Basic Civil Engineering

BE I 102

CV 102 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

(For Internal Circulation only)

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This is a part of teaching material for the course BE I 102: Basic Civil Engineering.
Should not be copied, freely circulated or otherwise.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, NITT

Dr. N. MADHAVI
July 2015 Dec 2015

Table of Contents
CV 102 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING ....................................................................................... 1
(For Internal Circulation only) ........................................................................................................ 1
1.

Source of water ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.

Dams ........................................................................................................................................ 4

3.

Water supply subsystem .......................................................................................................... 5

Water Quality .............................................................................................................................. 8
Standards of Purified Water ........................................................................................................ 9

4.

Physical Characteristics ......................................................................................................... 10

Turbidity:................................................................................................................................... 10
Color:......................................................................................................................................... 11
Taste and odor: .......................................................................................................................... 11
Temperature: ............................................................................................................................. 11

5.

Chemical Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 12

Chloride: .................................................................................................................................... 12
Fluorides:................................................................................................................................... 12
Iron: ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Lead: .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Manganese:................................................................................................................................ 13
Sodium: ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Sulfate: ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Zinc: .......................................................................................................................................... 13
Toxic inorganic substances: ...................................................................................................... 13
Microbiological Characteristics ................................................................................................ 14

6.

Waste Water Management System ........................................................................................ 15

Treatment Systems .................................................................................................................... 15
Municipal Waste Water Treatment ........................................................................................... 17

7.

Seawater intrusion: ................................................................................................................ 19

8.

Recharge of ground water: .................................................................................................... 21

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering

Basic Civil Engineering

BE I 102

Unit 5
Source of water Dams Water supply Quality of water wastewater treatment Sea water
intrusion Recharge of ground water
1. Source of water
Water covers 71% of the earths surface. Water moves continually through a cycle of
evaporation, precipitation and runoff and is essential for all forms of life. Sources from which
water is available for water supply schemes are called water sources. The most common sources
of water include surface water (rivers, reservoirs and lakes), ground water.

Water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland is generally referred as surface water sources.
These are naturally replenished by precipitation, lost through discharge to the oceans,
evaporation and subsurface seepage. The total quantity of water in a system may depend on
storage capacity, permeability, runoff, precipitation and evaporation rate. Human activities can

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, NITT

Dr. N. MADHAVI
July 2015 Dec 2015

have a large and devastating impact of these factors by increase storage capacity by constructing
dams, Decrease it by draining wetlands.
2. Dams
Dam is a structure built across a stream, river, or estuary to store water. A reservoir is created
upstream of the dam to supply water for human consumption, irrigation, or industrial use. Dam
is the central structure in a multipurpose scheme aiming at the conservation of water resources.
Auxiliary works for a dam include spillways, gates, or valves to control the discharge of surplus
water, an intake structure and means for permitting boats or fishes to cross the dam.

Uses of dams includes flood control, Irrigation, water Storage, mine tailings, debris Control,
water diversion, land reclamation, electrical generation and navigation

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering

Basic Civil Engineering

BE I 102

3. Water supply subsystem

The nature of the water source commonly determines the planning, design, and operation of the
collection, purification, transmission, and distribution works. The diagram of a water supply
system is given in Figure.3.23. The two major sources used to supply community and industrial
needs are referred to as surface water and groundwater. Streams, lakes, and rivers are the
surface water sources. Groundwater sources are those pumped from wells. The source in each
case determines the type of collection works and the type of treatment works. The pipe network
in the city is called the distribution system. The pipes themselves are often referred to as water
mains. Water in the mains generally is kept at a pressure between 200 and 860 kilopascals
(kpa). Excess water produced by the treatment plant during periods of low demand (usually the
night time hours) is held in a storage reservoir. The storage reservoir may be elevated or it may
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, NITT

Dr. N. MADHAVI
July 2015 Dec 2015

be at ground level. The stored water is used to meet high demand during the day. Storage
compensates for changes in demand and allows a smaller treatment plant to be built. It also
provides emergency backup in case of a fire. Population and water-consumption patterns are the
prime factors that govern the quality of water required and hence the source and the whole
composition of the water resources system. One of the first steps in the selection of a suitable
water supply source is determining the demand that will be placed on it. The essential elements
of water demand include average daily water daily consumption and peak rate of demand.
Average daily water consumption must be estimated for two reasons:

To determine the ability of water source to meet continuing demands over critical periods
when surface flows are low or groundwater table at a minimum elevation

For purposes of estimating quantities of stored water that would satisfy the demands
during these critical periods.

The peak demand rates must be estimated in order to determine plumbing and pipe sizing,
pressure losses, and storage requirements necessary to supply sufficient water during periods of
peak water demand.
Many factors influence water use for giving system. For example, the mere fact that water under
pressure is available stimulates its use, often excessively, for watering lawns and gardens, for
washing automobiles, for operating air conditioning equipment and for performing many other
activities at home and in industry.
The following factors have been found to influence water consumption in a major way
1. Industrial activity
2. Meterage
3. System management
4. Standard of living
5. Climate
The following factors are also influence water consumption to a lesser degree: extent of
sewerage, system pressure, water price, and availability of private wells.

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering

Basic Civil Engineering

BE I 102

Water Supply Subsystem

The influence of industry is to increase per capita water demand. Small, rural and suburban
communities will use less water per person than industrialized communities. The industry is
probably the largest single factor influencing per capita water use. The second most important
factor in water use is whether individual consumers have water meters. Meterage imposes a
sense of responsibility not found in residences and businesses. This sense of responsibility
reduces per capita water consumption because customers repair leaks and make more
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, NITT

Dr. N. MADHAVI
July 2015 Dec 2015

conservative water-use decisions almost regardless of price. Because water is so cheap, the price
is not much of a factor.

Following meterage closely is the aspect called system management. If the water distribution
system is well managed, per capita water consumption is less than if it is not well managed.
Well managed systems are those in which the managers know when and where leaks in the
water mains occur and have them repaired promptly.

Industrial activity, meterage, and system management are more significant factors controlling
water consumption than are either the standard of living or the climate. The rational for the
latter two factors is straightforward. Per capita water use increases with an increased standard of
living. Highly developed countries use much more water than the less developed countries.
Likewise, higher socio-economic status implies grater per capita water use, whereas areas of
high rainfall experiences lower water use.

Water Quality

Precipitation in the form of rain, hail, or select contains very few impurities. It may contain
trace amounts of mineral matter, gases, and other substances as it forms and falls through the
earths atmosphere. The precipitation, however, has virtually no bacterial content.
Once precipitation reaches the earths surface, many opportunities are presented in the
introduction of mineral and organic substances, micro-organisms, and other forms of pollution
(contamination). When water runs over or through the ground surface, it may pick up particles
of soil. This is noticeable in the water as cloudiness or turbidity.

It also picks up particles of organic matter and bacteria. As surface water seeps downward into
the soil and through the underlying material to the water table, most of the suspended particles
are filtered out. This natural filtration may be partially effective in removing bacteria and other
particulate materials. However, the chemical character tics of the water may change and vary

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widely when it comes in contact with mineral deposits. As surface water seeps down to the
water table, it dissolves some of the minerals contained in the soil and rocks. Groundwater,
therefore, often contains more dissolved minerals than surface water.
Standards of Purified Water
The physical, chemical and bacteriological standards for water is suggested by the following
agencies
1. Indian Council of Medical Research (I.C.M.R) Committee.
2. World Health Organization (W.H.O) International.
3. United States Public Health Society (U.S.P.H.S).
4. American Waterworks Association (A.W.W. A).
5. Environmental Hygiene Committee.

The physical and chemical quality of water should not exceed the limits shown in the table
below as per WHO standards and as per IS: 10500-1983. The bacteriological quality is given by
MPN (Most Probable Number) index and in treated water supply system MPN index should be
0/100 ml.
Physical and Chemical standards of potable water (IS: 10500 1983)

S. No

Characteristics

Acceptable

Cause for rejection

Turbidity (units on J.T.U scale)

2.5

10

Color(Units of platinum Cobalt

5.0

2.5

scale)
3

Taste and odor

Unobjectionable

Unobjectionable

pH

7.0 to 8.5

6.5 to 9.2

Total dissolved solids

500

1500

(mg/l)
6

Total hardness as CaCo3(mg/l)

200

600

Chlorides (as cl)

200

1000
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8

Sulfates(asSo4)

Dr. N. MADHAVI
July 2015 Dec 2015

200

400

(mg/l)
9

Fluorides (as F) (mg/l)

1.0

1.5

10

Nitrates (as No3)

45

45

11

Calcium (as Ca) (mg/l)

75

200

12

Magnesium(mg/l)

Not less than 30

150

13

Iron ( as Fe) (mg/l)

0.1

1.0

14

Manganese (mg/l)

0.05

0.5

15

Copper (as Cu) (mg/l)

0.05

1.5

16

Zinc (mg/l)

5.0

15.0

17

Phenolic compounds (mg/l)

0.001

0.002

18

Anionic detergents as MABS

0.2

1.0

19

Mineral oil (mg/l)

0.01

0.3

Toxic Materials
20

Arsenic (as As) (mg/l)

0.05

0.05

21

Cadmium (mg/l)

0.01

0.01

22

Chromium (mg/l)

0.05

0.05

23

Cyanides(mg/l)

0.05

0.05

24

Lead (mg/l)

0.1

0.1

25

Selenium (mg/l)

0.01

0.01

26

Mercury (mg/l)

0.001

0.001

27

Poly nuclear

0.2

aromatic hydrocarbons PAH

28

Gross alpha activity

3 pci/l

3 pci/l

29

Gross Beta activity

30 pci/l

30 pci/l

4. Physical Characteristics
Turbidity:
The presence of suspended material such as clay, silt, finely divided organic material, plankton,
and other particulate material in water is known as turbidity. The unit of measure is a Turbidity

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering

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BE I 102

unit (TU) or Nephlometric Turbidity unit (NTU). It is determined by reference to a chemical

mixture that produces a reproducible refraction of light. Turbidities in excess of 5 TU are easily
detectable in a glass of water and are usually objectionable for aesthetic reasons.

Clay or other inert suspended particles in drinking-g water may not adversely affect health, but
water containing such particles may require treatment to make it suitable for its intended end
use. Following a rainfall, variations in the groundwater turbidity may be considered as
indication of surface or other introduced pollution.
Color:
Dissolved organic material from decaying vegetarian and certain inorganic matter cause color in
water. Occasionally, excessive blooms of algae or the growth of aquatic microorganisms may be
also imparting color. While color itself is not usually objectionable from the standpoint of
health, its presence is aesthetically objectionable and suggests that the water needs appropriate
treatment.
Taste and odor:
Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic compounds, inorganic
salts or dissolved gases. These materials may come from domestic, agricultural, or natural
sources. Drinking water should be free from any objectionable taste to odor at point of use.
Temperature:
The most desirable drinking waters are consistently cool and do not have temperature
fluctuations of more than a few degrees. Groundwater and surface water from mountains areas
generally meet these crates. Most individuals find that water having a temperature between 10 15 c is most palatable.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, NITT

Dr. N. MADHAVI
July 2015 Dec 2015

5. Chemical Characteristics
Chloride:
Most waters contain some chloride. The amount present can be caused by the leaching of
marine sedimentary deposits or by pollution from sea water, bring, or industrial or domestic
wastes. Chloride concentrations in excess of about 250 mg/L usually produce a noticeable taste
in drinking water. Domestic water should contain less than 100 mg/L of chloride. In some areas,
it may be necessary to use water with chloride content in excess of 100 mg/L. in these cases, all
of the other criteria for water purity must be met.
Fluorides:
In some areas, water sources contain natural fluorides. Where the concentrations approach
optimum levels, beneficial health effects have been observed. In such areas the incidence of
dental caries has been found to be below the levels observed in areas without natural fluorides.
The optimum fluoride level for a given area depends upon the air temperature, since
temperature greatly influences the amount of water people drink. Excessive fluorides in
drinking water supplies may produce Fluorosis (mottling) of teeth, which increases as the
optimum fluoride level is exceeded. State local health departments should be consulted for their
recommendations.
Iron:
Small amounts of iron frequently are present in water because of the large amount of iron in the
geologic materials. The presence of iron in water is considered objectionable because it imparts
a brownish color to laundered goods and affects the taste of beverage such as tea and coffee.
Lead:
Exposure of body to lead, however brief, can be seriously damaging to health. Prolonged
exposure to relatively small quantities may result in serious illness or death. Lead taken into the
body in quantities in excess of certain relatively low and normal limits is a cumulative poison.

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering

Basic Civil Engineering

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Manganese:
Manganese imparts a brownish color to water and to cloth that is washed in it .It flavors coffee
and tea with a medicinal taste.
Sodium:
The presence of sodium in water can affect persons suffering from heart, kidney, or circulatory
ailments. When a strict sodium-free diet is recommended, any water should be regarded with
suspicion. Home water softeners may be of particular concern because they add large quantities
of sodium to the water
Sulfate:
Waters containing high concentrations of sulfate, caused by the leaching of natural deposits of
magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) or sodium sulfate (Glaubers salt), may be undesirable because
of their laxative effects.
Zinc:
Zinc is found in some natural waters, particularly in areas where zinc ore deposits have been
mined. Zinc is not considered detrimental to health, but it will impart an undesirable taste to
drinking water.
Toxic inorganic substances:
Nitrates (NO3), Cyanides (CN), and heavy metals constitute the major classes of inorganic
substances of health concern. Methemoglobinemia (infant cyanosis or blue baby syndrome) has
occurred in infants who have been given water or fed formula prepared with water having high
concentrations of nitrate. CN ties up with the hemoglobin sites that bind oxygen to red blood
cells. This results in oxygen deprivation. A characteristic symptom is that the patient has a blue
skin color. This condition is called cyanosis. CN causes chronic effect on the thyroid and central
nervous system. The toxic heavy metals include arsenic (As), barium (Ba), Cadmium (Cd),
Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), mercury(Hg), Selenium(Se), and Silver(Ag),. The heavy metals
have a wide range of effects. They may be acute poisons (As and Cr for example), or they may
produce chronic disease (Pb, Cd, and Hg for example).
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Dr. N. MADHAVI
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Microbiological Characteristics
Water for drinking and cooking purposes must be made free from disease-producing organisms
(pathogens). These organisms include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminthes (worms).
Some organisms which cause disease in people originate with the fecal discharges of infected
individuals. Others are from fecal discharge of animals.
Unfortunately, the specific disease-producing organisms present in water are not identified. The
techniques for comprehensive bacteriological examination are complex and time-consuming. It
has been necessary to develop tests that indicate the relative degree of contamination in terms of
microorganisms of the coli form group. This grouping includes two genera Escherichia coli and
Aerobater aerogenes. The name of the group is derived from the world colcon. While E.Coli are
common inhabitants of the intestinal tract, Aerobacter are common in the soil, on leaves, and on
grain; on occasion they cause urinary tract infections.
The test for these microorganisms, called the Total Coli form Test, was selected for the
following recessions:

The group of organisms normally inhabits the intestinal tracts of humans and other
mammals. Thus, the presence of coli forms is an indication of fecal contamination

Even in acutely ill individuals, the number of coli form organisms excreted in the feces
outnumbers the disease-producing organisms by several orders of magnitude. The large
numbers of coliform make them easier to calculate than disease producing organisms.

The coliforms group of organisms survives in natural waters for relatively long periods of
time, but does not reproduce effectively in this environment. Thus, the presence of coli
form in water implies fecal contamination rather than growth of the organisms because of
favorable environmental pathogens. This means that the absence of coli forms is a
reasonably safe indicator that pathogens are not present.

The coli form group of organisms is relatively easy to culture. Thus, laboratory
technicians can perform the test without expensive equipment.

Current research indicates that testing for Escherichia Coli specifically may be warranted. Some
agencies prefer the examination for E.Coli as a better indicator of biological contamination than
total coli forms.

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering

Basic Civil Engineering

BE I 102

6. Waste Water Management System

In general, water which is consumed by the consumers, becomes a waste water. The
consumption may either be domestic consumption or industrial consumption. The waste water
coming out of industries is called industrial waste and that from residential localities as
domestic waste or municipal waste. The engineering task involves collection of wastewater,
design of underground network of pipes (sewers), design of pumps and other accessories,
treatment of waste and safe disposal into land and water bodies.

Wastewater Management System

Treatment Systems
Treatment plants can be classified as simple disinfection, filter plants, or softening plants. Plants
employing simple chlorination have a high water quality source and chlorinate to ensure that the
water reaching customers contains safe bacteria levels. Generally, a filtration plant is used to
treat surface water and a softening plant to treat groundwater.

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In a filtration plant, rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection are
employed to remove color, turbidity, taste and odors, and bacteria. Additional operations may
include bar racks or coarse screens if floating debris and fish are a problems. The figure shows a
typical flow diagram of a filtration plant. The raw (untreated) surface water enters the plant via
low-lift pumps. Usually screening has taken place prior to pumping. During mixing, chemicals
called coagulants are added and rapidly dispersed through the water. The chemical reacts with
the desired impurities and forms precipitants (flocs) that are slowly brought into contact with
one another during flocculation. The objective of the flocculation is to allow the flocs to collide
and grow to a settable size. The particles are removed by gravity (sedimentation). This is done
to minimize the amount of solids that are applied to the filters. For treatment works with highquality raw water, it may be possible to omit sedimentation and perhaps flocculation. This
modification is called direct filtration.

Filtration is the final polishing (removal) of particles. During filtration the water is passes
through sand or similar media to screen out the fine particles that will not settle. Disinfection is
the addition of chemicals (usually chlorine) to kill or reduce the number of pathogenic
organisms. Disinfection of the raw water is neither economical nor efficient. The color and
turbidity consume the disinfectant thus requiring the use of the excessive amounts of chemical.

Softening plants utilize the same unit operations as filtration plants, but use different chemicals.
Thus primary function of a softening plant is to remove hardness (calcium and magnesium). In a
softening plant (a typical flow diagram is shown in Fig. the design considerations of the various
facilities are different than those in filtrations. Also the chemicals doses are much higher in
softening, and the corresponding sludge production is greater.

During rapid mix, chemicals are added to react with and precipitate the hardness. Precipitation
occurs in the reaction basin. The other unit operations are the same as in a filtrations plant
except for the additional re carbonation step employed in softening to adjust the final pH.

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering

Basic Civil Engineering

BE I 102

Municipal Waste Water Treatment

The alternative for municipal waste water treatment fall in to three categories Primary treatment
Secondary treatment, advanced treatment. It is commonly assumed that each of the degrees of
treatment noted in the (Figure3.25) includes the previous steps .For example, primary treatment
is assumed to include the pretreatment process: back rack, grit chamber and equalization
process. Likewise, secondary treatment is assumed to include all the processes of primary
treatment: rack, grit chamber, and equalization basin and primary settling tank.

The purpose of treatment is to provide protection to the waste water treatment plant (WWTP)
equipment that follows. In some older municipal plants the equalization step may not be
included.

The major goal of treatment is to remove from wastewater those wastewater those pollutants
that will either settle or float. Primary treatment will typically remove about 60% percent of
the suspended solids in raw sewage and 35 percent of the BOD5. Then soluble pollutants are not
removed at one time, this was the only treatment used by many cities now federal law requires
that municipalities provide secondary treatment. Although, primary treatment alone is no longer
acceptable, it is still frequently used as the first treatment step in a secondary treatment system.
The major goal of secondary treatment is to remove the soluble BOD5

that escapes the

primary process and to provide added removal of suspended solids .Secondary treatment is
typically achieved by using biological processes. These provide the same biological reaction
that would occur in the receiving water if it had adequate capacity to assimilate the waste water.
The secondary treatment processes are designed to speed up the natural water so that the
breakdown of the degradable organic pollutants can be achieved in relatively short time periods.
Although secondary treatment may remove more than 85 percent of the BOD5 and suspended
solids, does not remove significant amount of nitrogen, phosphorus are heavy metals, nor it does
it completely remove pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

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Degrees of treatment
In case where secondary level of treatment is not adequate, additional treatment process are
applied to the secondary effluent to provide advanced waste water treatment (AWT). These

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BE I 102

processes may involve chemical treatment and filtration of the waste water much like adding a
typical water treatment to the tail end of a secondary plant or they may involve applying the
secondary effluent to the land in carefully designed irrigation system where the pollutants are
removed by a soil crop system. Some of these processes can remove as much as 99 percent of
the BOD5, phosphorus, suspended solids and bacteria, and 95 percent of the nitrogen. They can
produce a sparkling clean, colourless, odourless effluent indistinguishable in appearance form a
high quality drinking water. Although these process and land treatment systems are often
applied to secondary effluent for advanced treatment, they have also been used in place of
conventional secondary treatment processes. Most of the impurities removed from waste water
do not simply vanish. Some organics are broken down into harmless Co2 and water. Most of
the impurities removed from waste water as a solid, i.e. sludge. Because most of the impurities
removed from the waste water are present in the sludge, sludge handling and disposal must be
carried out carefully to achieve satisfactory pollution control.
7. Seawater intrusion:
Seawater intrusion is the intrusion of sea water over freshwater aquifers in the ground. Usually
it happens in the area that near with sea and this could affect human activity and wildlife that
depend on fresh water in the area.

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Cause of saltwater intrusion

Rising of sea water level
high consumption of fresh water
oil drilling
lack of rain
Agriculture
Pumping
Lack of knowledge

Effect of saltwater intrusion

The result is that when the freshwater aquifer becomes contaminated with saltwater, effects
Human daily activity.
Industry.

Forest ecosystem.

Wildlife.

Everything that depend on fresh water.

Solution for seawater intrusion

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering

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BE I 102

build a large pool area that has been in the insult by salt water and channeled the sea
water back to the ocean, by the action the pressure of salt water near the fresh water
aquifer will be reduced.
Build a pum at the area that has been insult by the salt water, pum the saltwater and
channeled it back to the sea, by this action the pressure of salt water also will be reduced.
Reduced a construction that disturb a fresh water aquafer.
Reduced waste of fresh water near the high risk area.
Supply water from another location.
Build more catchment area
Acknowledge people about the global warming.
Government policy.s
8. Recharge of ground water:
Groundwater:
Groundwater is the underground water which occurs in the saturated zone of earth
surface. Cracks and pores in existing rocks makes this ground water reservoir. Ground water
utilized through wells and tube wells. Developing of artificial underground reservoir by artificial
recharging for storing water underground called recharging of underground water. It is quite
advantages as compared with dams, reservoirs etc. Artificial recharging technique is under
intensive research and is being increasingly used in France, Germany etc.

There are three methods of groundwater recharging:

a) Spreading method
b) Recharge well method
c) Induced infiltration method
a) Spreading method
In this method water is spreads over the surface of permeable open land and pits from
where it is directly infiltrates to shallow aquifer. In this method water is stored in shallow
ditches or spread over open area by constructing low earth dykes. Rate of recharging depends

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upon permeability of spreaded area and depth of water stored. Also some chemicals are added
in soil to increase rate of recharging.
b) Recharge well method
In this method water is injected into the bore holes. Water is fed into recharge wells by
gravity or pumped under pressure. Ordinary wells also perform the work of recharging water
during off season.
c) Induced infiltration method

In this method water table gradient is increased from source of recharge. In this method
special type of wells are constructed near the banks of river having radial collector. The
percolating water is collected from radial collector and the discharge as recharge in to lower
level aquifer.

UNIT 5: Water Supply & Environmental Engineering