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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
NOTATION
8.0
8.1
8.2
FLEXURE
8.2.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.1.1 Stage 1 Loading
8.2.1.1.2 Stage 2 Loading
8.2.1.1.3 Stage 3 Loading
8.2.1.1.4 Stage 4 Loading
8.2.1.1.5 Stage 5 Loading
8.2.1.1.5.1 Tensile Stresses - Normal Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses - High Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.3 Tensile Stresses - LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.2 Allowable Concrete Stresses
8.2.1.2.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.1.2.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure
8.2.1.4 Composite Section Properties
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations
8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing
8.2.1.8 Design Example
8.2.1.8.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.1.8.2 Design Requirement 2
8.2.1.8.3 Design Requirement 3
8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding
8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands
8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses
8.2.1.8.4 Design Requirement 4
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.2 Flexural Strength Design
8.2.2.1 Theory
8.2.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.2.1 Ultimate Moment Capacity
8.2.2.2.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.2.1.2 Rectangular Section
8.2.2.2.1.3 Flanged Section
8.2.2.2.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.2.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.3.1 Nominal Flexural Resistance
8.2.2.3.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.3.1.2 Rectangular Sections
8.2.2.3.1.3 Flanged Sections
8.2.2.3.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.4 Flexural Strength Design Example
8.2.2.4.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.2.4.1.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.4.1.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.4.2 Design Requirement 2
8.2.2.5 Strain Compatibility Approach
8.2.2.6 Design Example - Strain Compatibility
8.2.2.6.1 Part l - Flexural Capacity
8.2.2.6.2 Part 2 - Comparative Results
8.2.3 Design of Negative Moment Regions for Members Made Continuous for Live
Loads
8.2.3.1 Strength Design
8.2.3.2 Reinforcement Limits - Standard Specifications
8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Limits - LRFD Specifications
8.2.3.4 Serviceability
8.2.3.5 Fatigue in Deck Reinforcement
8.3
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.3.2 Strand Development Length
8.3.2.1 Impact on Design
8.3.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.3.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.3.2.4 Factors Affecting Development Length
8.3.2.5 Bond Studies
8.3.2.6 Recommendations
8.4
SHEAR
8.4.1 Standard Specifications
8.4.1.1 Flexure-Shear Strength, Vci
8.4.1.2 Web-Shear Strength, Vcw
8.4.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.1.3.1 Minimum Spacing Requirements
8.4.1.3.2 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
8.4.1.4 Application of Standard Specifications to Continuous Spans
8.4.2 1979 Interim Revisions
8.4.3 LRFD Specifications
8.4.3.1 Shear Design Provisions
8.4.3.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance
8.4.3.1.2 Concrete Contribution, Vc
8.4.3.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.3.1.4 Values of and
8.4.3.2 Design Procedure
8.4.3.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
8.4.4 Comparison of Shear Design Methods
8.5
8.6
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
8.6.3 Significance of Losses on Design
8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses
8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer
8.6.4.2 Effect on Production Costs
8.6.4.3 Effect on Camber
8.6.4.4 Effect of Underestimating Losses
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.6.5 Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation Material Properties
8.6.5.1 Prediction of Creep Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.1.1 Creep Modification Factors
8.6.5.1.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2 Prediction of Shrinkage Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.2.1 Shrinkage Modification Factors
8.6.5.2.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.5.3 Prediction of Relaxation of the Prestressing Steel
8.6.6 Methods for Estimating Losses
8.6.7 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.1 Computation of Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.2 Elastic Shortening Example
8.6.8 Losses from the Standard Specifications
8.6.8.1 Shrinkage Loss
8.6.8.2 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.6.8.4 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.8.5 Lump Sum Losses
8.6.9 Standard Specifications Example
8.6.10 Losses from the LRFD Specifications
8.6.10.1 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.10.2 Shrinkage and Creep Losses
8.6.10.3 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.10.4 Washington State Study
8.6.11 LRFD Specifications Example
8.6.12 Losses by the Tadros Method
8.6.12.1 Tadros Method Example
8.7
8.8
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels
8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force
8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength
8.8.2.3 Standard Specifications
8.8.2.3.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.3.4 Shear Design
8.8.2.3.5 Crack Control
8.8.2.4 LRFD Specifications
8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis
8.8.2.4.2 LRFD Specifications Strip Method
8.8.2.4.2.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.4.2.2 Minimum Concrete Cover
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.4 Location of Critical Sections
8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria
8.8.2.4.2.6 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.4.2.7 Shear Design
8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control
8.8.3 Other Precast Bridge Deck Systems
8.8.3.1 Continuous Precast Concrete SIP Panel System, NUDECK
8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels
8.8.4 LRFD Specifications Empirical Design Method
8.9
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Detailing for Skewed Bridges
8.10
8.11
8.12
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.12.5 Pier Cap Example
8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry
8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss
8.12.5.3 Bearing Stresses
8.12.5.4 Reinforcement for Tension Tie DE
8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities
8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier
8.12.5.7 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control
8.13
8.14
REFERENCES
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8/14/03, 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
A
A
Ac
Ac
Acv
Acs
Ag
Ak
Ao
Aps
As
As
Asf
Asr
Ass
Ast
A*s
As
Av
Av
Avf
Avh
Av-min
a
a
a
b
b
b
b
b
bb
bv
bv
bv
bw
Ca
= width of beam
[STD]
= width of top flange of beam
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
CRc
CRs
C(t,t0)
C(t,tj)
Cb(t,t3)
Cd(t,t3)
Cu
Cu
c
c
D
D
DC
DW
d
db
de
dext
di
dp
ds
dv
d
E
Ec
Ecb(t3)
Ecd(t3)
Ec(tj)
Ec(t0)
Ec(t,t0)
Eci
Ep
ES
Es
Es
10
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
E*c
E*cb
E*cd
E*c(t,t0)
E*ck
e
ec
eg
ei
em
ep
FSc
FSf
Fb
Fcj
Fpi
f
fb
f c
f c
fcds
fcir
f ci
f ci
fcgp
fcu
ff
fmin
fpbt
fpc
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
fpc
fpe
fpe
fpi
fpj
fpo
fps
fpu
fpy
fr
fs
f s
fse
fsi
f *su
f(tj)
fr(t,t0)
f(t0)
fy
fy
fy
f y
fyh
H
h
h
h
hcg
hd
hf
hr
I
= deck thickness
12
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
I
Ik
IM
Ieff
Ig
K
Kr
K
k
kc
kcp
kla
kh
ks
ksh
kst
L
L
L
L
L
LL
Lr
Lx
l
ld
lt
Mc
Mcr
Mcr(t)
M*cr
Md/nc
Mel
Mg
Mg
Mgmsp
Mk
= impact fraction
= moment of inertia of element k
= dynamic load allowance
= effective cracked section lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
= gross lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
= factor used for calculating time-dependent losses
= factor used for calculating relaxation loss in strand that occurs prior
to transfer
= sum of rotational spring constants of supports
= factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning steel
for strength limit state; factor related to type of strand
[LRFD]
= product of applicable correction factors for creep = kla kh ks
= correction factor for curing period
= correction factor for loading age
= correction factor for relative humidity
= correction factor for size of member
= product of applicable correction factors for shrinkage = kcp kh ks
= correction factor for concrete strength
= live load
= length in feet of the span under consideration for positive
moment and the average of two adjacent loaded spans for
negative moment
= overall beam length or design span
= span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams
= span length
= vehicular live load
= intrinsic relaxation of the strand
= distance from end of prestressing strand to center of the panel
= overall length of beam
= development length
= transfer length
= moment in concrete beam section
= cracking moment
= restraint moment due to creep at time t
= cracking moment
= moment due to non-composite dead loads
= fictious elastic restraint moment at the supports
= unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight
= self-weight bending moment of beam at harp point
= self-weight bending moment at midspan
= element moment
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Mlat
MLL
Mmax
Mn
Mn
Mn/dc
Mr
Msh
Msr(t)
Msw
Mu
Mx
M0
M0k
m
N
Nk
Nc
Ns
Nu
N0k
N0
n
nk
ns
PPR
Pc
Pn
Pr
Pse
Psi
Q
R
RH
Rn
Ru
r
r
S
S
= stress ratio
= first moment of inertia of the area above the fiber being considered
= radius of curvature
= relative humidity
[STD]
= strength design factor
= radius of stability
= width of precast beam
[STD]
= spacing of beams
[STD], [LRFD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
S
S
Sb
Sbc
SH
SN
S(t,t0)
St
Su
s
s
s
t
t
t
tf
t0
ts
ts
Vc
Vc
Vci
Vcw
Vd
Vi
Vn
Vnh
Vp
Vp
Vs
Vs
Vu
= slab span
[LRFD]
= span between the inside faces of the beam webs
[LRFD]
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the
non-composite precast beam
= thickness of web
= thickness of flange
15
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Vuh
vu
W
w
w
w
wc
x
y
yb
ybc
ybs
yk
yr
ys
yt
ytc
z
zmax
z o
z o
1
1
c
= deflection
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
fcdp
= strain
c
= strain in concrete beam
cr
= the time dependent creep strain
f
= the immediate strain due to the applied stress f
fc
= elastic strain in concrete
fk
= element strain
fs
= elastic strain in steel
k
= strain in element k
p
= strain in prestressing steel
s
= strain in mild steel
s
= tensile strain in cracked concrete in direction of tensile tie
sh
= free shrinkage strain
shb(t,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t
shb(t3,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t3
shd(t,t3) = shrinkage strain of the deck from time t3 to time t
shu
= ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete, adjusted for member
size and relative humidity
si
= strain in tendons corresponding to initial effective pretension
stress
x
= longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural
tension side of the member
0c
= initial strain in concrete
1
= principal tensile strain in cracked concrete due to factored loads
*
= resistance factor
= curvature
c
= curvature at midspan
cr
= curvature due to creep
fk
= element curvature
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
k
0
L
R
i
max
max
b
*
(t,t0)
= curvature of element k
= curvature at support
= parameter used to determine friction coefficient
= Poissons ratio for beams
= coefficient of friction
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses
= roll angle of major axis of beam with respect to vertical
= left end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
= right end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
= initial roll angle of a rigid beam
= tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top corner
equal to the modulus of rupture
= tilt angle at maximum factor of safety against failure
= reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain condition
= ratio of pretensioning reinforcement
= a factor that reflects the fact that the actual relaxation is less than
the intrinsic relaxation
= aging coefficient
= aging coefficient at certain time
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
8.7
CAMBER AND
DEFLECTION
Generally, there are three sets of beam deformations of interest to the designer:
vertical deflections (typically at midspan)
end rotations
axial shortening
Of these, midspan deflection, or camber, is usually of greatest interest. Excessive,
unexpected camber at the time of erection may require adjustment of bridge grades
to prevent intrusion of the beam top flange into the deck. Additionally, estimates of
the final midspan deflections under the action of permanent dead load and live load
may be required to ensure serviceability of the bridge.
End rotations are of importance when continuity is introduced at the time of casting the deck. When these rotations are restrained or partially restrained by adjacent
spans, secondary time-dependent stresses are introduced in the structure. These
stresses must be considered in the design of connections and detailing of the end
regions of beams.
Finally, axial shortening of precast, prestressed bridge members must be considered
when designing bearings and expansion devices. This information is also helpful in
assessing the impact of superstructure restraint against shortening in jointless bridge
systems.
This section discusses the computations of camber and deflection including the
changes that occur in these quantities with time. The methods that are available to
estimate long-term cambers and other deflections of precast, prestressed members fall
into three categories, listed in order of increasing complexity and accuracy:
multiplier methods
improved multiplier methods, based on estimates of loss of prestress
detailed analytical methods
Camber in a prestressed beam occurs immediately upon the transfer of the prestressing
force. The magnitude of the initial camber is dependent on the length, weight and
moment of inertia of the member; the modulus of elasticity of the concrete; and the
arrangement and amount of prestressing. Values for several prestressing arrangements
are give in Table 8.7-1. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete usually cannot be
predicted with precision at the time of the design of the member. The standard prediction formulas are based on values assumed by the designer for concrete unit weight
and strength at the time of prestress transfer. These assumed values do not include
actual material properties, nor account for such important factors as type of aggregates and ratio of coarse-to-fine aggregate. For these reasons, initial camber predictions
using assumed material properties must be regarded as estimates and the designer is
cautioned against placing a high degree of confidence in calculated initial cambers.
After release, camber generally increases with time. Creep of the concrete is primarily
responsible for this camber growth. Simultaneously, the gradual loss of prestress due
to creep, shrinkage and strand relaxation has the effect of reducing the initial rate of
growth of camber. The magnitude and rates of both creep and shrinkage, and therefore changes in camber, are affected by environmental conditions such as ambient
relative humidity and temperature.
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8/14/03, 0:10 PM
l /2
(3)
8/14/03, 0:10 PM
b1l
C.G.
b2 l
Debond length
l /2
bl
l /2
M = Pe
M = Pe
M = Pe
M = Pe'
'
P w = 8 Pe
2
l
Pe'
N=
b l
'
P N = 4Pe
l
e
P
e
P
Equivalent
Moment or
Load
bl
l /2
l /2
bl
Equivalent Loading
5 wl4
384 EI
b (3 4b 2 ) N l 3
24 EI
Nl 3
48 EI
Ml 2
8 EI
Ml 2
16EI
Ml 2
16EI
Ml 2
(1 2b12 2b 22 )
8 EI
Camber
wl3
24 EI
b(1 b ) Nl 2
2 EI
Nl 2
16 EI
Ml
2 EI
Ml
6 EI
Ml
3EI
Nl 2
16 EI
Ml
2 EI
Ml
3EI
Ml
6 EI
wl 3
24 EI
b(1 b ) N l 2
2 EI
Ml
Ml
[(1 2b1 ) 2 b 22 ] 2 EI [(1 2b1 ) 2 b 22 ]
2 EI
End rotation
* The tabulated values apply to the effects of prestressing. By adjusting the directional rotation, they may also be used for the effects of loads. For
patterns 4 to 7, superimpose on 1, 2 or 3 for other C.G. locations
e'
(7)
C.G.
P
e'
l /2
(6)
C.G.
P
e'
bl
C.G.
P
e'
(5)
(4)
e
P
C.G.
C.G.
C.G.
(2)
e
P
(1)
Prestress Pattern
Table 8.7-1
Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficients for prestress force and loads*
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
CHAPTER 8
From the preceding discussion, it should be obvious that the task of predicting both
initial camber and the growth of camber with time is difficult because of the large
number of random variables that affect this behavior which are beyond the designers
control. Estimates of these effects should be recognized as being approximations
only.
8.7.1
Multiplier Method
Table 8.7.1-1
Suggested Multipliers to
be Used as a Guide in
Estimating Long-Term
Cambers and Deflections for
Typical Members
Perhaps the most popular method for predicting time-dependent camber of precast,
prestressed members is the set of multipliers given in Table 8.7.1-1 (Martin, 1977).
The use of this method is fairly straightforward. First, elastic deflections caused by
the effects of prestressing, beam self-weight, and other dead loads are calculated using
conventional elastic analysis techniques. These are multiplied by the appropriate factors selected from Table 8.7.1-1 to determine the deflections that will occur as a
result of time-dependent behavior.
Without Composite
Topping
With
Composite
Topping
At erection:
(1)
1.85
1.85
(2)
1.80
1.80
Final:
(3)
2.70
2.40
(4)
2.45
2.20
(5)
3.00
3.00
(6)
---
2.30
This method gives reasonable estimates for cambers at the time of erection. The
method does not, however, properly account for the significant effects of a large castin-place deck. The presence of a deck, once cured, drastically changes the stiffness
of a typical bridge member. This has the effect of restraining the beam creep strains
that are the result of prestressing, member self-weight, and the dead load of the deck
itself. Also, differential creep and shrinkage between the precast and the cast-in-place
concretes can produce significant changes in member deformation. The multipliers
for long-term deflection suggested by this method, therefore, should not be used for
bridge beams with structurally composite cast-in-place decks.
In addition, it is not recommended that prestressing levels be increased in order to
reduce or eliminate long-term downward deflection that might be predicted if the
multipliers in Table 8.7.1-1 are used.
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CHAPTER 8
8.7.2
Improved
Multiplier Method
Table 8.7.2-1
Time-Dependent Multipliers
for Deflections Using the
Improved Multiplier
Method
Load condition
Initial prestress
Prestress loss
Self-weight
Dead load on plain
beam
Dead load on
composite beam
Erection Time
Formula
Average
1 +Ca
1.96
1.00
(1+ Ca )
1 + Ca
1.96
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Final Time
Formula
Average
1+C u
2.88
2.32
(1+ Ca )
1+ Cu
2.88
2.50
1+ C
u
1+ C u
2.50
Cu = ultimate creep coefficient for loads applied immediately after transfer. Average
value is 1.88.
C u = ultimate creep coefficient for loads applied at time of erection. Average value
is 1.50.
Ca = creep coefficient for loading applied immediately after transfer and strains measured at time of erection. Average value is 0.96.
a = time-dependent prestress loss at erection divided by total time-dependent prestress loss. Average value is 0.60.
= Bazants aging coefficient. Average value is 0.70.
Average values are based on 70 percent relative humidity, average member thicknesses, concrete age at release of 1 to 3 days and age at erection of 40 to 60 days.
Table 8.7.2-1 provides creep multipliers to be applied to the calculated deflections
due to initial prestress, loss of prestress and dead loads.
Once the time-dependent loss of prestress has been determined (using any one of the
available methods for estimating losses), an effective negative prestressing force, Pc,
is calculated as the product of the losses and the area of the prestressing material. The
deflection due to this apparent negative prestressing force is calculated in the same way
that the initial deflection due to transfer of prestress is calculated (see Table 8.7-1).
Note that only the time-dependent portion of the loss of prestress is considered in the
calculation for Pc. Losses that occur before or at release, such as elastic shortening
and the portion of relaxation that occurs prior to release, are not included.
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CHAPTER 8
Unfortunately, the multipliers given by Tadros, et al (1985) are limited to totally precast
concrete members. Therefore, for bridges with composite cast-in-place concrete decks, use
of these multipliers should be limited to estimating deflections before the cast-in-place
deck begins to act compositely with the precast concrete beam. A need still exists for a
simple multiplier procedure for use in estimating the final time-dependent deflection. If
necessary, the detailed computer analysis methods of Section 8.13 may be employed.
Note that the final time-dependent deflection is not required to be checked by the
Specifications. The only value of computing final deflection is to ensure that the
structure does not develop excessive sag. Of course, instantaneous deflection due to
live loads should be limited as a serviceability criterion. However, elastic live load
deflection can be determined by conventional structural analysis techniques, and
vibration of conventionally designed and constructed prestressed concrete bridges has
not been reported to be a problem.
8.7.3
Examples
8.7.3.1
Multiplier Method Example
Calculate initial and erection cambers, as well as the immediate camber after construction of the deck for the beam shown in Figure 8.6.7.2-1. Use both the multiplier method and the improved multiplier method.
Use the following information to calculate initial camber:
Span = 65.00 ft
Self-weight = 583 plf
Eci = 4,054 ksi
Po = (182.7)(4.284) = 782.7 kips (Example 8.6.7.2)
Using Table 8.7-1, Case 5:
b = 26.67/66.67 = 0.4
e = 16.413 11.556 = 4.857 in.
N = (782.7)(4.857) = 12.18 kips
(12)(0.4)(65)
camber =
(9, 045)[(65)(12)]2
= 1.353 in.
(8)( 4, 054)(125, 390)
(5)(0.583 / 12)[(65)(12)]4
= 0.461 in.
(384)( 4, 054)(125, 390)
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Applying the multipliers at erection from Table 8.7.1-1 to the initial values computed above, erection camber = (1.80)(1.800) (1.85)(0.461) = 2.387 in.
Deflection due to deck, haunch, and diaphragm weights:
Ec = 4,734 ksi
=
Use of this method allows refinement based on actual creep characteristics. For this
example, Cu = 1.4 and Cu = 1.0 (see the Example of Sect. 8.6.12.1). Ca , the creep
coefficient for deflections at time of erection (90 days) due to loads applied at release,
is calculated using prediction equations to be 0.84.
Assumed values of the aging coefficient, = 0.7, and ratio of prestress loss at erection
to total prestress loss, a = 0.6 are good average values for most precast, pretensioned
concrete bridge applications.
At time of erection:
Deflection
1.800
0.210
0.461
0.681
Multiplier
Result
1 + 0.84
= 1.84
3.312
(0.6)[1 + 0.7(0.84)] = 0.95 0.200
1 + 0.84
= 1.84 0.848
= 1.00 0.681
Load
initial prestress
prestress loss
self-weight
dead loads on plain beam
For structures that are expected to be particularly sensitive to time-dependent deflection such as highly prestressed slender members, and when the designer has access to
reliable estimates for creep and shrinkage properties of the concrete, the methods of
cross-section analysis described in Section 8.13 can also be used to estimate deflections. In particular, if an estimate of long-term deflections is required, this method
should be considered. As discussed above, the multiplier methods, in general, do not
give good estimates of long-term deflections for systems where the cast-in-place deck
represents a significant increase in the stiffness of the beam.
To estimate beam deformations, several cross-sections along the length of the member are
analyzed using the methods of Section 8.13, or another method that can provide reliable
time-dependent curvatures. Numerical integration of curvatures and strains along the
member, using the principle of virtual work, is used to calculate rotations and deflections.
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A variety of techniques are available for performing the required numerical integration. Simpsons rule is recommended because it is reasonably accurate, it is familiar
to many designers, and it makes use of analyses of cross-sections that fall at regular
intervals along the length of the member.
The procedure for estimating deflection using numerical integration is as follows:
1. Select equally-spaced sections for analysis. Simpsons rule requires an odd number
of sections, resulting in an even number of segments. As the minimum, a section
at each support and a section at midspan could be analyzed. More sections will
usually result in improved accuracy. The designer should take full advantage of
symmetry.
2. Perform time-dependent analyses of each of the selected sections using the creeptransformed section properties method described in Section 8.13 or another reliable method.
3. Use the principle of virtual work and Simpsons rule to determine the deflections
of interest. Figure 8.7.4-1 provides the virtual work expressions for calculating
midspan deflection, end rotations, and axial shortening deformations. The following equation defines Simpsons rule:
SN =
h
(f 0 + 4 f 1 + 2 f 2 + ... + 4 f N-1 + f N)
3
(Eq. 8.7.4-1)
where
SN = the value of the integral
N = number of segments between nodes (must be even number)
h = length of a single segment
fi = value of integrated function at node i = 0, 1, 2...N-1, or N
For the case of N = 2, i.e., using sections at the ends and midspan of the member
only, Simpsons rule should not be used for the calculation of midspan deflection. For
this special case, a better result for midspan deflection is obtained using:
2
= (0 + 5c ) L
48
(Eq. 8.7.4-2)
where 0 and c are the curvatures at the support and midspan, respectively.
For calculation of end rotations and axial shortening with N = 2, and for the calculation
of midspan deflection for N = 4 or more, however, Simpsons rule should be used.
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.7.4-1
Virtual Work Expressions for
Beam Deflections
Unit load = 1
L/2
= (x/2)(x)dx + (Lx)/2(x)dx
0
L/2
L/2
L/2
L
x
Unit load = 1
L
= [1( xL )](x)dx
L
Unit load = 1
L
= ( Lx )(x)dx
R
Unit load = 1
x = (x)dx
L
x
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CHAPTER 8
8.7.4.1
Numerical Integration
Example
Final Long-Term
-5
-1
Curvature x10 in.
2.862
2.045
1.553
1.393
1.281
1.393
1.553
2.045
2.862
First calculate midspan deflections for the case of N = 2, immediatlely after application of permanent loads:
(780)2
= [ +2.968 + (5)(1.942)]x10 5
= 1.607 in.
48
5 (780)
= [ +2.862 + (5)(1.281)]x10
= 1.175 in.
48
Now compare these results to a more refined case where N = 8. The length of each
section, h, is equal to 97.5 in.
N
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.0
97.5
195.0
292.5
390.0
487.5
585.0
682.5
780.0
fN x 10
-5
1/2(0.0)(2.968) =
1/2(97.5)(2.405) =
1/2(195.0)(2.087) =
1/2(292.5)(2.020) =
1/2(390.0)(1.942) =
1/2(780.0 487.5)(2.020) =
1/2(780.0 585.0)(2.087) =
1/2(780.0 682.5)(2.405) =
1/2(780.0 780.0)(2.968) =
Wt
0.0
0.0011724
0.0020348
0.0029543
0.0037869
0.0029543
0.0020348
0.0011724
0.0
1
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
1
Wt x fN
0.0
0.004690
0.004070
0.011817
0.007574
0.011817
0.004070
0.004690
0.0
0.04873
97.5
(0.04873) = 1.584 in.
3
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