Basic Mathematical skills:

Elementary mathematics consists of mathematics topics frequently taught at

the primary or secondary school levels.
The most basic topics in elementary mathematics are arithmetic andgeometry. Beginning in the last
decades of the 20th century, there has been an increased emphasis on problem solving. Elementary
mathematics is used in everyday life in such activities as making change, cooking, buying and
selling stock, and gambling. It is also an essential first step on the path to understanding science. [2]
In secondary school, the main topics in elementary mathematics
arealgebra and trigonometry. Calculus, even though it is often taught to advanced secondary school
students, is usually considered college level mathematics.[3]
According to a survey of the math curriculum of countries participating in the TIMSS exam, the
following topics were considered important to the elementary curriculum (years 1-8) by at least twothirds of the highest-performing countries:[4]

Whole numbers[edit]
Main article: Whole number
The whole numbers[5][6][7][8] are those used for counting (as in "there are six coins on the table")
and ordering (as in "this is the third largest city in the country"). In common language, these
purposes are distinguished by the use of cardinal andordinal numbers, respectively. A third use of
natural numbers is as nominal numbers, such as the model number of a product, where the natural
number is used only for naming (as distinct from a serial number where the order properties of the
natural numbers distinguish later uses from earlier uses).
Properties of the natural numbers such as divisibility and the distribution of prime numbers, are
studied in basic number theory, another part of elementary mathematics.
Elementary mathematics focuses on the (+) and () operations and their properties:

Closure under addition and multiplication: for all natural numbers a and b,
both a + b and a b are natural numbers.

Associativity: for all natural numbers a, b, and c, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a (b c) =

(a b) c.

Commutativity: for all natural numbers a and b, a + b = b + a and a b = b a.

Existence of identity elements: for every natural number a, a + 0 = a and a 1 = a.

Distributivity of multiplication over addition for all natural numbers a, b, and c, a (b + c) =

(a b) + (a c).

No nonzero zero divisors: if a and b are natural numbers such that a b = 0, then a =
0 or b = 0.

Measurement units[edit]
Main article: Unit of measurement
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by
convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity.
[9]

Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of

measurement.
For example, length is a physical quantity. The metre is a unit of length that represents a definite
predetermined length. When we say 10 metres (or 10 m), we actually mean 10 times the definite
predetermined length called "metre".
The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in
human endeavour from early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be very
common. Now there is a global standard, theInternational System of Units (SI), the modern form of
the metric system.

Fractions[edit]
Main article: Fraction (mathematics)
A fraction represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts. When spoken
in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example,
one-half, eight-fifths, three-quarters. A common,vulgar, or simple fraction (examples:

and 17/3)

consists of an integer numerator, displayed above a line (or before a slash), and a non-zero
integer denominator, displayed below (or after) that line. Numerators and denominators are also
used in fractions that are not common, including compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed
numerals.
Like whole numbers, fractions obey the commutative, associative, and distributive laws, and the rule
against division by zero.

Equations and formulas[edit]

Main articles: Equation and Formula
A formula is an entity constructed using the symbols and formation rules of a given logical language.
[10]

For example, determining the volume of a sphere requires a significant amount of integral

calculus or its geometrical analogue, themethod of exhaustion;[11] but, having done this once in terms

of some parameter (the radius for example), mathematicians have produced a formula to describe
the volume: This particular formula is:

V = 4/3 r3
An equation is a formula of the form A = B, where A and B are expressions that may contain one or
several variables calledunknowns, and "=" denotes the equality binary relation. Although written in
the form of proposition, an equation is not astatement that is either true or false, but a problem
consisting of finding the values, called solutions, that, when substituted for the unknowns, yield
equal values of the expressions A and B. For example, 2 is the unique solution of
the equationx + 2 = 4, in which the unknown is x.[12]

Data representation and analysis[edit]

Main article: Data

An example histogram of the heights of 31 Black Cherry trees. Histograms are a common tool used to
represent data.

Data is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables; restated, pieces of data are individual
pieces of information. Data in computing (or data processing) is represented in a structure that is
often tabular (represented by rows and columns), a tree (a set of nodes with parentchildren relationship), or a graph (a set ofconnected nodes). Data is typically the result
of measurements and can bevisualized using graphs or images.
Data as an abstract concept can be viewed as the lowest level of abstraction, from
which information and then knowledge are derived.

Basic two-dimensional geometry[edit]

Main article: Geometry
Two-dimensional geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, and
relative position of two-dimensional figures. Basic topics in elementary mathematics include
polygons, circles, perimeter and area.

A polygon that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form
a closed chain or circuit. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points where two
edges meet are the polygon's vertices (singular: vertex) or corners. The interior of the polygon is
sometimes called its body. An n-gon is a polygon with n sides. A polygon is a 2-dimensional
example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions.
A circle is a simple shape of two-dimensional geometry that is the set of all points in a plane that are
at a given distance from a given point, the center.The distance between any of the points and the
center is called the radius. It can also be defined as the locus of a point equidistant from a fixed
point.
A perimeter is a path that surrounds a two-dimensional shape. The term may be used either for the
path or its length - it can be thought of as the length of the outline of a shape. The perimeter of
a circle or ellipse is called its circumference.
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional figure or shape. There are
several well-known formulasfor the areas of simple shapes such as triangles, rectangles, and circles.

Rounding and significant figures[edit]

Main articles: Rounding and Significant figure
Rounding a numerical value means replacing it by another value that is approximately equal but has
a shorter, simpler, or more explicit representation; for example, replacing 23.4476 with 23.45, or
the fraction 312/937 with 1/3, or the expression 2 with 1.414. Rounding is often done on purpose to
obtain a value that is easier to write and handle than the original. It may be done also to indicate the
accuracy of a computed number; for example, a quantity that was computed as 123,456 but is
known to be accurate only to within a few hundred units is better stated as "about 123,500."
The significant figures of a number are those digits that carry meaning contributing to its precision.
This includes all digitsexcept:[13]

All leading zeros;

Trailing zeros when they are merely placeholders to indicate the scale of the number (exact
rules are explained atidentifying significant figures); and

Spurious digits introduced, for example, by calculations carried out to greater precision than
that of the original data, or measurements reported to a greater precision than the equipment
supports.

Estimation[edit]
Main article: Estimation

Estimation is the process of finding an estimate, or approximation, which is a value that is usable for
some purpose even if input data may be incomplete, uncertain, or unstable. The value is
nonetheless usable because it is derived from the best information available. [14]
An informal estimate when little information is available is called a guesstimate, because the inquiry
becomes closer to purely guessing the answer.

Decimals[edit]
Main article: Decimal
A decimal fraction is a fraction the denominator of which is a power of ten.[15]
Decimal fractions are commonly expressed without a denominator, the decimal separator being
inserted into the numerator (with leading zeros added if needed) at the position from the right
corresponding to the power of ten of the denominator; e.g., 8/10, 83/100, 83/1000, and 8/10000 are
expressed as 0.8, 0.83, 0.083, and 0.0008. In English-speaking, some Latin American and many
Asian countries, a period (.) or raised period () is used as the decimal separator; in many other
countries, particularly in Europe, a comma (,) is used.

Percentages[edit]
Main article: Percentage
A percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often denoted using
the percent sign, "%", or the abbreviation "pct." A percentage is a dimensionless number (pure
number).
For example, 45% (read as "forty-five percent") is equal to 45/100, or 0.45. Percentages are used to
express how large or small one quantity is relative to another quantity. The first quantity usually
represents a part of, or a change in, the second quantity. For example, an increase of $0.15 on a
price of $2.50 is an increase by a fraction of 0.15/2.50 = 0.06. Expressed as a percentage, this is
therefore a 6% increase. While percentage values are often between 0 and 100 there is no
restriction and one may, for example, refer to 111% or 35%.

Proportions[edit]
Main article: Proportionality (mathematics)
Two quantities are proportional if a change in one is always accompanied by a change in the other,
and if the changes are always related by use of a constant multiplier. The constant is called
the coefficient of proportionality or proportionality constant.

If one quantity is always the product of the other and a constant, the two are said to
be directly proportional. x and y are directly proportional if the ratio

is constant.

If the product of the two quantities is always equal to a constant, the two are said to
be inversely proportional. x and yare inversely proportional if the product

is constant.

Analytic geometry[edit]
Main article: Analytic geometry

Cartesian coordinates

Analytic geometry is the study of geometry using a coordinate system. This contrasts with synthetic
geometry.
Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations forplanes, straight lines,
and squares, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions. Geometrically, one studies
the Euclidean plane (2 dimensions) andEuclidean space (3 dimensions). As taught in school books,
analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining and representing
geometrical shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from shapes' numerical
definitions and representations.
Transformations are ways of shifting and scaling functions using different algebraic formulas.

Negative numbers[edit]
Main article: Negative number
A negative number is a real number that is less than zero. Such numbers are often used to
represent the amount of a loss or absence. For example, a debt that is owed may be thought of as a
negative asset, or a decrease in some quantity may be thought of as a negative increase. Negative
numbers are used to describe values on a scale that goes below zero, such as the Celsius
and Fahrenheit scales for temperature.

Exponents and radicals[edit]

Main articles: Exponentiation and Nth root

Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as bn, involving two numbers, the base b and
the exponent (or power)n. When n is a natural number (i.e., a positive integer), exponentiation
corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base: that is, bn is the product of multiplying n bases:

Roots are the opposite of exponents. The nth root of a number x (written

) is a

number r which when raised to the power n yields x. That is,

where n is the degree of the root. A root of degree 2 is called a square root and a root of
degree 3, a cube root. Roots of higher degree are referred to by using ordinal numbers, as
in fourth root, twentieth root, etc.
For example:

2 is a square root of 4, since 22 = 4.

2 is also a square root of 4, since (2)2 = 4.

Compass-and-straightedge[edit]
Main article: compass-and-straightedge construction
Compass-and-straightedge, also known as ruler-and-compass construction, is the
construction of lengths, angles, and other geometric figures using only
an idealized ruler and compass.
The idealized ruler, known as a straightedge, is assumed to be infinite in length, and has no
markings on it and only one edge. The compass is assumed to collapse when lifted from the
page, so may not be directly used to transfer distances. (This is an unimportant restriction
since, using a multi-step procedure, a distance can be transferred even with collapsing
compass, see compass equivalence theorem.) More formally, the only permissible
constructions are those granted byEuclid's first three postulates.

Congruence and similarity[edit]

Main articles: Congruence (geometry) and Similarity (geometry)
Two figures or objects are congruent if they have the same shape and size, or if one has the
same shape and size as the mirror image of the other.[16] More formally, two sets
of points are called congruent if, and only if, one can be transformed into the other by
an isometry, i.e., a combination of rigid motions, namely a translation, a rotation, and
a reflection. This means that either object can be repositioned and reflected (but not resized)
so as to coincide precisely with the other object. So two distinct plane figures on a piece of

paper are congruent if we can cut them out and then match them up completely. Turning the
paper over is permitted.
Two geometrical objects are called similar if they both have the same shape, or one has the
same shape as the mirror image of the other. More precisely, one can be obtained from the
other by uniformly scaling (enlarging or shrinking), possibly with
additional translation, rotation and reflection. This means that either object can be rescaled,
repositioned, and reflected, so as to coincide precisely with the other object. If two objects
are similar, each is congruent to the result of a uniform scaling of the other.

Three-dimensional geometry[edit]
Main article: Solid geometry
Solid geometry was the traditional name for the geometry of three-dimensional Euclidean
space. Stereometry deals with the measurements of volumes of various solid
figures (three-dimensional figures) including pyramids, cylinders, cones,truncated
cones, spheres, and prisms.

Rational numbers[edit]
Main article: Rational number
Rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction p/q of
two integers, with the denominatorq not equal to zero.[17] Since q may be equal to 1, every
integer is a rational number. The set of all rational numbers is usually denoted by a
boldface Q (or blackboard bold

).

Patterns, relations and functions[edit]

Main articles: Pattern, Relation (mathematics) and Function (mathematics)
A pattern is a discernible regularity in the world or in a manmade design. As such, the
elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of
pattern formed of geometric shapes and typically repeating like awallpaper.
A relation on a set A is a collection of ordered pairs of elements of A. In other words, it is
a subset of the Cartesian productA2 = A A. Common relations include divisibility between
two numbers and inequalities.
A function[18] is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the
property that each input is related to exactly one output. An example is the function that
relates each real number x to its square x2. The output of a function f corresponding to an
input x is denoted by f(x) (read "f of x"). In this example, if the input is 3, then the output is
9, and we may write f(3) = 9. The input variable(s) are sometimes referred to as the
argument(s) of the function.

Slopes and trigonometry[edit]

Main articles: Slope of a line and Trigonometry

The slope of a line is a number that describes both the direction and the steepness of the
line.[19] Slope is often denoted by the letter m.[20]
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths
and angles of triangles. The field emerged during the 3rd century BC from applications
of geometry to astronomical studies