustbeanalyzed
asanelectromagneticstructure,bysolutionofMaxwell'sequationsasreducedtothe
electromagnetic wave equation.So even though the fiber cladding confines the light
withinthefibercore,somelightdoespenetrateintothecladding,despitethefactthatit
nominally undergoes total internal reflection. This occurs both in single mode and
multimodefibers,butthisphenomenonismoresignificantinsinglemodefibers.Fora
Gaussian power distribution (lasers used in communications are Gaussian power
distribution)inasinglemodeopticalfiber,themodefielddiameter(MFD)isdefinedas
thepointatwhichtheelectricandmagneticfieldstrengthsarereducedto1/eoftheir
maximumvalues,i.e.,thediameteratwhichpowerisreducedto1/e2(0.135)ofthepeak
power(becausethepowerisproportionaltothesquareofthefieldstrength).Forsingle
modefibers,thepeakpowerisatthecenterofthecore.Modefielddiameterisslightly
largerthanthecorediameter,asshowninthefollowingillustration.

SINGLEMODEFIBER:

11.a)ii)Discussontransmissionoflightthroughgradedindexfiber
Multimodegradedindexfiber:
Amultimodegradedindexfiberhasacoreofradius(a).Unlikestepindexfibers,
thevalueoftherefractiveindexofthecore(n 1)variesaccordingtotheradialdistance(r).
Thevalueofn1decreasesasthedistance(r)fromthecenterofthefiberincreases.The
valueofn1decreasesuntilitapproachesthevalueoftherefractiveindexofthecladding
(n2).Thevalueofn1 mustbehigher than thevalue ofn2 to allow forpropermode
propagation.Likethestepindexfiber,thevalueofn 2isconstantandhasaslightlylower
valuethanthemaximumvalueofn1.Therelativerefractiveindexdifference(Δ)is
determinedusingthemaximumvalueofn1andthevalueofn2.
Figure33showsapossiblerefractiveindexprofilen(r)foramultimodegraded
index fiber. Notice the parabolic refractive index profile of the core. The profile
parameter
(α)determinestheshapeofthecore'sprofile.Asthevalueof&agr;increases,the
shapeofthecore'sprofilechangesfromatriangularshapetostepasshowninfigure34.
Mostmultimodegradedindexfibershaveaparabolicrefractiveindexprofile.Multimode

fibers withnearparabolicgradedindexprofiles providethebestperformance.Unless


otherwise specified, when discussing multimode gradedindex fibers, assume that the
core'srefractiveindexprofileisparabolic(α=2).
Lightpropagates inmultimodegradedindexfibersaccordingtorefractionand
totalinternalreflection.Thegradualdecreaseinthecore'srefractiveindexfromthecenter
of the fiber causes the light rays tobe refracted many times.The light rays become
refractedorcurved,whichincreasestheangleofincidenceatthenextpointofrefraction.
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence becomes larger than the
criticalangleofincidence.Figure35showstheprocessofrefractionandtotalinternal
reflection of light in multimode gradedindex fibers. Figure 35 also illustrates the
boundariesofdifferentvaluesofcorerefractiveindexbydottedlines.Lightraysmaybe
reflectedtotheaxisofthefiberbeforereachingthecorecladdinginterface
Figure33.Therefractiveindexprofileformultimodegradedindexfibe

Figure34.Therefractiveindexprofilesfordifferentvaluesof&agr;.

Figure35.Refractiveindexgradingandlightpropagationinmultimodegradedindex
fibers.

TheNAofamultimodegradedindexfiberisatitsmaximumvalueatthefiber
axis.ThisNAistheaxialnumericalaperture[NA(0)].NA(0)isapproximatelyequal
to

n1 2
However,theNAforgradedindexfibersvariesasafunctionoftheradialdistance
(r). NA varies because of the refractive index grading in the fiber's core. The NA
decreasesfromthemaximum,NA(0),tozeroatdistancesgreaterthanthecorecladding
boundarydistance(r>a).TheNA,relativerefractiveindexdifference(Δ),profile
parameter(α),andnormalizedfrequency(V)determinethenumberofpropagating
modesinmultimodegradedindexfibers.Amultimodegradedindexfiberwiththesame
normalizedfrequencyasamultimodestepindexfiberwillhaveapproximatelyonehalf
asmanypropagatingmodes.However,multimodegradedindexfiberstypicallyhaveover
onehundredpropagatingmodes.
Multimodegradedindexfibersacceptlesslightthanmultimodestepindexfibers
withthesamecoreΔ.However,gradedindexfibersusuallyoutperformthestep
indexfibers.Thecore'sparabolicrefractiveindexprofilecausesmultimodegradedindex
fiberstohavelessmodaldispersion.
Figure 35 shows possible paths that light may take when propagating in
multimodegradedindexfibers.Lightraysthattravelfartherfromthefiber'saxistravela

longerdistance.Lightraysthattravelfartherfromthecentertravelincorematerialwith
anaveragelowerrefractiveindex.
In chapter 2, you learned that light travels faster in a material with a lower
refractiveindex.Therefore,thoselightraysthattravelthelongerdistanceinthelower
refractiveindexpartsofthecoretravelatagreateraveragevelocity.Thismeansthatthe
raysthattravelfartherfromthefiber'saxiswillarriveateachpointalongthefiberat
nearlythesametimeastheraysthattravelclosetothefiber'saxis.Thedecreaseintime
differencebetweenlightraysreducesmodaldispersionandincreasesmultimodegraded
indexfiberbandwidth.Theincreasedbandwidthallowstheuseofmultimodegraded
indexfibersinmostapplications.
Mostpresentdayapplicationsthatusemultimodefiberusegradedindexfibers.
Thebasicdesignparametersarethefiber'scoreandcladdingsizeandΔ.Standard
multimode gradedindex fiber core and cladding sizes are 50/125 μm, 62.5/125
μm,85/125μm,and100/140μm.EachfiberdesignhasaspecificΔ
that improves fiber performance. Typical values of Δ are around 0.01 to 0.02.
Although no single multimode gradedindex fiber design is appropriate for all
applications,the62.5/125μmfiberwithaΔof0.02offersthebestoverall
performance.
A multimode gradedindex fiber's sourcetofiber coupling efficiency and
insensitivity to microbending and macrobending losses are its most distinguishing
characteristics.ThefibercoresizeandΔaffecttheamountofpowercoupledinto
thecoreandlosscausedbymicrobendingandmacrobending.Coupledpowerincreases
withbothcorediameterandΔ,whilebendinglossesincreasedirectlywithcore
diameterandinverselywithΔ.However,whilethesevaluesfavorhighΔs,a
smallerΔimprovesfiberbandwidth.
Inmostapplications,amultimodegradedindexfiberwithacoreandcladdingsizeof
62.5/125μmoffersthebestcombinationofthefollowingproperties:
Relativelyhighsourcetofibercouplingefficiency
Lowloss
l Lowsensitivitytomicrobendingandmacrobending
l Highbandwidth
l Expansioncapacity
l
l

Forexample,localareanetwork(LAN)andshipboardapplicationsusemultimode
gradedindex fibers with a core and cladding size of 62.5/125 μm. In LANtype
environments,macrobendandmicrobendlossesarehardtopredict.Cabletension,bends,
andlocaltiedownsincreasemacrobendandmicrobendlosses.Inshipboardapplications,
aship'scablewaymayplacephysicalrestrictions,suchastightbends,onthefiberduring
cableplantinstallation.Thegoodmicrobendandmacrobendperformanceof62.5/125
μmfiberpermitsinstallationofaruggedandrobustcableplant.62.5/125μm
multimodegradedindexfibers allow foruncomplicatedgrowthbecauseofhighfiber
bandwidthcapabilitiesfortheexpectedshortcablerunsonboardships.

11)b)Explainthefeaturesofsinglemodeandmultimodestepindexfiber
Optical fibers are characterized by their structure and by their properties of
transmission.Basically,opticalfibersareclassifiedintotwotypes.Thefirsttypeissingle
modefibers.Thesecondtypeismultimodefibers.Aseachnameimplies,opticalfibers
are classified by the number of modes that propagate along the fiber. As previously
explained,thestructureofthefibercanpermitorrestrictmodesfrompropagatingina
fiber.Thebasicstructuraldifferenceisthecoresize.Singlemodefibersaremanufactured
withthesamematerialsasmultimodefibers.Singlemodefibersarealsomanufacturedby
followingthesamefabricationprocessasmultimodefibers.
SingleModeFibers
o Thecoresizeofsinglemodefibersissmall.Thecoresize(diameter)is
typicallyaround8to10micrometers(μm).
o Afibercoreofthissizeallowsonlythefundamentalorlowestordermode
topropagatearounda1300nanometer(nm)wavelength.
o Single mode fibers propagate only one mode, because the core size
approachestheoperationalwavelength(λ).T
o Thevalueofthenormalizedfrequencyparameter(V)relatescoresizewith
modepropagation.
o Insinglemodefibers,Vislessthanorequalto2.405.WhenV≤2.405,
singlemodefiberspropagatethefundamentalmodedownthefibercore,
whilehighordermodesarelostinthecladding.
o For low V values (≤1.0), most of the power is propagated in the
claddingmaterial.Powertransmittedbythecladdingiseasilylostatfiber
bends.ThevalueofVshouldremainnearthe2.405level.
o Single mode fibers have a lower signal loss and a higher information
capacity (bandwidth) than multimode fibers. Single mode fibers are
capableoftransferringhigheramountsofdataduetolowfiberdispersion.
o Basically,dispersionisthespreadingoflightaslightpropagatesalonga
fiber.Dispersionmechanismsinsinglemodefibersarediscussedinmore
detail later in this chapter. Signal loss depends on the operational
wavelength(λ).
o Insinglemodefibers,thewavelengthcanincreaseordecreasethelosses
caused by fiber bending. Single mode fibers operating at wavelengths
largerthanthecutoffwavelengthlosemorepoweratfiberbends.
o Theylosepowerbecauselightradiatesintothecladding,whichislostat
fiberbends.Ingeneral,singlemodefibersareconsideredtobelowloss
fibers,whichincreasesystembandwidthandlength.

MultimodeFibers
o Astheirnameimplies,multimodefiberspropagatemorethanonemode.
Multimodefiberscanpropagateover100modes.Thenumberofmodes
propagateddependsonthecoresizeandnumericalaperture(NA).
o AsthecoresizeandNAincrease,thenumberofmodesincreases.Typical
valuesoffibercoresizeandNAare50to100μmand0.20to0.29,
respectively.
o A large core size and a higher NA have several advantages. Light is
launchedintoamultimodefiberwithmoreease.
o The higher NA and the larger core size make it easier to make fiber
connections.Duringfibersplicing,coretocorealignmentbecomesless
critical.Anotheradvantageisthatmultimodefiberspermittheuseoflight
emittingdiodes(LEDs).
o Singlemodefiberstypicallymustuselaserdiodes.LEDsarecheaper,less
complex,andlastlonger.LEDsarepreferredformostapplications.
o Multimodefibersalsohavesomedisadvantages.Asthenumberofmodes
increases, the effect of modal dispersion increases. Modal dispersion
(intermodaldispersion)meansthatmodesarriveatthefiberendatslightly
differenttimes.Thistimedifferencecausesthelightpulsetospread.
o Modaldispersionaffectssystembandwidth.Fibermanufacturersadjustthe
corediameter,NA,andindexprofileproperties ofmultimodefibers to
maximizesystembandwidth

12)a)i) What is meant by critical bending radiation losses of optical fiber and
explain.
Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths. This is due
to the energy in the evanescent field at the bend exceeding the velocity of light in the
cladding and hence the guidance mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy to be
radiated from the fiber. An illustration of this situation is shown in. The part of the mode
which is on the outside of the bend is required to travel faster than that on the inside so
the wave front perpendicular to the direction of propagation is maintained. Hence, part of
the mode in the cladding needs to travel faster than the velocity of light in that medium.
As this is not possible, the energy associated with this part of the mode is lost through
radiation. The loss can generally be represented by a radiation attenuation coefficient
which has the form

where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend and c1, c2 are constants which are
independent of R. Furthermore, large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at
a critical radius of curvature Rc

It may be observed from the expression given in Eq. (3.8) that potential macro bending
losses may be reduced by:
(a) designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences;
(b) operating at the shortest wavelength possible.

The above criteria for the reduction of bend losses also apply to single-mode fibers. One
theory based on the concept of a single quasi-guided mode, provides an expression from
which the critical radius of curvature for a single-mode fiber Rcs can be estimated as:

where c is the cutoff wavelength for the single-mode fiber.


Hence again, for a specific single-mode fiber (i.e. a fixed relative index difference and
cutoff wavelength), the critical wavelength of the radiated light becomes progressively
shorter as the bend radius is decreased.

12.a) ii) Explain the following in the single mode fiber : Model Birefringence
Model Birefringence
Single-mode fibers with nominal circular symmetry about the core axis allow the
propagationof two nearly degenerate modes with orthogonal polarizations. They are
thereforebimodal supporting HEx11 and Hey 11 modes where the principal axes x and y
are determinedby the symmetry elements of the fiber cross section. Hence in an optical
fiber with an idealoptically circularly symmetric core both polarization modes propagate
with identicalvelocities. Manufactured optical fibers, however, exhibit some birefringence
resultingfrom differences in the core geometry (i.e. ellipticity) resulting from variations in
theinternal and external stresses, and fiber bending. The fiber therefore behaves as a
birefringentmedium due to the difference in the effective refractive indices, and hence
phasevelocities, for these two orthogonally polarized modes. The modes therefore have
differentpropagation constants x and y which are dictated by the anisotropy of the fiber
crosssection. In this case x and y are the propagation constants for the slow mode and
the fastmode respectively. When the fiber cross-section is independent of the fiber length
L in the z direction, then the modal birefringence BF for the fiber is given by

where is the optical wavelength. Light polarized along one of the principal axes will
retain its polarization for all L. The difference in phase velocities causes the fiber to
exhibit a linear retardation (z) which depends on the fiber length L in the z direction and
is given by

assuming that the phase coherence of the two mode components is maintained. The phase
coherence of the two mode components is achieved when the delay between the two
transit times is less than the coherence time of the source. As indicated in Section 3.11,
the coherence time for the source is equal to the reciprocal of the uncorrelated source
frequency width (1/f ).It may be shown that birefringent coherence is maintained over a
length of fiber Lbc (i.e. coherence length) when:

where c is the velocity of light in a vacuum and

is the source line width

An illustration of the beat length in a single-mode optical fiber (a) the polarization states against (z); (b)

the light intensity distribution over the beat length within the fiber

However, when phase coherence is maintained (i.e. over the coherence length) Equ leads
to a polarization state which is generally elliptical but which varies periodically along the
fiber. This situation is illustrated in Figure 3.28(awhere the incident linear polarization
which is at 45 with respect to the x axis becomes circular polarization at =/2 and
linear again at =. The process continues through another circular polarization at =
3/2 before returning to the initial linear polarization at = 2. The characteristic length
LB for this process corresponding to the propagation distance for which a 2 phase
difference accumulates between the two modes is known as the beat length. It is given by:

Substituting for BF from Eq. (3.47) gives

Typical single-mode fibers are found to have beat lengths of a few centimeters and
the effect may be observed directly within a fiber via Rayleigh scattering with use of a
suitable visible source (e.g. HeNe laser)It appears as a series of bright and dark bands
with a period corresponding to the beat length, as shown in Figure The modal
birefringence BF may be determined from these observations of beat length.
12.b) i) Describe the three types of fiber misalignment that contribute to insertion
loss at an optical fiber joint
A major consideration with all types of fiberfiber connection is the optical loss
encountered at the interface. Even when the two jointed fiber ends are smooth and
perpendicular to the fiber axes, and the two fiber axes are perfectly aligned, a small
proportion of the light may be reflected back into the transmitting fiber causing
attenuation at the joint. This phenomenon, known as Fresnel reflection, is associated with
the step changes in refractive index at the jointed interface (i.e. glassairglass). The
magnitude of this partial reflection of the light transmitted through the interface may be
estimated using the classical Fresnel formula for light of normal incidence and is given by

where r is the fraction of the light reflected at a single interface, n1 is the refractive index
of the fiber core and n is the refractive index of the medium between the two jointed
fibers (i.e. for air
n = 1). However, in order to determine the amount of light reflected at a fiber joint,
Fresnel reflection at both fiber interfaces must be taken into account. The loss in decibels
due to Fresnel reflection at a single interface is given by:

Hence, using the relationships given in Eqs (.1) and (.2) it is possible to determine
the optical attenuation due to Fresnel reflection at a fiberfiber joint It is apparent that
Fresnel reflection may give a significant loss at a fiber joint even when all other aspects of
the connection are ideal. However, the effect of Fresnel reflection at a fiberfiber
connection can be reduced to a very low level through the use of an index-matching fluid

in the gap between the jointed fibers. When the index-matching fluid has the same
refractive index as the fiber core, losses due to Fresnel reflection are in theory eradicated.
Unfortunately, Fresnel reflection is only one possible source of optical loss at a fiber joint.
A potentially greater source of loss at a fiberfiber connection is caused by misalignment
of the two jointed fibers. In order to appreciate the development and relative success of
various connection techniques it is useful to discuss fiber alignment in greater detail. Any
deviations in the geometrical and optical parameters of the two optical fibers which are
jointed will affect the optical attenuation (insertion loss) through the connection. It is not
possible within any particular connection technique to allow for all these variations.
Hence, there are inherent connection problems when jointing fibers with, for instance:

The three possible types of misalignment which may occur when jointing compatible
optical fibers (a) longitudinal misalignment; (b) lateral misalignment; (c) angular
misalignment
(a) different core and/or cladding diameters;
(b) different numerical apertures and/or relative refractive index differences;
(c) different refractive index profiles;
(d) fiber faults (core ellipticity, core concentricity, etc.).
The losses caused by the above factors together with those of Fresnel reflection are
usually referred to as intrinsic joint losses. The best results are therefore achieved with
compatible (same) fibers which are manufactured to the lowest tolerance. In this case
there is still the problem of the quality of the fiber alignment provided by the jointing
mechanism. Examples of possible misalignment between coupled compatible optical
fibers are illustrated in Figure 1 It is apparent that misalignment may occur in three
dimensions: the separation between the fibers (longitudinal misalignment), the offset
perpendicular to the fiber core axes (lateral/radial/ axial misalignment) and the angle
between the core axes (angular misalignment). Optical losses resulting from these three
types of misalignment depend upon the fiber type, core diameter and the distribution of
the optical power between the propagating modes. Examples of the measured optical
losses due to the various types of misalignment are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2(a) shows
the attenuation characteristic for both longitudinal and lateral misalignment of a graded

index fiber of 50 m core diameter. It may be observed that the lateral misalignment gives
significantly greater losses per unit displacement than the longitudinal misalignment.
For instance, in this case a lateral displacement of 10 m gives about 1 dB insertion loss
whereas a similar longitudinal displacement gives an insertion loss of around 0.1 dB.
Figure 5.2(b) [Ref. 10] shows the attenuation characteristic for the angular misalignment
of two multimode step index fibers with numerical apertures of 0.22 and 0.3. An insertion
loss of around 1 dB is obtained with angular misalignment of 4 and 5 for the NA = 0.22
and NA = 0.3 fibers respectively. It may also be observed in Figure 5.2(b) that the effect
of an index-matching fluid in the fiber gap causes increased losses with angular
misalignment. Therefore, it is clear that relatively small levels of lateral and/or angular
misalignment can cause significant attenuation at a fiber joint. This is especially the case
for fibers of small core diameter (less than 150 m) which are currently employed for
most telecommunication purposes.

Figure 2.Insertion loss characteristics for jointed optical fibers with various types of
misalignment: (a) insertion loss due to lateral and longitudinal misalignment for a
graded index fiber of 50 m core diameter.

12. b) ii) Outline the major categories of multiport fiber optic coupler
An optical fiber coupler is a device that distributes light from a main fiber into one
or more branch fibers. The latter case is more normal and such devices are known as
multiport fiber couplers. Requirements are increasing for the use of these devices to
divide or combine optical signals for application within optical fiber information
distribution systems including data buses, LANs, computer networks and
telecommunication access networks

Figure 1.Classification of optical fiber couplers: (a) core interaction type; (b) surface
interaction type
Optical fiber couplers are often passive devices in which the power transfer takes
place either:
(a) Through the fiber core cross-section by butt jointing the fibers or by using some form
of imaging optics between the fibers (core interaction type); or
(b) Through the fiber surface and normal to its axis by converting the guided core modes
to both cladding and refracted modes which then enable the power-sharing mechanism
(surface interaction type).
The mechanisms associated with these two broad categories are illustrated in
Figure 1 Active waveguide directional couplers are also available which are realized using
integrated optical fabrication techniques. Such device types, however, are dealt and thus
in this section the discussion is restricted to the above passive coupling strategies.
Multiport optical fiber couplers can also be subdivided into the following three main
groups as illustrated in Figure 2.

1. Three- and four-port* couplers, which are used for signal splitting, distribution and
combining.
2. Star couplers, which are generally used for distributing a single input signal to multiple
outputs.
3. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices, which are a specialized form of
coupler designed to permit a number of different peak wavelength optical signals to be
transmitted in parallel on a single fiber In this context WDM couplers either combine the
different wavelength optical signal onto the fiber (i.e. multiplex) or separate the different
wavelength optical signals output from the fiber (i.e. demultiplex).
Ideal fiber couplers should distribute light among the branch fibers with no
scattering loss or the generation of noise, and they should function with complete
insensitivity to factors including the distribution of light between the fiber modes, as well
as the state of polarization of the light. Unfortunately, in practice passive fiber couplers do
not display all of the above properties and hence the characteristics of the devices affect
the performance of optical fiber networks. In particular, the finite scattering loss at the
coupler limits the number of terminals that can be connected, or alternatively the span of
the network, whereas
the generation of noise and modal effects can cause problems in the specification of the
network performance. Hence, couplers in a network cannot usually be treated as
individual components with known parameters, a factor which necessitates certain
compromises in their application. In this section, therefore, a selection of the more
common fiber coupler types is described in relation to the coupling mechanisms, their
performance and limitations
Three- and four-port couplers
Several methods are employed to fabricate three- and four-port optical fiber
couplers The lateral offset method, illustrated in Figure 3(a), relies on the overlapping of
the fiber end faces. Light from the input fiber is coupled to the output fibers according to
the degree of overlap. Hence the input power can be distributed in a well defined
proportion by appropriate control of the amount of lateral offset between the fibers.
This technique, which can provide a bidirectional coupling capability, is well
suited for use with multimode step index fibers but may incur higher excess losses than
other methods as all the input light cannot be coupled into the output fibers.
Another coupling technique is to incorporate a beam splitter element between the
fibers. The semitransparent mirror method provides an ingenious way to accomplish such
a fiber coupler, as shown in Figure 3(b).
A partially reflecting surface can be applied directly to the fiber end face cut at an
angle of 45 to form a thin-film beam splitter. The input power may be split in any desired
ratio between the reflected and transmitted beams depending upon the properties of the
intervening mirror, and typical excess losses for the device lie in the range 1 to 2 dB.
Using this technology both three- and four-port couplers with both multimode and single-

mode fibers have been fabricated .In addition, with suitable wavelength-selective
interference coatings this coupler type can form a WDM device .A fast-growing category
of optical fiber coupler is based on the use of micro-optic components. In particular, a
complete range of couplers has been developed which utilize the beam expansion and
collimation properties of the GRIN-rod lens combined with spherical retro-reflecting
mirrors These devices, two of which are displayed in Figure 4, are miniature optical
assemblies of compact construction which generally exhibit low insertion loss (typically
less than 1 dB) and are insensitive to modal power distribution. Figure 4(a) shows the
structure of a parallel surface type of GRIN-rod lens three port coupler which comprises
two quarter pitch lenses with a semitransparent mirror in between.

Figure 2: Optical fiber coupler types and functions: (a) three-port couplers;
(b) four-port coupler; (c) star coupler; (d) wavelength division multiplexing and
demultiplexing couplers

Light rays from the input fiber F1 collimate in the first lens before they are
incident
on the mirror. A portion of the incident beam is reflected back and is coupled to fiberF2,
while the transmitted light is focused in the second lens and then coupled to fiber F3. The
slant surface version of the similar coupler is shown in Figure 4(b).
The parallel surface type, however, is the most attractive due to its ease of
fabrication, compactness, simplicity and relatively low insertion loss. Finally, the
substitution of the mirror by an interference filter* offers application of these devices to
WDM Perhaps the most common method for manufacturing couplers is the fused
biconical taper (FBT) technique, the basic structure and principle of operation of which
are illustrated in Figure 5.
In this method the fibers are generally twisted together and then spot fused under
tension such that the fused section is elongated to form a biconical taper structure. A
three-port coupler is formed by removing one of the input fibers. Optical power launched
into the input fiber propagates in the form of guided core modes

Figure3: Fabrication techniques for three-port fiber couplers: (a) the lateral offset method;
(b) the semitransparent mirror method.

Figure 4. GRIN-rod lens micro-optic fiber couplers: (a) parallel surface type;n (b) slant
surface type

Figure 5.Structure and principle of operation for the fiber fused biconical taper coupler
The higher order modes, however, leave the fiber core because of its reduced size
in the tapered-down region and are therefore guided as cladding modes. These modes
transfer back to guided core modes in the tapered-up region of the output fiber with an
approximately even distribution between the two fibers. Often only a portion of the total

power is coupled between the two fibers because only the higher order modes take part in
the process, the lower order modes generally remaining within the main fiber.
In this case a mode-dependent (and therefore wavelength-dependent) coupling
ratio is obtained. However, when the waist of the taper is made sufficiently narrow, then
the entire mode volume can be encouraged to participate in the coupling process and a
larger proportion of input power can be shared between the output fibers. This strategy
gives an improvement in both the power and modal uniformity of the coupler.
The various loss parameters associated with four-port couplers may be written
down with reference to Figure 5. Hence, the excess loss which is defined as the ratio of
power
input to power output is given by:

The insertion loss, however, is generally defined as the loss obtained for a
particular porttoport optical path

The crosstalk which provides a measure of the directional isolation achieved by


the
device is the ratio of the backscattered power received at the second input port to the input
power which may be written as:

Finally, the splitting or coupling ratio indicates the percentage division of optical
power
between the output ports

13.a.i) Describe the operation of injection laser


Laser modes
The typical output spectrum for a broad-area injection laser is shown in Figure
6.22(a). It does not consist of a single wavelength output but a series of wavelength
peaks corresponding to different longitudinal (in the plane of the junction, along the
optical cavity) modes within the structure., the spacing of these modes is dependent on
the optical cavity length as each one corresponds to an integral number of lengths. They
are generally separated by a few tenths of a nanometer, and the laser is said to be a
multimode device. However, also indicates some broadening of the longitudinal mode
peaks due to sub peaks caused by higher order horizontal transverse modes.* These
higher order lateral modes may exist in the broad-area device due to the unrestricted
width of the active region. The correct stripe geometry inhibits the occurrence of the
higher order lateral modes by limiting the width of the optical cavity, leaving only a
single lateral mode which gives the output spectrum shown in Figure 1(b) where only
the longitudinal modes may be observed. This represents the typical output spectrum for
a good multimode injection laser.
For single-mode operation, the optical output from a laser must contain only a
single longitudinal and single transverse mode. Hence the spectral width of the emission
from the single-mode device is far smaller than the broadened transition linewidth
discussed in Section 6.2.4. It was indicated that an inhomogeneously broadened laser
can support a number of longitudinal and transverse modes simultaneously, giving a
multimode output. Single transverse mode operation, however, may be obtained by
reducing the aperture of the resonant cavity such that only the TEM00 mode is
supported. To obtain single-mode operation it is then necessary to eliminate all but one
of the longitudinal modes.
One method of achieving single longitudinal mode operation is to reduce the
length L of the cavity until the frequency separation of the adjacent modes given by Eq.
as f = c/2nL is larger than the laser transition linewidth or gain curve. Then only the
single mode which falls within the transition linewidth can oscillate within the laser
cavity. However, it is clear that rigid control of the cavity parameters is essential to
provide the mode stabilization necessary to achieve and maintain this single-mode

operation.
The structures required to give mode stability are discussed with regard to the
multi- mode injection laser and similar techniques can be employed to produce a laser
emitting a single longitudinal and transverse mode. For example, the correct D
structure will restrict the vertical width of the waveguiding region to less than 0.4
m allowing only the fundamental transverse mode to be supported and removing any
interference of the higher order transverse modes on the emitted longitudinal modes.
The lateral modes (in the plane of the junction) may be confined by the
restrictions on the current flow provided by the stripe geometry. In general, only the
lower order modes are excited, which appear as satellites to each of the longitudinal
modes. However, as will be discussed, stripe contact devices often have instabilities and
strong nonlinearities (e.g. kinks) in their light output against current characteristics.
Tight current confinement as well as good waveguiding are therefore essential in order
to achieve only the required longitudinal modes which form between the mirror facets
in the plane of the junction. Finally, as indicated above, single-mode operation may be
obtained through con- trol of the optical cavity length such that only a single
longitudinal mode falls within the gain bandwidth of the device. Figure 1 shows a
typical output spectrum for a single- mode device.
However, injection lasers with short cavity lengths (around 50 m) are
difficult to handle and have not been particularly successful. Nevertheless, such
devices, together
with the major alternative structures which provide single-mode operation, are dealt
with in under the title of single-frequency injection lasers.

Figure 1. Typical single longitudinal mode output spectrum from a single-mode injection laser

13.a)ii)ComparetheopticalsourcesLEDandILD
Lightemittingdiodes
A lightemittingdiode (LED)isasemiconductordevicethatemitsincoherent
light,throughspontaneousemission,whenacurrentispassedthroughit.TypicallyLEDs
forthe850nmregionarefabricatedusingGaAsandAlGaAs.LEDsforthe1300nmand
1550nmregionsarefabricatedusingInGaAsPandInP.
ThebasicLEDtypesusedforfiberopticcommunicationsystemsarethesurface
emittingLED(SLED),theedgeemittingLED(ELED),andthesuperluminescentdiode
(SLD). LED performance differences help link designers decide which device is
appropriatefortheintendedapplication.Forshortdistance(0to3km),lowdatarate
fiber optic systems, SLEDs and ELEDs are the preferred optical source. Typically,
SLEDsoperateefficientlyforbitratesupto250megabitspersecond(Mb/s).Because
SLEDsemitlightoverawidearea(widefarfieldangle),theyarealmostexclusivelyused
in multimode systems. For mediumdistance, mediumdatarate systems, ELEDs are
preferred.
SEMICONDUCTOR ILD:
Manytypesofmaterialsincludinggas,liquid,andsemiconductorscanformthe
lasingmedium.However,inthischapterweonlydiscusssemiconductorlaserdiodes.
Semiconductorlaserdiodesaretheprimarylasersusedinfiberoptics.Alaserdiodeemits
lightthatishighlymonochromaticandverydirectional.ThismeansthattheLD'soutput
hasanarrowspectralwidthandsmalloutputbeamangle.
AsemiconductorLD'sgeometryissimilartoanELEDwithlightguidingregions
surroundingtheactiveregion.Opticalfeedbackisestablishedbymakingthefrontfacet
partiallyreflective.ThischapterprovidesnodiagramdetailingLDstructuresbecausethey
aresimilartoELEDsindesign.Therearfacetistypicallycoatedwithareflectivelayerso
thatallofthelightstrikingthefacetisreflectedbackintotheactiveregion.Thefront
facetistypicallyleftuncoatedsothatmostofthelightisemitted.Byincreasingthedrive
current,thediodebecomesalasercurrentsbelowthethresholdcurrent,LDsfunctionas
ELEDs.
TooptimizeFrequencyresponse,laserdiodesareoftenbiasedabovethislaser
threshold.Asaresult,inanLDfiberopticsystem,lightismodulatedbetweenahigh
powerlevelandalowerpowerlevel,butnevershutoff.LDstypicallycanbemodulated.
atfrequenciesuptoover2gigahertz(GHz).Somelasersarecapableofbeingmodulated
atfrequenciesover20GHz.
ThereareseveralimportantdifferencesbetweenLDsandLEDs.OneisthatLEDs
usuallylackreflectivefacetsandinsomecasesaredesignedtosuppressreflectionsback
intotheactiveregion.Anotheristhatlaserstendtooperateathigherdrivecurrentsto

producelight.Ahigherdrivercurrentresultsinmorecomplicateddrivecircuitsandmore
heatdissipationinthedevice.
LDs are also much more temperature sensitive than either SLEDs or ELEDs.
Increasesinthelasertemperaturesignificantlyreducelaseroutputpower.Increasesin
lasertemperaturebeyondcertainlimitsresultinthelossoflasing.Whenlasersareusedin
manyapplications,thetemperatureofthelasermustbecontrolled.Typically,electronic
coolers,calledthermoelectric(TE)coolers,areusedtocoolLDsinsystemapplication
13.b)i) What are the possible noise sources that contribute the photo detector noise.
The overall sensitivity of a photodiode results from the random current and voltage
fluctu- ations which occur at the device output terminals in both the presence and
absence of an incident optical signal. Although the factors that determine the sensitivity
of the optical receiver are dealt with in Chapter 9, it is appropriate at this stage to
consider the sources of noise that arise within photodiodes, which do not have an
internal gain mechanism. The photodiode dark current mentioned in Section 8.8.2
corresponds to the level of the output photocurrent when there is no intended optical
signal present. However, there may be some photo generated current present due to
background radiation entering the device.
The inherent dark current can be minimized through the use of high-quality, defectfree material which reduces the number of carriers generated in the depletion region as
well as those which diffuse into this layer from the p- and n+-regions. Moreover, the
surface cur- rents can be minimized by careful fabrication and surface passivation such
that the surface state and impurity ion concentrations are reduced. Nevertheless, it is the
case that the detector average current F always exhibits a random fluctuation about its
mean value as a result of the statistical nature of the quantums detection process (see
This fluctuation is exhibited as shot noise where the mean square current variation i2 is
proportional to F and the photodiode received bandwidth B. Thus the rms value of this
shot noise current is:

Various figures of merit have traditionally been employed to assess the noise
performance of optical detectors. Although these parameters are not always appropriate
for the evalu- ation of the high-speed photodiodes used in optical fiber
communications, it is instructive to define those most commonly utilized. These are: the
noise equivalent power (NEP); the detectivity (D); and the specific detectivity (D*).
The NEP is defined as the incident optical power, at a particular wavelength or with
a specified spectral content, required to produce a photodetector current equal to the
rms noise current within a unit bandwidth (i.e. B = 1 Hz). To obtain an expression for
the NEP at a specific wavelength, Eq. (8.8) must be rearranged as follows to give:

Then putting the photocurrent Ip equal to the rms shot noise current in Eq

Moreover, the photodiode average current F may be represented by (Ip Id) where Id is the
dark current within the device. Hence:

The specific detectivity D* is a parameter which incorporates the area of the photo
detector A in order to take account of the effect of this factor on the amplitude of the
device dark current. This proves necessary when background radiation and thermal
generation rather than surface conduction are the major causes of dark current. Therefore
the specific detectivity is given by:

13.b.ii) What is meant by detector response time.

PHOTODETECTORRESPONSETIME:

Theresponsetimeofaphotodetectorwithitsoutputcircuitdependsmainlyonthe
followingthreefactors:

1Thetransittimeofthephotocarriersinthedepletionregion.Thetransittime
dependsonthetcarrierdriftvelocity
andthedepletionlayverwidthw,andis
givenby:
d

td
vd

2Diffusiontimeofphotocarriersoutsidedepletionregion.
3RCtimeconstantofthecircuit.ThecircuitafterthephotodetectoractslikeRC
lowpassfilterwithapassbandgivenby:
B

1
2RTCT

RTRs||RLandCTCaCd

14.a) Draw the block diagram of optical receiver and explain

Afiberoptictransmitterisanelectroopticdevicecapableofacceptingelectrical
signals,convertingthemintoopticalsignals,andlaunchingtheopticalsignalsintoan
opticalfiber.Theopticalsignalspropagatinginthefiberbecomeweakenedanddistorted
becauseofscattering,absorption,anddispersion.Thefiberopticdeviceresponsiblefor
convertingtheweakenedanddistortedopticalsignalbacktoanelectricalsignalisafiber
opticreceiver.
Afiberopticreceiverisanelectroopticdevicethatacceptsopticalsignalsfrom
anopticalfiberandconvertsthemintoelectricalsignals.Atypicalfiberopticreceiver
consistsofanopticaldetector,alownoiseamplifier,andothercircuitryusedtoproduce
theoutputelectricalsignal(seefigure71).Theopticaldetectorconvertstheincoming
opticalsignalintoanelectricalsignal.Theamplifierthenamplifiestheelectricalsignalto
alevelsuitableforfurthersignalprocessing.Thetypeofothercircuitrycontainedwithin
thereceiverdependsonwhattypeofmodulationisusedandthereceiverelectricaloutput
requirements.

Blockdiagramofatypicalfiberopticreceiver.
Receiverspectralresponse,sensitivity,Frequencyresponse,anddynamicrange
arekeyreceiverperformanceparametersthatcanaffectoverallsystemoperation.The
choice of optical detector materials and structures determines the spectral response.
Silicon(Si),galliumarsenide(GaAs),andgalliumaluminumarsenide(GaAlAs)are

typicaldetectormaterialsusedforreceiveroperationinthe850nmwavelengthregion.
germanium(Ge),indiumphosphide(InP),andindiumgalliumarsenide(InGaAs)are
examplesofdetectormaterialsusedforreceiveroperationinthe1300nmand1550nm
wavelengthregions.
The receiversensitivity istheminimumamountofopticalpowerrequiredto
achieveaspecificreceiverperformance.
For digital transmission at a given data rate and coding, this performance is
described by a maximum bit-error rate (BER). In analog systems, for a given modulation
and bandwidth, it is described by a minimum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Dynamic
range refers to the range of optical power levels over which the receiver operates within
the specified values. It usually is described by the ratio of the maximum input power to
the sensitivity. Before discussing receiver sensitivity, bandwidth, dynamic range, and
Frequency response in more detail, we discuss the main types of optical detectors used in
fiber optics.
14.b) With diagram explain the following
Measurement of NA of a fiber

Measurement of Refractive index profile

Measurement of NA of a fiber
The acceptance angle for an optical fiber was defined in the preceding section.
However, it is possible to continue the ray theory analysis to obtain a relationship
between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved,
namely the core, cladding and air. This leads to the definition of a more generally used
term, the numerical aperture of the fiber. It must be noted that within this analysis, as
with the preceding discussion of acceptance angle, we are concerned with meridional
rays within the fiber. Figure 1.shows a light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle 1
to the fiber axis which is less than the acceptance angle for the fiber a. The ray enters
the fiber from a medium (air) of refractive index n0, and the fiber core has a refractive
index n1, which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index n2. Assuming the
entrance face at the fiber core to be normal to the axis, then considering the refraction at
the aircore interface and using Snells law given by Eq.

The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fiber in air at an input angle
less than the acceptance angle for the fiber

Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in Figure

where is greater than the critical angle at the corecladding interface. Hence Eq.
becomes:

Using the trigonometrical relationship sin2 + cos2 = 1,

When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, becomes equal to the
critical angle for the corecladding interface and is given by Eq. Also in this limiting
case 1 becomes the acceptance angle for the fiber a

Apart from relating the acceptance angle to the refractive indices, serves as
the basis for the definition of the important optical fiber parameter, the numerical
aperture (NA). Hence the NA is defined as:

Since the NA is often used with the fiber in air where n0 is unity, it is simply
equal to sin a. It may also be noted that incident meridional rays over the range 0 1
a will be propagated within the fiber. The NA may also be given in terms of the relative
refractive index difference between the core and the cladding which is defined as:*

The relationships given in Eqs for the numerical aperture are a very useful measure of the
light-collecting ability of a fiber. They are independent of the fiber core diameter and will
hold for diameters as small as 8 m. However, for smaller diameters they break down as
the geometric optics approach is invalid. This is because the ray theory model is only a
partial description of the character of light. It describes the direction a plane wave
component takes in the fiber but does not take into account interference between such
components. When interference phenomena are considered it is found that only rays with
certain discrete characteristics propagate in the fiber core. Thus the fiber will only
support a discrete number of guided modes. This becomes critical in smallcore- diameter
fibers which only support one or a few modes. Hence electromagnetic mode theory must
be applied in these cases
Measurement of Refractive index profile
To consider the propagation of light within an optical fiber utilizing the ray theory
model it is necessary to take account of the refractive index of the dielectric medium. The
refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to
the velocity of light in the medium. A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically
dense medium than in one that is less dense, and the refractive index gives a measure of
this effect. When a ray is incident on the interface between two dielectrics of differing
refractive indices (e.g. glassair), refraction occurs, as illustrated in Figure.

It may be observed that the ray approaching the interface is propagating in a


dielectric of refractive index n1 and is at an angle 1 to the normal at the surface of the
interface. If the dielectric on the other side of the interface has a refractive index n2
which is less than n1, then the refraction is such that the ray path in this lower index
medium is at an angle 2 to the normal, where 2 is greater than 1. The angles of
incidence 1 and refraction 2 are related to each other and to the refractive indices of
the dielectrics by Snells law of refraction which states that

FIGURE 2

It may also be observed in Figure 2.(a) that a small amount of light is reflected
back into the originating dielectric medium (partial internal reflection). As n1 is greater
than n2, the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence. Thus when
the angle of refraction is 90 and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface
between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be less than 90. This is the limiting
case of refraction and the angle of incidence is now known as the critical angle c, as
shown in Figure 2.(b). From Eq. the value of the critical angle is given by: At angles of
incidence greater than the critical angle the light is reflected back into the originating
dielectric medium (total internal reflection) with high efficiency (around 99.9%).

Hence, it may be observed in Figure 2.(c) that total internal reflection occurs at
the interface between two dielectrics of differing refractive indices when light is incident
on the dielectric of lower index from the dielectric of higher index, and the angle of
incidence of the ray exceeds the critical value. This is the mechanism by which light at a
sufficiently shallow angle (less than 90 c) may be considered to propagate down an
optical fiber with low loss. Figure3 illustrates the transmission of a light ray in an optical
fiber via a series of total internal reflections at the interface of the silica core and the
slightly lower refractive index silica cladding. The ray has an angle of incidence at the
interface which is greater than the critical angle and is reflected at the same angle to the
normal.

The light ray shown in Figure 3 is known as a meridional ray as it passes through
the axis of the fiber core. This type of ray is the simplest to describe and is generally used
when illustrating the fundamental transmission properties of optical fibers. It must also
be noted that the light transmission illustrated in Figure 3 assumes a perfect fiber, and
that any discontinuities or imperfections at the corecladding interface would probably
result in refraction rather than total internal reflection, with the subsequent loss of the
light ray into the cladding.

Acceptance angle
Having considered the propagation of light in an optical fiber through total
internal reflection at the corecladding interface, it is useful to enlarge upon the
geometric optics approach with reference to light rays entering the fiber. Since only rays
with a sufficiently shallow grazing angle (i.e. with an angle to the normal greater than c)
at the corecladding interface are transmitted by total internal reflection, it is clear that
not all rays entering the fiber core will continue to be propagated down its length.
The geometry concerned with launching a light ray into an optical fiber is shown
in Figure 4, which illustrates a meridional ray A at the critical angle c within the fiber at
the corecladding interface. It may be observed that this ray enters the fiber core at an
angle a to the fiber axis and is refracted at the aircore interface before transmission to
the corecladding interface at the critical angle. Hence, any rays which are incident into
the fiber core at an angle greater than a will be transmitted to the corecladding
interface at an angle less than c, and will not be totally internally reflected.

This situation is also illustrated in Figure 4, where the incident ray B at an angle
greater than a is refracted into the cladding and eventually lost by radiation. Thus for
rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they must be
incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half angle a.
Hence a is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to
be propagated, and is often referred to as the acceptance angle* for the fiber.

If the fiber has a regular cross-section (i.e. the corecladding interfaces are
parallel and there are no discontinuities) an incident meridional ray at greater than the
critical angle will continue to be reflected and will be transmitted through the fiber. From
symmetry considerations it may be noted that the output angle to the axis will be equal to
the input angle for the ray, assuming the ray emerges into a medium of the same
refractive index from which it was input.
15.a)1.Draw the block diagram of OTDR .explain the measurement of any two fiber
optic measurements

Optical time domain reflectometry [ OTDR]


A measurement technique which is far more sophisticated and which finds wide
application in both the laboratory and the field is the use of optical time domain
reflectometry (OTDR). This technique is often called the backscatter measurement
method. It provides measurement of the attenuation on an optical link down its entire
length giving information on the length dependence of the link loss. In this sense it is
superior to the optical attenuation measurement methods discussed previously which
only tend to provide an averaged loss over the whole length measured in dB km1. When
the attenuation on the link varies with length, the averaged loss information is
inadequate.
OTDR also allows splice and connector losses to be evaluated as well as the
rotation of any faults on the link. It relies upon the measurement and analysis of the
fraction of light which is reflected back within the fibers numerical aperture due to

Rayleigh scattering Hence the backscattering method, which was first described by
Barnoski and Jensen has the advantages of being nondestructive (i.e. does not require the
cutting back of the fiber) and of requiring access to one end of the optical link only. The
backscattered optical power as a function of time PRa(t) may be obtained from the
following relationship

where Pi is the optical power launched into the fiber, S is the fraction of captured
optical power, R is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient (backscatter loss per unit length),
Wo is the input optical pulse width, vg is the group velocity in the fiber and is the
attenuation coefficient per unit length for the fiber. The fraction of captured optical power
S is given by the ratio of the solid acceptance angle for the fiber to the total solid angle
as:

It must be noted that the relationship given in Eq. (14.39) applies to step index fibers and
the parameter S for a graded index fiber is generally a factor of 2/3 lower than for a
step index fiber with the same numerical aperture [Refs 89, 90]. Hence using Eqs (14.38)
and it is possible to determine the backscattered optical power from a point along
the link length in relation to the forward optical power at that point.

This could be considerably greater than the backscattered light from the
fiber, presenting measurement problems with OTDR if it is allowed to fall onto the
receiving photo detector of the equipment described below. A block schematic of the

backscatter measurement method is shown in Figure A light pulse is launched into the
fiber in the forward direction from an injection laser using either a directional coupler or
a system of external lenses with a beam splitter (usually only in the laboratory). The
backscattered light is detected using an avalanche photodiode receiver which drives an
integrator in order to improve the received signal-to noise ratio by giving an arithmetic
average over a number of measurements taken at one point within the fiber. This is
necessary as the received optical signal power from a particular point along the fiber
length is at a very low level compared with the forward power at that point by some 45 to
60 dB and is also swamped with noise. The signal from the integrator is fed through a
logarithmic amplifier and averaged measurements for successive points within the fiber
are plotted on a chart recorder.
This provides location-dependent attenuation values which give an overall picture
of the optical loss down the link. A possible backscatter plot is illustrated in Figure
which shows the initial pulse caused by reflection and backscatter from the input coupler
followed by a long tail caused by the distributed Rayleigh scattering from the input pulse
as it travels down the link. Also shown in the plot is a pulse corresponding to the discrete
reflection from a fiber joint, as well as a discontinuity due to excessive loss at a fiber
imperfection or fault. The end of the fiber link is indicated by a pulse corresponding to
the Fresnel reflection incurred at the output end face of the fiber. Such a plot yields the
attenuation per unit length for the fiber by simply computing the slope of the curve over
the length required. Also the location and insertion losses of joints and/or faults can be
obtained from the power drop at their respective positions on the link. Finally the overall
link length can be determined from the time difference between reflections from the fiber
input and output end faces. Standard methods for these measurements are covered in
TIA/EIA-455-59 to 61 [Refs 9294] and they provide very powerful techniques for field
measurements on optical fiber links. In addition, the measurement of splice or connector
loss and the measurement of splice or connector return loss utilizing OTDR

15.b.Discuss the following .


WDM Networks wth Ultra High Capacity Networks

Wavelength division multiplexed networks


Optical fiber networks using wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
techniques can be classified as either broadcast-and-select networks or wavelength
routing networks. A broadcast-and-select network strategy based on a star coupler is
shown in Figure 1.The optical transmission is broadcast to all other nodes using fixed
transmitters and a tunable receiver at the destination node extracts the desired signal from
the entire group of wavelength multiplexed transmitted signals It should be noted that all
transmissions are broadcast to all network nodes and hence most of the transmitted power
is depleted on the receivers which do not use it. Consequently, as the number of nodes
increases, each station receives a small fraction of the overall transmitted power.
Alternatively, a wavelength routing network can be used to avoid this wastage of
transmitted power where each node within the network is provided with restricted
connection(s) to the receiver(s). In wavelength routing, instead of distributing the
message over the entire network, the signal is routed to the specific destination through
either a single node or using multiple nodes.

Figure 1.Broadcast-and-select network

The concept of wavelength routing is illustrated in Figure where the physical


bidirectional interconnections between five nodes (i.e. A, B, C, D and E) are shown in
Figure). Using three wavelengths (i.e. 1, 2 and 3) any network node can transmit or
receive a signal from another node within the network. This strategy of wavelength
implementation or path selection shown in Figure is known as routing and wavelength
assignment (RWA). For example, node A can transmit to node B using wavelength 1
and it can simultaneously receive from node B using wavelength 2 only when the signal
is routed through node E.
To simplify such routing and wavelength assignments a virtual topology is
generally used to describe only the enabled wavelength paths. The virtual topology is
indicated Figure 2(c) where only wavelength signals identify the possible
interconnections between nodes as given by the RWA. It can be observed by comparing
Figure 1) and (c) that there exists no physical connection between nodes C and E but
both nodes can communicate via the virtual connection set up using wavelengths 1 and

3. Both broadcast-and-select and wavelength routing networks can be further classified


into single-hop or multihop. Single-hop networks allow direct communication between
any two nodes and the data remains entirely in the optical domain (i.e. without
optoelectrical conversion) until it reaches its destination. In a multihop network a
transmission may take place through intermediate nodes before reaching its destination.
At each intermediate node the data can be switched electronically to the next possible
node and it is then retransmitted as an optical signal. Although this conversion process is
inefficient, it is necessary if there is no common wavelength path between two nodes in
order to establish a direct connection.

Figure 2. Wavelength routing: (a) physical connection; (b) wavelength assignments;


(c) virtual topology

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