Dim ensronrng of solar

Com bisystems
Chris Baltr, llilfgan,q Srrtulttr,'lltottta: Let.:

iid l

n.qt PLftt's

Solar combisystcnrs ditler'liont putcly solar dot]]esric hot water systcDts in sevcral
key aspccts. rvhich nrcans thet the dinrcnsioning of tl-rc,ur diilers in scr,er.al u,lys.The
nrrin drllelences a1-r the extra space hc:rtlng load, r'csulting rn a tot:rl helr derrrand
rhat v;ir-ies considcrably duling tl-rc' yr.ar-, and the fact thar the ther-nul cncrsl is not
usually sto,red as hor rvater usecl lbr shorvcrs etc. Oonsequentll', solar conlbisystenls
tend to bc ruole conrplcx lnd larger-than sol:rl donestic hot rvater.systc'rrrs and they
have excess capacit,v durrng thc sunrrrrer-. The tirsr section in this chapter qivcx
generel guidelincs on the dirIrensioning ofsolar conrbisystenrs.This gives some r ulcs
of thr-rmb aud important points to corsider. Much of this is eqr-rally rclcr-ent fbr solar
dorncstic l-rot w:tter systenrs. No dctailed dintcnsiouing guidcJines for'1.turp5. p1p.t
ctc. rs gir''cn, as the procedure fbr rhis is the tame as tbr any hcating systenr.
Thcrr: arc a nulbcr of tcrms used in this ch:ipter-that er-e clcfincd clscrvhcr.c in
rhis handbook; tl-re rtrost inrpoltlnt uc dcscribcd brit'fly hele.

.
.

26. Each systcm hs been given l specific number ancl

ibcd in detail in Section .1.3.
I:ratirtrnl errrigy -ralirq-r.This is the firction of c'ucrg1,.savcd by a solrr
conrbis,vstem comparcd to thc Task 2(r refet-ncc sysrerrr rvithout solar. Thrc-e
diflerent tetnrs arc defiled:-f ,. ,,.., ,, incluclcs ouly tl-rernral energry;f..,,..,
incluclc's patasitic cnerqy use ofpunrps, controllers, ctc., as u,c'11 as rhclral
cnelg,v; l.rd-f, is a vc'rsiori of-[,,,., rvith penalties addcd for periods r',,hcn rhe
Systt'tirs -rrudird in Thsk

is

descr

solar conlbis].stcn1 does not meet thc clcflied conrfirlt requireurents- See
Section 6.2.
ReJircucc /ioii-v,r. Four diffclcut referencc houses have bccn used irr Trrsk 2(r (see
Scction 6.1) and lur,'e the follos,ing norrenclatur.e: SFH 30, SFH 6{) ancl
SFH 100 for single firmily houscs rvith ;r 30, 60 and 100 kWh/mr pcr yc-ar
specrlic heating load respectivc-Iy ibr a I20 mr l.rouse loc:rted in Zurich; and
MFH fol a nrultr-liruily house rvith t'ir.e apartrlents in a rour

The follorvrng sections give nrore infolnation abolrt the toois that ar.e ar,-ailable for.
lnd designing solar corrrbisystenrs, as rvcll:rs those lor doing nrorc cletailed
simulation of the systctrrs. In Section 8.2 there is an overvicrv of plalnilg tools,
rncludrng r tcol developcd by Task 26. This nay be of interest to I wide audience
lnd givcs advrce as to rvhat types ofrools are suitable fbr r.arious situations. Section
8.3 gives inibruration on mor! detailcd. timc dependent sitnul:rtion of systems and

plannir-rg

192

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK

FOR SOLAR COMBISYSTEN/ls

the nrain assunlptions used in the siDlul:rtion of the Task 26 systerns. Tlrese
simul:rtion tools ilre of morc interest to thosc dc'signing or devc'loping systems as
rvcll as to lcscarchcrs. Finalll-, a scction is dcvorcd to the simulatlon models used in
the rvork ofTask 26.This is gir,'cn as background informirtion ;rnd is mostly lelevant
to rescarclrer-s and those rvishing to simulatc conrbisysteDr usirg TRNSYS.
Finall1., i1 15 wolth noting that it is rclatively casy to gct a rough approxruratron
ofthc pelfolmancc ofa solar cor.nbisystcm, but it is r''ely diilicult to get close to the
'realii-' because of the colnplex Dature of corllbisystelDs. Details in the systcD')
desrgr-r, especrally lol the store and horv hcar is n:rnsti:rled to and fiom it, do make
a signii-icar-rt diilelence to the overall systenr pedbrrrrance. Thcsc dilE:rcnccs can
only be sl-rou,n rrsing detailed slmulation tools or drrect rllersul'ements (Driick and
Hahne, 1998; Par-rschinger ef ai., 1998). System per{ormance can be cataslophicaJly
reduced by bad design (Lorer.rz rt a/., 1997), but the systenrs shorvn in this book are
belicved to bc ofgood design. Oleatlon ofan accLlrlLte sin-rulation model ofa systcnr
requires detailed nleasurenents :1s well as detailed modelling, both needing
considerable effor t.
A list ofintelnet addrcsscs fol thc simulation plogmlns mcntion.'d in tl-ris chaptcr
can bc found in a speciirl section in the rcferences rt the end ofthe chapter.

8.1 DIMENSIONING GUIDELINES

In this scction guidclincs arc providcd lor thc most inlportant componcnrs ofa solar
conrbisystem.

8.1

.1 Collector slope and orientation

The dependency ofthe solar-fraction on collcctor tilt angle and :Lzirnuth anglc for
Systeru #19 is shorvn in Figure 8.1. The highest sohr fi"ction is achieved with
southwald olienration (slightly rvestwards) and the optinrurn tilt angle is about 55o.
Ncvcthclcss, the decrease in perlorluance bc'nveen tilt anglc's fiom 30o to 75o and
fionr azirrruths from 30' east to 45o west is vely small. Most of the solar collectols

can thertl'ore be installed in the roof of the building without expcnsivc and
lesthetically unattlactive collector array racks. It should be noted drat a collector
mounted verticirlly or f, south facing rvall has only 20% less fractional savings thll
an optilnally nrounted one and h:rs nruch highcr' ftactional. savings than a
horizontally mountcd onc. As the direct solar irmdiancc in summer at midday on a
south facing wa11 is only about 50% of the radiation or an optimally tilted sufacc,
wall-mounted collectors do not have big problenrs rvith stagnarion (see belorv). For
higher {i-actional energy savings the optinrunr inclination of the collector iner-eases
because ofthe hisl.rer amount of winter suu being used (see Figure 2.3).
Collector orientation

Collector orientation can vary 30o fiom south and fiom 30o ro 75o in slope u'itl.r
less than a 11)% reduction in energy savings for a centml European climate.Within
rhis range it is generally easy to corrpensate rvith I slightly hrger collector area.

DIMENSIONING OF SOLAR COMB 5Y5TEMS 193

Extended f.actionai energy savings

(in o/o lrom maximum)

/ t'

9g

lr\

50

959o
"-

\r

3+o
trio

.^,-

\n"r"
gtly.

'\

'-,\
/

./
-': ,---,--l

\,,.\.}:

'90 -75 -60

-45

West

.:0 "15 0

15 l0

Collecaor a2imuth

l"l

45

60 75

90

East

95
90
85

5?

80
75

d,

70
65

g-

60
55
50

co//ecto.

--

".uhuth

t6l

Figure 8.7. Dependency af the extended lractianal energy savtngs an tilt angle and azimuth of
(Heimrath,2A02). Seealsa calaur
the callector (climate central Europe. 140%:39%of f,,

plab

2A

",)

194

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSEST

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMBISYSTE,VS

8.1.2 Collector and store size

Figrues 8.2 and 8.3 shorv the influencc of collector sizc lnd srorc' volunrc on thc
extended lractional cnergl'ser.ings ({.,..,) lo, Systeru #19 and all clinutes. Onc
in'rportant obscrvatiorr that can bc m:rdc is that lbr- solal conrbisystenrs s,ith
lelativcly sma11 collcctor arcas, a snlall \\,:rtc'r store' is sut-licient. Bigger stores do not

2ilah

,ri9i
40

:F

30
Jm25

,,

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

450

Speciiic slore voiuine Jl/m:l

Stockholm

15!

r-

oi

35

30

5, 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

4JO

Specifrc store volLrrne lll.n'zl

Ftgure 6.2. lnfluence af stare volume and collectar area on the extended fractlanal energy
savings (f....,,) fat the Zuich and Stackholm cltmates (System #19, MFH). The salid lines are
fot dtflerent, fxed collectar arcas whercas the dotted (nearly vertical) lines arc far different, fixed
sLarc valLlmes

DIMENSIONING OF SOLAR COMB SYSIEMS 195

Catpentras

'-

5o

:45
40

0
0

50 100 150 ?00 250 300 350 400

450

Specilic store volume [/n1:]

Figure 8.3. lnfluence of store valume and callectar arca an Lhe extended fracttanal energy
savings (f., ,.) far the Carpentras climate lsystem #19, MFH)

incrcasc pcrforrnancc sigr-rificlntly and car even decrease the fr:crionll cner-gry
savings as a r-esr,rlt ofthe increasing heat losscs ofthc storc as thc sizc incrtascs.This
is generally true lor all climates and all corubisystenrs investig:rted.

lncreases in store volume

Incrcased store volume does not necess:rrily lesult in increased savings (sct- Figures
[3.2 ancl 8.3). For all climatcs end systcDl sizcs for Systcnr #19, the savings dccrcasc
rvid-r l speciiic volunre xbove 150 l/nrr es a result of incrc:rsed store losses. The
results for rlrany other systen$ :rrt similar A rough ruie of thunrb lbr the store
voluulc is 5(l 1(X) liues 1br every squar-e nietle of t-l:rt platc collector alex.

Collector size

The 'best' collector size is depenclent oD thc uscr's ptiolities: eltergy \.r!rngs,
ccononl), or space requircnlcnrs. No genelal guideline is possible. Sruall aleas are
conlnlon i1l the Netl-rcrlands rvhile large altas are co11t11ton in Austria. Both
cottrrrr t.r lt.rvc rrr.rrrl h.rpp1 orr rrcrr
Figure l'i.-l shorvs the srzc of collecror r-ecluired to:rchieve a lange of fi'actiond
enersv savings for thlee drlTelent types ofcollector and tu,o collector- slopes. It can
be lcadil,v seen th;rt a higher slopc is advantageous, espccially :rt higher ti-acrional
savings. Thc evacuated-tube collcctor requires nearly t\,\ro rhirds the iperturr- trea
conpared to thc flat-plate collector in ordcl to achieve 25% fractional energyl
savings, but only slightly nore thaD half thc area for 45% savings. The ratio
betr,veeli requir-ed lreas for the ev:lcuated trrbe ald Lord Adapted (LA) collectols
remains thc sanle over the wholc r:rngc ofsavings.Thc calculations rvere carricd

196 SOIAR

HEAT NG SYSTEN/]s FOR HOUSES:

DES GN HANDBOOK FoR SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS

+l

60
Flal P ate 30'

50
Evacuated Tube 30'

Fv..",to.l

-1...

o30
o

10

7n'

--1:

.4.=

20

Load Adapted 70'

20

'ha
Adapted 30'

+Load

TH

25

30

--1

35

f"",

40

45

50

55

tv"l

Figurc 8.,1. Camparisan af callectot apefture areas that are requtred [or three callectar ty'pes ta
aihieve a range of fractional eneryy savings The date are valid fot a well stratified syslen) tn
Stockhalm The dtlferent types af collectot are genertc and arc nat speciftc cammercial units.
For each callector, [,1/o lines are shawn lot slapes af 3A' balid ltne)and 70" (dashed line)

$'ith ertclnal hcat cxcl-rlDg5crs lor botl-r

dorncstic hot rvatcr prep.ultion lud are Itot fol the specilic

out for a Srvedish solar

collectol circuit ancl

coDrbisysterD

condrtions ofTask 26 (Lorenz cl a/.,2000).The LA collcclor (sce Frgrrrc ll.5) uscs

rcl'lcctors insrde the collcctor in older lo reduce costs ancl to give it vlrying optical
ploperties during thc year. lt is designcd to rvolk e{licrcutly cluring most of t1.re
yeal ap:ut fiolu rhc sun1lncr, lhus avoidrng utrnecessaty ovcrheatitrg in the
coilector circuit rvl-retr thcrc is ttsulli-v excess clplcit,v (Nordlandcr lud Rcinnclid,
2()()1).

Figure 8.5. Simphflecl dlagftm af the principle of a U callectat Far law solar allitudes, all rays
rcach the absorber, whereas for high solar altitudes same are tellected aut

DIN/ENS ONING OF SOLAR COMBISYSTEIV]s 197

8.1.3 Climate and load

lor Sysrcm #19 and all
clillllLtes ale shorvn. Thc C:uperltras climate has much llighe| fi'actional cncrgysrvings than the clirnate in thc other trvo locations. I\esuits for Stockholm urd
Zurich ale quite siruilar despite the lalge geoglaphic sepamtion in latitr-rde. It can
irlso be seen that therc is a significant difTerence in values ful the thcrr.nal (1.,,,,,) ar.rd
extended (1,...,) fiaction:rl energy savings. This ditTerence is due to diffelences in
pllasitic electrical enelgy usage of the solar and referetrce systerns. It is, horvever,
possiblc to h:rve Iorver parasitic energy consulrlption in thc solar hcatir-rg systerl if
lorv-ener-1ry' prllnps arc used insread ofthe more con\.entional ones. Chorcc oflorvcnerg)- Pumps can lllake an imPortrull contribution to overall savirlgs. This is, of
colr\c. Jl.o crue lor corrrcntion.rl h-.lUng \y\tcrll5.
L.r Figure i'1.6, the three deiined Ii-actional euelgy savings

-sr""kh"tr."l
]n 2,,'icr,
E Carpeniras

30%
20v"
104/"

ah

Ftgure 8.6. Vanatian af fractianal energy savings with cllnate (Systen #19 with 100
calleclat and 5 5 m, stare)

Figure ll.7 shorvs the virtiation

of therm:rl

savings

m'

Q.',, (kwh) :rnd

lhcmral

fi'actional cncrgy- savings-f ,.,r, (%) t'br one solar conrbisystem of l fixed collector alca
fur three cLimires on three ditlercnt buildings. Tivo observations can be made:

For a chosen climate, an incrcasc of the load due to a less rvell insulatcd housc
(SFH 100 conrpared to SFH 30) leads to hrgher encrgy savings, but to lo\'ver
fiactionll energy- savings. [n orher words. the higher the ]oad, the more'eftciendy'
thc solar loop rvorks, but also tl.re highcr the auxiliary energy needs arc.

198

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES

A DESIGN HANDBOOK

FOR sOLAR COMBISY5TEM5

6>
>=
o.tr
F
SFHl

OO

00%
90./"
C

o!l

Eo

B0%

7A.k
60%
50./.
40%

.9

30%

IL

2A%
10%
0'/a

SFHl

OO

Figure 8.7. lnfluence of climate an the savtngs and the thermal fractianal energy savtngs for
System #9b with a 10 m' collectot area

For wcll insulated houses, errer-gy s:rvings do not changc ruuch rvith the climate,
case for-Ii-actional enelgy- savings.Thc satne cotnbisystetl
installed in ar.r 'identical' r.vell insulated house rvill providc r11ore or less the same
energl, s:rvings and consequerrtly the samc moncy savings. f)iffel:nces betrveen
clinlates beconle greater lbl houscs rvith greater heatir-rg loads. In other words, it
is as prot'itablc to install combisystems anyrvhere ir-r Eruape.

rvhich is not the

8.1.4 The boiler and the annual energy balance

The savings achieved by any solar heatinllsystenl are very dependent on tluee other
key parameters:

.
.
.

the boiler eiliciency

the tenlperxture ofthe auxiliary heated pxt ofthe store (thermostlt setting for
stole charge)
the volLrme heated by the auxiliary heatet.

D MENSIONING OF SOTAR COMBISYSTEMS 199

Thc boilcr elllcic'rcy is an obvio,s f:rctor, bLlt oue rhAt is sol'r'rctinrcs underestirnated
in solar l-rcating systenN.The other t\\,o arc less obvior-rs factors, but thesc ar-e cqually
irnportant. Figure ll.8 slror,vs that the setting of the the,rmostat for. tire auxiliary
heating of thc storc greatly allccts the cnetgy savir-rgs for a sl.stetrr, in this case
Systcm #11 rvith au oil boilcr. IJigh scrtings r.esuit in large hcat losses rs tht,
collcctor must r.vork at high tenlper.etul.es befor.e thc usc of rhe auxiliary heater. is
avoided (set tcrlpcraturc ercc'ecled in the store). FIowever., at low settings the
dcsired ther-nral cor,fort nray 11ot be :rchie'cd. This lorv ther'rai conrfort is sec.
hcre fi-onr the declease ir.i thc indicator-./, (sc,e Section (r.2) at a tenrperatur-e of
60oC- At e setting of 60"C the hot rvatcr derrrand is not lully rlret on certain
occasioDs during the,vc'ar. Signi6carlt illtplovtDlc.tlt{ Il \\.stcD1 p.rfortDancc can be
achicved by rt-ducinq the requir-enlcnrs ibr thcr.mal conrfort, espccially for- hot
rvatcr. This rn practice nleans that on occasions ollc 1l1ust havt, a slightly sl-rorter
shower. or l bath lvith less rvater in it. Sinrilarl1,, the volunre that is hcxted by thc
luriliary also at't'ects botl-r therrrral courlbrr tnd savings. A larqcr heatcd volumc
cllsr-r1es gr-cate1 the rul comfort btrt t...sultr in lorvqr.. in(s ThLr, i: tltt.! altt,a1,s a
trarlc-t)i bttt|tctt tlrc lertl Ltl-ltnmriccd tlunnl anlittt and tltc cnc!\ sain!:.

ov.

un[

+
os

60

t
zo

75

80

Store charge thermostat setting ['C]

Figure 8.8. lnfluence of the setting af the thermastat cantralling the charging af the starc by the
auxiltary heatea fot System # / 7 ustng an otl batlet as auslta4 heater Thls sittno affects the
tenoprat t e AI the d.,,,.
ken1o pol at .b- -tot-

"q

Low thermostat setting

Alrv:ys set the the'nuostat controlling the auxihar y hcating ofthe store to the Iorvest
ralue that rvill give thc thermal cornfort and hygicne that rhe uscr rlesires.Too higlr
a sctting rcsults in snullcr energ)- savings rvithout any extn benclit to tite
usel. Note
that if the domestic hot uater is preparcd in a scpatatc, store or i1-i r Lrnk_rn tank
store, this setting is recornurended in many countrics to be 60.C or highet because
of pote.rtial problerrrs with bacterial grorvth. A snall uolu,L, hcakd ltv tltt arrxiriart,
also leads to improved s:rvings but possibly to lower thernral cornfor.t.

200

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMs FOR HOUSES:

DES

GN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS

During sunrmer, v,hen therc' is ofren a nearly 100% coverage of the load by so1ar,
thc boiler does not supply nruch uselul eucrgy- to the systeru. Horvever, it still has
significant losses to the environrrrent.Tl-ris is especially tlue fol oldel boilcrs that do
nor mrn otTcon'rplerely and autoDaticdly rvhen not lequiled, and in thrs c.rsc it c.rn
be advantageous to turn off the boilel niarually during the sunrnrer. An electrical
heater can be used instead, or alternatively thc boiler can be turned on manually
for the lew times that ir is lequired. Figule 8.23 shorvs that during sulnrner both
the gas and oil boilcr have efficiencies much less than .l0%.
Figure 13.9 shor,vs the annual energy balance fi:r System #11 fol tl.rc Zurich
clirnate and the SFH 60 house, resulting iu a total load of 1 1,600 kWh. This annual
erergy use is epproxirnately the sanre as the solrt radiatio[ on the 10 n']r ofcollcctor
during the year.26t/u of tl.re enelgy lalling on the collector is delivered to thc'store
:rnd thc remaining 74% is lost due to pipe and collector losscs during opL-I.rtron.

TBANSFER, STORAGE CONTNO' O'O

O'"''""O*

Figure 8.9. The eneryy balance far System #11 with gas bailea 1A m2 callectar, Zutich chmate
and SFH 6a hause. All values are /n kwh The value far parasitic electflcity is given as pnmary
energy and thus a factar af 2.5 grcatet than the electrical eneryy used

D l\/]ENSION NG OF SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS 2O,I

periods of insut-iicient t-adiation to u:rke thc collectol hotrel.tl.ran the storc and
pcliods lvhen rhe collector Ioop purnp is sr.r,itched olf because the store is already
fully charged.The boiler uses gas rvith a fuel encrgy contenr (final cnergy- deurand,
E,.,, , ) of 10,1{li) kWh, of rvhiclr 785 kwh is lost during operation ar.id stand-by.
This loss is uearly exactly the sanlc as the losses from the well insulated score.
Neither ofthese losses is tre'ated as g:rins to the house in the sirnulatior-rs.
Of thc plimary energl'E.,,, 1791t kWh (7ll) kWh clEtricrl. l.(,,) is rcquircd for.
palasitic usage lor pumps, conrlollers rnd r.rlv<.. and r" uc;rrly 20,i, of t1-re finai
energy- sr-rpplied to the boiler. For the r-eferencc, non solar system, 1495 kWh of
pr-iurarl' c'nergy uas requircd for palasitics (E , ,.).

Electrical energy for pumps, controllers etc.

Electrical energy for pumps, controllers etc. can account for

of

tl-re conrbjued total energy use

xs

nruch as 20%

of rhc system. It is thus inrporrant to use low

enetgy punlps and to srvitch otTpumps wl-ren they are nor needed.

8.1.5 Design of the heat store

One ofthe key courponents ofa sohr cornbisystem is the heat store(s). Figure 8.10
schenratically thc diflercnt zones ol a heat stor.e using water as the storage
medir-un, but rvithout the neccssary heat exchangers for hcat transler tolfron-r the
sl-rorvs

store.

In

tl-re following scctiol-ls sor-ne lxyout aspccts

of the tubc corlrrccclons to

thc difelent heat sourccs and heat sinks arc describcd-The first section discusses the
coucept ofstr:rtification, lvhich is the key to ctlicient storagc and usc ofheat in a sola:conrbisyster.n. Additional information on rhis can be found in Streichcr (2002a).

to DHW
{rom aux boilet

Volume for DHW

Volume tor boiler

r>
t

to space heating system

to

aux boiler

from solaa collecior

Volume tor space nealing system

from space heaiing system

Volume for colleclor

to solar

collector

Volume tor pre-heating fresh water

from {resh water

Figure 8 10. Zones for the hat water stare af a salar combisystem. This diagram daes nat show
the heat exchangets that are necessary far the heat transfer totrom the stare

2o2 SO AR HEATNG

SYSTEMS FOR HOUSEST

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR

COMBISYSTEIV1S

8.1.5.1 Stratification
The l-rottcr the watel the lower the densiry of the wlter. Hot water thus naturally
and stably finds its rvay above layers of cold rvater. Tl-ris phenotrlerlon makcs it
possible to have stratification, rvith zones ofditTcrtrt tcnlperatr-uc in one physicd
store.Thc zones indicatc'd ir Figure 13.10 can lhcrcfore bc at dill-erent tenlperatures.
and mole specifically :rt the tenlperatures required of thc loads for dorrrcstic hot
wxtcr- ancl space heating. Stratillcation allorvs an oPtilllal use of the stolc r'vith
limited l-reat losses and. in additron, can bc used to ensurc that the collectot inlet
tenrperature is as lorv as possible. Horvcver', it is not obvious oL casl to nraint'lin
good stratification in lhc stort. In fact, the telllls stlatifled and stratilying ale used
ibr slightly ditTetent pl.renonrela :rnd apptoaches. The t'bllorving diagr':rms aud
dcscriprions shor,v importatt differences in horv the stole can be cl-rargcd.The satlle
distinctions can be applied to dischatging lhe storc. To maintain stratiflcation, all
chalging and discharging must be done iIr such a rvay as to illrplnve or rn.ritrt.rin
the stratitication. If only one heat soulcc or sink causes siguificlnt rllixing. it c.rrr
destr-oy thc bencfit ofthc stlatjficetion cre;Ltcd by otllel sotlrces/sinks.

Unaffected
{Jniform
temperature

.l

Heat
source

r SharD

bou:10ary

Unaffected

Figure 8-11. Charying using an intenal heat exchanget lleft) and with diect cannectians light)
Tie zone at the top at' the tank with direct cannecttons will be affected if the tnlet temperature
is higher than the temperaturc at the tap af the tank

Figure i3.11 shorvs schematic;rlly what happens rvithir.r rhe stole when it is cl1erged
with an intcrnal heat exchanget and rvith dilect conneclions The rvater heated by
the internal heat exchanget starts to rise and nlixes rvith tl-re surrouncling watet.In
this rvay the heat is transfcrred to a large volume o1t rvater, rvhich is helted slowly.
The net result is usually a zone ofuniform terrPemture above the heat exchangcl.
This zone extends as far as another zone rvith higher tempcratule, if one exists.
Once tl-re telrlpelature of this l-ighcr zone is reaclied, both zoncs will be heated
uniforr-nly at the sarne temper-aturc. Belorv the heat exchanger, lhc storc is

DIMENSIONING OF SOLAR COMB 5Y5IEM5 203

un:r{fected. Therc is a small temperature gradient in the store at the sanle height ;rs
tl-re l-reat exchanger. An electric elenlent i1-r the store acts rn l sir.uilar way, but as a
result ofthe rclatively high por,,,er and small heat transfer area, rhe heirted water does

not mix fully rvith the sutlounding store s,ater., r.est ting in a snuli tenlper:rtLue
gradient (stratification) above the heater.
With a direct connection there 1s solne luixing in the srore at the inlet.The degrce
of rrrixing is dependent on the inlet velociry and the difference in temperature
benveen thar of d-re incoruinq rvater and that ofthe store xt the inlet.The zone above
the inlet will be unafected bv rhe incol'r1ing water if the Iatter is colder. Beneath the
inlet, the store water is pushed dorvn and out tllough the outlet. There is usually a
sharp boundary benveer] the hot water, at r-rca{ the samc teDlpemtule as that
entering through the inlet, and the origin store \,\rarcr. This boundary moves
downrvards during the charge. Holvevel, if the incor-ning water is hotter th;rn the
uppcr zone, then hclt rvill be transferred into rh:rt zone, causing r!. i-xing therc, as well
as into the r,'olurrrc belorv the inLct. A large volurue is thus affected and the
teulpcraturc below the inlet will bc sigrificantly lower than that ofthe wrtcr enrerrng
rhe store. Thc teDlpemtLlrls of the inlet watcr from both the collector. and the space
heating circuits v:rry in time,:urd there rvill be tirtres rvhen the incoming w-rrer rs
hotter than the wxtcr in the store it the iDlet. arrd other times it rvill be colder.
Charging rvith direct conncctiolls tl-rus tends to enhancc stratificatioll, wlth the
volulne of the zone ilcreasing dur-ing charging. In contrast, charging rvith an
lnternal hc.rt cxchangcr tends to desrroy str:rtific:rtion. In thc store of a solar
conrbisystcrn, there lr-e several hcat sourccs ls rvell as sioks, and so the flows and
stratilicatior-r are complex.

Nerther the intcrnal heat cxchanger nor the dircct inlet is pcrfcct fot creating
stratification, so dillerent nlethods havc been applied to improve stratification. Thc
first, arid sinrplest, is to increirse the numbet of inter.nal heat exchangers, :rs
illrrstrated in the storc on the left of Fisure 8.12.This errangcnlcllt cfcates nrore

Figure 8.72. Three differ,.nt methads af causing strattftcatian with intemal heat exchangerc..
sevetal internal heat exchange6 (left), strctitting Iube (middle), and stratifying unit wilh
multiple autlets (right) The sttatifying unitcan be used with an intenal heat exchanger or far
other tnlets that vary in temperature

204 SOIAR

HEAT NG SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMB

SYSTEN.4S

gr-eatel degree of stlatific;rtiorr.

Ilorvever', the rvhole ofeach zone is heated/cooled by the heat erchangets, and the
tenlperature in the zones does not changc rapidly In order to create a variabler,'olume zone thrt can be heated/cooled quickll', several nranufactulers have added
a stratifying tube to the inrcmal heat exchanger, as illustrated in the nricldle store
of Figure 8.12.This tube acts in a similar rvay to a direct inlet. Horvever, the florv
rn the tube and thus the telrpenture at the outlet of the tube is dependent on rhe
terllperatures in the stole as rvell ls those ofthc hcat sourcc, as the florv is the result
ofnarr-rral convec[ion.This florv can var-y consrdclably dcpending or-r the conditions
rvithin the store.Thus, rvith this r-r-rethod, the water enteling thc storc frorn the tube
can be either hotter or coldel than the surrounding w:ller.
Another method is to usc a stratirying unit rvith several outlets, rs illusuated in
the righrhand store ofFigule [J.12.This arr lqement allows rvatcr to exit the unit
at the helght that has approximately the sxme telrperature in the stol'e, thr-rs
maxirnizing strrtiflcation. This nrcthod is bettc[ tl]an the othcr two, but requires
careful attention.The ilorv in the rube should be lvithin a lir ted range; othenvise
the watcr comes oLrt xt an incorrect height- In addition, it is imporernt to l nuruzc
drarving in of wlter through outlets into the passing florv in the tube, becausc this
rvoulcl lead to mixing o11 the way up, l:sulting in lorver outlet tenlper.rtures- Such
stratifying r.urits have been succcssfi:lly used rvith both internal and external heat
exchangers in rhe solar circuit and for the rcturn fioru rhc sp:rcc hcating loop.
Stlatifing tubcs and r.rnits lvith intern:rl heat exch:ingers rvork rvith narural
con:ection as nlentiolred lbovc. It is ilrlportant that the pressure drop through thc
tubc/uuit, the heat exch:rngcr's ctlcctivcncss ancl the expected heat trarlsfer r:rte.lrc
matched so that the flow in the tube is similar to thar in the collectot circuit, thtts
c'nsuring 1ol, tempelrlules to the collcctor- and high outlet teinpcr:ltules. Both
stratiEing tubes and units can be uscd advantagcously in 1ow-flow systen$.
Figure 1,l.13 shorvs horv a good stutti6cation unir rvorks u,hen the tenrpcrrlurE itl
the tube is benveen that at the top and at the botton of tl-rc storc ir-r fact, betu,een
Lh.rt .r( tlrc
ond rrrd rhrrd outlrt..

zolcs bctween thc heat exchangers and thus

'.,

.5.2 The collector

Thc collector circuit usually has :rn :rntiftcczc/rvater nixture as the heat tlansler
fluid. A heat exchanger is ther-efor-e requir.ed lbr heat transli:r to the storc. An
exception to this arc systcms that use the drainback principle, such as Systeru #9b.
The input to the collector should ahvays be as cold as possible, ir.r order to keep rrs
eiliciency high. Therefore, thc connecting tube to the collector is mounted at the
bottom of thc store, rvhere the coldest rvater is. The height of rhe input fronr the
collector into the stole vanes rvith drflerent applicarions.
For so-called high-flow systems, with flow in the collector circuit of
approxir-nately 50 1/h per nrr of collector area, the teruperaturc rise in the collecror
is ofthe order of 10oC.The input into the store for these high-flow systems should
be near the bottom of the stor-e, and the store is heated slowly from the bottom to
the top. An exception to tlis rule is for stores rvith more than one heat exchanger
in dre collector loop, for example System #12.
8.1

DII\IENS ON]NG OE SOIAR CON4BISYSTEI\,4S 205

:,

:tE.;ta

Figurc

8.7

3. Stratiinng unit far hot water stares shawtng autlet into the middle af the stare

(Saurce Salvis, Germany). See alsa calaur plate 21

For so callecl low-flow systens rvith a specific collector florv of 1(}11 5 l/h per- nrr of
collector area, the tenlperltrue risc in thc collcctol is of tl.rc ordcr of4(1 50'(1.Thc
iliput to tl.rc stort in low-t'lorv s,vstclns should be highel up than ir the higl.r florv
systerr, the best height dcpending on the flow and systenl design. It can bc
ad\antxgeous to use a strati4'ing unit to Drakc sule that thc heat 6oD1 the collectol-goes
to thc. f ight lc-r'cl rn thc storc. Lo\\r florv should not in lleneml be used lvith intelnal
heat cxchanger-s, as these c:rnnor f-111y utilizc the high temperatr.rre built up in the
collcctor', lnd the resulting telrlperatulc in thc stort is rruch lolvcr because thc'water
in the stol-c' is mlred rapidlyr Modeute tlows can be used. bur irr rhis case rhc inteinal
helr erch:rrrgcl should har-e r gre:1ter- vel-tical extert than rvhen high llou,s nt'c uscd.
8.1

.5.3 The auxiliary heater

The rnput tubc fl-on'r thc auxihary hearer should be on dre top of thc tank. The
outlct position to thc'ruxilialy heatel rs deterniined by seveIal lactols:
There should ahvays be enough hot u,atcr in rhe storc to fullill the hear
deruands. The peak heat demnncl in singlc'- or double-family houses occurs
rvhcn a bath tub is fillcd (about 25 kW). Therefore, thc rccommcndcd volumc
for thc DHW can bc calculated fioru this denrand and the porvcr ofthc
luxilirry heater. Additionally it nlust be possible to deliver heat from the
auxiliar., heater to the space heating system as rvell. Ther elbr e, the outlc't
position nrust be below the DHW and the space heating outlet.
The auxilialy heater olten needs a n-rinimum lunnlng time (especially solid
rvood burners).The volume betrveen auxiliary heater inlet and outlet must be
suf'licienr to prtvent overhextjng during fiis mininrunr running tilr1c.

206

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

DES GN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS

The outlet to the auxiliary heater should be as high as possible (limited by

above factors) in ordel to lcavc as latge a volume as possible for the solar

tl.re

collector-.

8.1.5.4 Domestic hot water (DHW)

The DHW outlet most olten needs the higl-rest tempcrature of thc cornbisysteni
(50 60'C). Therefole, it is located at thc top of the tank.The fresh rvater (or the
water from a heat exchangel fol DHW production) is ah,vays the coldest part and
therelbre Iocated at the bottom. The volume heated by the auxiliary nrust be big
enough to gualantee thar all denrand for DHW can be met (i.e.200 litres at 40'C
for a hot bath).

8.1.5.5 The space heating system

TI-re tempelaturcs in the space heating systerr range between the IlJins w.rter
tcnrper-ature and that necessar-y for l)HW Consequentll,, the zone for the hcating
system is positioned in the middle of the tank. During thc heating season, space
heating is the dominant heat sink. Thclclble, the volulne for this is kept rclativcly
large.

8.1.6 Design of the collector circuit

ln most countries witiin Eulope, the collecror circuit needs to be such that it can
tolerate periods ofirost.The nrost cornruon rllethod ofprotection is usc of an antifi'eeze lnixturc of propylene glycol and watcr. [n addition, the most contDron
collectol circuit Jayouts ale also subject to pcriods ofstagnation when thc collectorpur.up is sr,vitched off because the storc is fully chaged. This is rnore courmon in
solal conrbisysterns than in solar donrcstic hot water systen$. Section 7.2 describes
sone of rccent rvort carried out on what happens during st:Ign2rtion- In many
systeD)s, the pressure in the collectol cir-cuit is kept belor,v 3 bar. Durng \tagrlatrorl
tl-re collector flnid evapotatc's alid is for-ced dorvn into the expansion vcsscl. Figure
iJ.14 shorvs trvo possible l.rydraulic scherlcs. [n the top scheme (Case 1), the
increasing vapoul pressure ibrres all liquid our of the collector as the increased
pressule pushes thc liquid dor,vn equally on both sides.There is no vapour-in the
connccting tubes because only the liquid is transported thr-ough them during tl-re
emptying of the collector. In the lorver schenre (Case 2), if tlre pressure is equal on
both sjdcs, all liquid in the'U'has to be evaporated because it is'trapped'in the
collector. The stearl is forrced into the tubes and has to be condensed in the heat
exch:rr-rger to thc hcat sink.Very high telnperatures occur-in the whole collector
cirtuit. Additior.rall)', thele is an increased degradatior.r of the propylene glycol and
the corrosior.r inhibitors, because ofthe high tenlperature in the collector.Therelore
Case 1 is reconrnrended lor the collector layout. The rest of the hydrlulic florv
scheme of the collectol circuit must allorv for the liquid ro be draited liom both
sides of rhe collector to the expansion device. Figure 8.15 shorvs one possible
hydraulic florv schene.

DIMENSIONING OF SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS 207

Normal operation

siart of stagnal:on

Liqlrid"

-t

+"
Normal operation

<->

Start of slagnation

;t

ill,,l

t;:
Lll
I1

ll^^ll
ilLJil
l-l

Oscillating liquid phase

water hammer

Figure 8.11 Hydrauhc collectot flaw scheme farcing steam aut af the collector dunog
evaparatian,'tap Case 1, baltom Case 2. (Source. Streichet, 2002b)

Dlainback systems, rvhele the collector is drained of t-luid r,vhen rt rs rlor nr

operation, arc conurron in the Netl-rerlands, as described in Section 7.2. Evelr more
dctails can be found in the ploceedings of the fifth industry workshop ofTask 26
(Weiss, 20{)1). This llethod is used for prctection fiom both Iiost and overhearing.
The Dutch designs havc shorvn that it rs possible to design reliable collectors ancl
stores for this method. However, it is still possible for-the pipes to be insralled in an
incorrect rvay, leading to problems. In practicc', hor'vever, this docs not occur-in the
Nerhellands. See Chapter 7 for morc dctails.
Another ruethod ofoverheating protection involves keeping the collector circuit
putup in operation lnd dumpilrg heat in the qround or sonle other heat sink. Some
systcnN even cool the store at night so that thc risk of or,-erheating rhe next day is
reduced. A system design that carr rvithsrand high pressures (up to 9 bar) in the

208

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR

COIV]BISYSTEN,']S

Fllling valve

Val!e
Manofieter

lhe.mo eter
Expaasron
from both

Collector pump

sides,n

Valve

expansion device
possib e

Filllng valve
Safety valve
One-way valve

_...>
Drscha.ge valve

'T#;:""
Figure B.l5 Hydraulic llow scheme of the pump, the ane'way valve and the expanstan device
allawing the flaw frcm both sides af the callectar (Source: Strcichet, 20A2b)

collcctor circuit cnables the fluid to remain in the collectol at all times. Ho'uvever,
this approach can lead to rapid detcrioration in the glycol and is not to be
leconunended lbr systems with stagnation tenlPelatLrrcs over 140'C-

8.2 PLANNING AND DESIGN TOOLS

Planning or design tools can be split ntto tltce atcgorics: rules of thurnb, where
the rvhole design is ptoduced using simple rules of thulb based or.r pooled
knorvlcdge; diagtam-based tools, where simple calculatior.rs are perforured rvith
the aid of diagrams and simple equations; and cornputer-based tools r,vl.rere
detailed designs can be rrade using specially designed computer programs. The
lattcr can be split into several sub categorles with varying deglees of detail and
complexiry In addition thcic are lrlo /clcl-r rf',/cs1grr, from the overall sizing ofthe

principally the collector and store, to detailed sizing of snrcllcr

such :rs pumps and pipes. The dctailed level is, in plinciple, lhe saule as
for other types of heating s),stelr and thc methods for design and sizing o{ thcse
small cornponents are rvell knor'r,n.Thete arc, of coll$e, a number of difli:r'ent tools
or rules available, most ofthem being lor specilic countries or regions because of
varying plurlbing practiccs and tr aditions. Thcsc aIe not discusscd hcr-e.

ettirc

systcut,

cottl])otletrts

DIMENS ONING OF SOtAR COMBISYSTEMS 209

Rules of thuurb ue vcry siruple for an1'one to undcrstand and can give a good
first estirlrate lor system design. Thcy often do not cover the ftill range of possible
:rpplicalions, or arc possibly not applicable fot all countries.They may also valy fi-om
systeln to svstelrl. They are, however, very useful as overall guidelines ;rnd, rvhere
possible, rules of thumb havc bcen included 1n the previous section.There art vely
Grv corumonly uscd di:rgr:rrl-b:rsed rools for solar combisystems. A nomogram has
been cleared rvithin the rvork olTask 26 ancl is described in Section 8.2.1, but it is
restricted to the systems simulated in Task 26. Anorher nontogranl including borh
solar conlbis),stenr and ho[ water systems tvas created as patt ofa Europe,It prolect
(Karlsson irnd Zinko, 1997). Task 26 has developed a new di:rgralr tool using the
FSC method developed u,ithin Task 26. lt is essentially r diagram based tool made
iuto a computer progr:rm for t'lexibiliry It is described in Section 8.2.2.A variation
of dragran-r-based tools is forl'n shccts, r.vhere one c:rn go through thc sheet :rnd
mlke simple calcr.rlations to arrive at sizes for conlpone[ts. This approach can even
inclr-rde more detailed siziug.

Rules of thumb, manufacturers' guidelines and diagram tools

Rules of thurnb, rnanufacturers' guidelines and diagram tools are sir.nple,

and give a rough approximation of system pcrlornurlcc and required sizc for :i
given location and user'. They arc good for preplanning and lor detelmining the
overiill size ofa factory made system for singlc- or nvo-family houses.The methods
ale not ahvays easy to apply to all locations and cases.
Cornputer-based tools vary gl'eatly in conrplexitl-. The siruplest programs
nuke rough calculations using a mixture of rules of thr-urrb and simple cquations.
These can be based on spleadsheets or on a calculation plograDl that is part ofthe
tool and arc generally sir.nple to use. The level of detail var-ies considerabiy fiom
those that give only ror.rgh sizilig infomratiou to thosc'rhat give suggestions fol the
choice ofcomponents and

ar1

economic suuunary.Thcsc tools do not make detailed

tine-dependent simulatior.rs, although they do take into account tlte v:uiarion of

the clirlate ud load over the yerr'. However, few ofthese cover solar combisystellrs.
Thc lesults ar-e usually in the lorm of annual and sorlletinles nontbly values. Tl1ey
do not simulate the dynanric behaviour ofthe systcm and ;rre theleforc sorlletirlles
referred to as static calculation rools.An example ofsuch a tool that car-r be used for
solar combisystems is F-chalt liom tl.re USA. It was the first of its kind, being
developed in 1975. F-chart uses its o\vn internal comput:tional routines based on
a special mcthod of the same name (Dul-lie and Becknun, 1991) and is quite
con-rplchcnsive r.vith many input paraDleters and scvelal different system rypes.The
proglam, it't increlsiltgly nlore advanced tbrms, h:rs been available for ruany year s.
The desigr program PSDMI, specific to Systen$ #1 and #3 rvith dilect solar floor
heating, is also available fiee of chatge lrom the intcrnct.
The simplel corirputer tools discr-1ssed abovc do not take into account the
dynan c behaviour ofthe systent;rathcr Lhey r-nake usc ofcorrelatiot-ls that are often
empirical. The lllore detailed simulatrol-i plogmnr, however, can take inro account
the dynanric, or time depeltdent, nature ofsystellls ro give more accurxte rESLrlts for

time periods that are ofthc same order of r-nagnitude

as

the tirlrc co1$tants ofthe

210

SOLAR HEATING 5Y5TEM5 FOR HOUSEs:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMB SYsTEMS

timc colls[ants rlrge fiolr secorrds for- tenrper-:rture

to hours or- days for- thc tl-rcr-mal storagc. Thcr-c ar'c two gr'ncric types of
dynamic simulation tools: system-based lnd component-based tools.
Ststem based tools allorv thc Lrscr to choosc bctr,vccli l uunrber of drernativc
systenl coiligur:rtions, and thcn thc wholc systc-m is simulatcd. With cornponentbased tools thc L$c'r coDnects the colrponcnts of the system together atrd thfll
sinrul:rtes the u,holc group or systenl.This latter type oftool is much urore t'lexible
systenr colnponents. These
sensol-s

than the system-based one as any conliguration can, in principle, be sirllulrted. TI1.
disadvantage is that the corlrpr-rtatiorl til11e is olten quite long. as the tool has to be
robust enough to soh,e any corubinarion of components. The flcxibiliry;rlso brings
with it Adninistrative problems t'br the user. It is often more difhcult to keep track
ofrvhat exactly is part ofthe systen and to make sure that all the vllues are as thel
shor-rld be. lt is thus rciatively easy to hive errors, in the fotm ofincorrect values lbr
par-ts of tl-re systcm.This can also be true for systeru-based tools that dlorv the usel
to change l hrge nurrrber ofsystem p:rlan-retels.

Computer tools

Sirnpler computer tools allo\. Drore detailed design of the systenr rvhile still
being lelarively casy to use.A variety ofsystems and a lar-ge numbet oflocations aud
loads can bc simulated. Somc morc dctailed studies can be calried out.They:lre
generally suitable fol dinrelxioning both single- and multi-lanrily drvellings and as
an:rid in the design plocess.

There are :i lurDbcr of s.vsterrr-based dynallric siD'tulation tools th:rt can simulatc
solar conlbisystcllls. Examples of rhcsc arc thc conrrrcrcial programs Polysurr fr-olu
Slvitzcrland and T-sol fiom Ger-r'nany, and the utrrversrly-dcvcloped SHW-WIN
fiour Austr-i;r. Polysun and T-sol are ar.ailable in several l:inguages. including English
and Gernran. and can sirnulate both solar dorucstic hot water systems ltnd
combisystems.They are botl-r easy to use ald have signiEcant numbers ofpatanletets
that thc uscr can vary'. It is also easy to inrport lvcathcr data Iiom a rar-rge ofsources.
As rhesc plograms use dilTerent nrodcls, it is not easy to compare ,--esults from the
two progr:r111s with any great irccuracy, cvcn rvith thc rcsults from Task 2(r. SHWWIN is only available in Gernran, but is availablc fi'cc from thc internet.

Simulation programs

Detailed sirnulation programs require detailed kr.rorvledge ofboth the prograur

and the physics ofthe systen'r to be simulrted.They are thus genellily only suitable
for esperts rvho r.visir to clrry orlt detailed clevelopment work or leseiuch. Some
progralns c:!n generate. based on the xdvanced lrodels, a simpler tool that can be
used b,v non expelts.
There is an evcn greatcr mrrrrber of conlponcut o[ cqlration based dynamic
simulation tools rhat allorv simul:rtion in great detail. All can in principlc bc uscd to
simulate solrr l-reating systems, but in practice there rre only a Grv thlt ar-e used
because it takes tinre to build databases of the rclevant cornponents. Exanrples of

D MENSION NG OF SOLAR COME]SYSTEMS 211

proglanrs th:lt havc bt'en used to sinrulate sollr hcaring systenrs ilr-c Colsim, Sntilc,
IDA, M.rdab Simulink and Dymola. Thcy each have rheir own advantases .rnd
disadvaotlges rvith respect to simuhting sohl combisystc'ns, but none ofthe111 was
uscd \\,ithin Task 26. lnscead Task 26 used TRNSYS, a progl':rl.n thirt has been used

lor over-25
he:rtinE!

yeirrs lnd of rvhich there is a grcar dc'al of experiencc in the solar'

comnruniryWith TRNSYS it rs possible to take the ver1. dcrailed s,vstenr

rnoclcl and to cre.lte a simplc corrrputer application rvith Grver v:rli:rbIes open to the
user',;L so callcdTRNSED application. This can be used by a nruch r,vidc.r gloup of
people. Morc dcrails ofT1\NSYS can be found in Section 8.3.I .
SuruDariziirg, onc can s:1,v that the tools that are sinlplc.st to use give thc' roughesr
cstinratcs and also tl-re le:rst llexibility:. At drc other end of the scale, the tools otTer-ing
the greltest accuracy are also [u mort flerrble. Horvcvc,r, they tequrrc cxpL-lt

knorvleclge

urd a grear dcal of et'Iort. In betu,een thcrc is :r r.vide langc of

difeling degrees of tlexibiliry and ersc of use.

possibilitres allolving

8.2.1 The Task 26 nomogram

hsk 26 nolrlogram is based on thc FSC mcthod described in Section (r.3 and
cin be used lbr sizing l giveD systenl or cotrrp:rring different systenrs. It is lintited
to the systems :rnd clinratcs tiscd in Task 2(r, but thc load can be chosen arbitmrily
The nrethod is described belolv, togcthcr rvich a small version of thc nonlollranr
(Frgurc 1,i.17).A copy of the nomogranl can be downloadcd fiorn the Task 26
rvebsite (http://r'r,rvrviea shc.or g/task26). ln Task 26, thc FS(l charlcteristics have
been der-ived fronr the results of the dctailcd sirnulations using TRNSYS for a
nurnbcr of diffc'rcr-rr systcms. A list of thc systenrs available in the nonroqr.lnr rs
The

found in Table
Table

61

8.'1.

Lisl at axes fat the faur dtagrams tn the namagram

r)tgsL t,I,:g4nNerer

X rxn

Unit

Specilic collecror

I m:/

l1)

kwli
-

Frr.rkrn.l $hr

'rrr/
kwh
-

Arnurl rel-ererce

Srstenr

111

consumptio.

Clnute

.onnuDpdon

Fmctioml energr'
srvings

l0'nrr/
kWh

Speclfic.rnnurl

kWh/ml

elergl sarings

The FSC nonlogranl is designed for quick estiluation of the

four pararrrctt-rs have been chosen:

.
.
.
.

kwh

a system

a climate
a collector area
a Ieference consuDlptiolt.

ener-gy savings, afrer

212

SOLAR HEAIING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

A DES]GN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMBISYSTEMS

The norrogram is built witl.r lour dirgmms (Figr.uc 8.16), connected together b)
conlnron axes, as listed in Trble t3.1.Thc dilIcrcnt diagrarns and their functions are
as fbl1olvs:

.
.
.
.

specific collector arca (,4/E,.,), according to the

chosen annual tefetence consumption.
Di:rglanr 2 calculates the Fractional Sol:rr Consurrptiou (FSC), ;rccolding to th.'
specific collector area and the chosen climate.
Diagram 3 c:rlcuiatcs the thermal flacrional energy s:Lvings (l- . ,,,,, ,,), :rccording
to the fi-:rctional solar consumption and the chosen systern.
Diagranr .1 c;Llculates tl.re annual energy savings ({.,), acco.di"g to the specific
collector area ancl tl-re thelnral lractionll energy savings.

l)iagram
chosen

cdculates

t1.re

collector area and the

Alist of the intersections

used

in thc nonlogranr

arid their meaning. is givert in

Table 8.2.
Table

8.2.

Llst

of intersectians used in the nomagtum and their neanlngs

Meaoins

kWh/r

Il.fcr.n.c .o11\ur11ptrcn
Oigin ofth. s1rc(itl. (ollectu rrer uis

10 I

Specilic collcctor erc'r

b
d

m:/kWh pcr vclr

F .rionrl Solir

(lonsunrptiorl

,L

Fracrioml crcrg) raringl

k
Annuil .nd.$ salings

8.2.1.1 Using the nomogram

For each step thc c\ample values lre givclt in brackets (see Figure lJ.1(r for dr.'
e\irinple nomograrn and Figute U.17 t'br an et'npry nonrograur pagc).
1. Cl.roosc an alurual reference

consumption E.i(a = 22,(100 kwh).

The lefelerrce consLlmption is calculated according to Tirsk 26 relerc'rrct

conditions:

Q,,+Q,,",'+Q ,,

'''

4r.",r,..

The eficiencl'of rhe reference boilcr is 0.85.The yelrly he:rt losscs ofthe stolc'
are calculated accordrng to thc daily hot rvater deurand I/, (litles/day), in the
same way as in ENV12977-2 (CEN, 1997) (Table 8.3):
Q,,..,.,

(uA).,,,,. .;(T.,,,*-7.,,,. ,,,r).i1760

r.virh 7.,,,,.

teDlperatufe).

in urrits of kwh/a

52.5"C (hor rvarer renrperature) and

l.*.,,u = 15'C (:urbienr

D MENSIONING OF SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS 213

Table

8.3 Calculated yearly heat

Drilv hor tvrrc. d.DraDd

lasses

I (lioa'j/d)

llefer.encc storc loscr

1r)l)

e..... (kwh/r)

155
557

15i)
2r)(l

250

72n

301)

TIJIJ

2. l)rlrv a lirrc fr-orrr point a to the origin.

3. (ll.roosc r collector area (c = 28 nrr).
'{. Dmrv a holizontirl line Iionr poinr c until r,on meet thr. seglllcr.rt [ab] xt d.
5. Dlarv r verticJ line fionr point d uriril ,vou nreet thc diagonal liuc at e.
6. l)r'arv a hor-izontal linc liom point e until yoll rlreer the vcrtical aris at f, you

t tlrc 'l'"''if,' ."llr'r"t nt,n .l \).

7. I)r au, a horizonral line fr-orn point f uutil you nlc.'t the clirnate cur-ve (g on
thc cllrve fbl Zurich).
8. l)r-arv a vcrtical linc fiont poinr g until you nrect the horizontxl axis at h; you
S'

get the l'ractional solar rorruirlprirrrr (FSC : 0.(r,i).

9. I)r'arv:r vertical line fiom point h until 1.ou nrcct the system clllve :rt i.
10. l)rarv a horjzontal line &om point i until you nteet thc vertical aris.rtj; 1ou
ect thc Jl'ddialnl qrc rg), -r.lr,i /iq-r (f,,,t,,,,,,: 17%,).
11. l)r 1r,,, a horizontal line li-onr pointj until you nrcet thc vcrtical line conrng
liom e at point k.
I 2. I)mrv a linc i}om the origin b to point k. and exrend rt if requircd. Poir.it I at
the intelsection of this hne rvith the cnctgl' savings lxis givcs tl-re rprrlir
dinual ctlcr!),salrrlqs (kWh/rnr per- ,vear) corupared to the refer-encc systc111
rvith mnual boilcr- elliciency ol85% (350 kWh/r'nr pcr ycaf .

Coloul

ver-sions

ofboth the c'xample

anci the enlpt,v nonlograur arc included

in the

coloru- section.

8.2.2 The Task 26 design tool

Tl.rc Task 26 design tool, called CourbiSun, is b:rsed on the FS(l mc'thod descr ibt'd

in

Sc'ction (r.3. The FSC value is dept'ndcnt

olientrtion and

on the size of the collector,

its

total load ofthe systent.lt is rhus possible to csriluate the stvings

ofan) s)-ste1u using the FSCi ch:u:rctelrstic ifone knou,s the systcm load:rnd clinrate
as wcll :is the sizc ancl or_icnration of thc collectol-. In connast to the lorlogr:urr,
this tool is not restrictcd to the three clinrates used in hsk 26. as it conres rvith a
lxrger d:itabase of difGlent clinures. Thc rool can be dorvnloaded i'j.cc of chargc
liour tl,e Task 26 rvebsitc (hrtp: //rvrvuriea-shc. or.g/task26,/). Somc, of the derailed
TRNSYS sirDulation nrodels :uc avaihble llor1t rheir-crc:rtors asTrDsed applicltions,
in rvhich tl-re user. via a sirnple inter{:rcc, calr vary a limircd number of the m:rny
availrble pararucters.
CombiSun is aimed at :r rvide range of user.s and is desianed pr incip;r)ly to cnlble
users to nreke a choicc of thc ovclall size ofthe systcur for thc gir.en location irnd
tl.re

214

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK

FOR SOLAR COIVIBISYSTEI'/S

!
!

{
:., .Lli

x
r!:.

Qi

f-l
1

)/

Il

D MENSION NG OF SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS 215

'..i

:i-

,ai
l!::

l3r.:

\;
ir.
l\
i',
I
l^.
1N

\E
\

!R

\:

l!

t,s

-.a

!,

s
9rr, r.lr..r!r

qo

:rrr3

l[r']

216

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMB

sYSTEN.4S

building sizc. lt is rc':rlly a corrputet'ized dirgrlrrl brsed rool nd is not proposcd;rs a

detailed desig[ tool- lt clll. horvever-, be used to colrpare diIGr-enl systcn'l types lol the
sarne conditions. Several of thc systenr included in the tool arc not sold r'vith ii
spccific boiler: rathe'r, this is chosen by tl.re bu,ver ol instdler.This choicc grcatly ailects
thc over-iill slvings ofthc system.The boiiers used fbr-the sit'uulatioti ofthese systeurs.
:rnd thus the basis of thc FSC characreristic, r'r,ere thc stlndatd Task 26 boilels (see
S,:'ction (r.1.1 for mole- dctails).lt is possible to estinute thc savings ofthese systems
using anothcl boiler'. rf so desircd.The systems inclucled in (lombiSun :uc those listed
inTablc 8..1.It is possible to add ncrv systenls to the projr"r11 databasc' as long as thele
is an FSC characteristic lot the system, r'elating FSC ancl Ii-actional savings, as defined
by Task 26. This charactelistic cl.r. in prir.iciple, be caicr-rlated using resuks fi'otn iurl
simulation tool. Thcorcticalll, it is dso possiblc to derrr,'e :t charrcteristic based on
monitored data, but this drta is uriikcly to spau a rvide enoug;h r':rnge of FSC values.
Table 8-4. Generic systems that are included tn the destgn taal Cambisun. These are the same
as are available in the Task 26 nomagram

sfr.. h.xr!rg

lt op (D.Dnu rl

#2

Hert cxchrngcr bcmcen , o1le1to. l{)(,p rnd

#3x

Adnnccd durcc roll uo.r (l'ru.e)

#11

I)HW t.,,,k rs r \fr.. h.rrlng sromgc dcli.c (I)cnmrrk)

Spti.e herring sror. \\'rh do,ble l.,rrL srle l,ert tr.hrrs.r 1;r l)HW (Switz.rland)
S,,,,,11 I)HW rink !r spicc hcrtrug ruk (Norsrv)
Stu.e herrmc !ror. (rh DIIW l,t(l ridc he.it e\(l)riSU(.).n)d.\t.nul elNilierr boilcr

#15

lilo srrit i.r\ u r \.r.e lertins \tonst tlrk Nirh rn csrcnral

loar:l si.lc

hc.t c\chuqer i;l

I)HW ((;.rDaDr)

Tlble 8.5 shorvs the user inpr-1ts to the Prcliram rvhile Figure 8.18 shorvs the
interactiorr of CombiSun rvith the nser. TRr\SYS
f

.""

i-r tt-tcd lo -r/rtttlarc the btilditt.q

/ FSC

COMBISUN
R

lnpul
paramet

TRNSYS
MODEL
FigLtre 8.78. lnfarmattan flaw tn the destgn taol Cambisun

Nlo

Ilhly

radiation
& loads

eport

ot

DIMENSION NG OF SOLAR COMB]SYSTEI\45 217

1)d5i: dltl fo cdl.:' dte lr ihndintiott ott fltt dklsctt callitot otittttatiou T he oulput
fiom this T1INSYS silrlul:rlion is theu uscd by CombiSul to caictrl:rte the FS(l
virhrcs loL l range of collecror sizt's. Thc' colrcsponding cnergry savings alc then

dn l/l) r\,

calculrtcd for- thesc collector alcas and thc chost-t-t systcrll, bxsed on thr' systelll FSC
charactelistic. Thesc lestllts arc then rvt-ittcll out in table folur and c:rn be plotted
on a diagrlm such as Figut'e 8 19- Scveral diilercnt plots clln be rrltcle o' thr.- s:l1llc
cliagra[r. lor-diiIercDI systellls or other \.]riations in r,rsc'r' rnput. Thc cliagtlrD can bc'
.rpoltcd :rs a \ePalatc lile so tl-rat 1l clrn bc illcorPol:rtcd itrto Ieports' A
scald
"r'r,l
stendard rc'poit caD:Llso be cre:ltcd:ind priuted out. ft is possible to add additiorul
climiites to thc- clat:rb:rsc.
Table 8.5. The user inputs to Cambisun

Clnr

te

Trpc ol builling

The clirmte lor the crlcr rtioll 6om I d]ttrb,s( ofclnnrt$.

The user crn choose hour dre thrce Trsk 26 rngle fxnih house cor)\tru'don\
(iN,ltr dri.kne$)
Floor .re,] or tl1. building

fhe
Slopc

DLIW l(,id

rzrnuLh

ofthc colltctor

Ueld

The slope oathe colle.tor tleld

The DHw lord for rhc .rlcuhtiotl

lner{v S.vinqs lkwl,Yenrl

t
;
{
,

Colleclor Arealm'zl

Figure B 7g. Example output cJiagram lrom Combisun for the same system
callectar but tuva diflerent azinuths (saLtth east and sauth)

wth

10

m: af

218

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOTAR COMB SYSTEMS

As CorubiSun is b:rsed on the FS(l rr ethod, sotue rrrajot assurllptiolls,:lnd thc

to thc tool. Thcse ale suDrnilfized in

r-csults ofT:rsk 26- thelr' aie scvcral liuritations

T:rb1c 8.6.

Table 8.6. Limitatians/assumpttons af CambtSun and their implicatians.

Llnit.rrui/r$uDrltron

Lnpli.xtrcn
-lhese
nr^r
Onh \\1tenr Nith r dctuc(l FSC .h,rr,rl:teristi. cin be crl.uhtecl
bc prrt oI thr progranr rtrtrbrrc
Thc FSC n.thod is t1ot u..Lr te tor,rll lurirtioni ofdre irpur lrrixble! Se.
S..trcn 6.3. .l he t,rogrrni .loes not rllo\\ lrlues lor $hich nre nrenrod n

FSC

lrlidit\

Fixed s\1teDr parim.tcrs

S.lurgs rehtilc to Tr\k 26

The FSC nrethod h.r l,eer nlidrted ibr r L:rv svstcms rnd r rv c'nnge of
input luiible\ Ir i\ noi .ertrin rhrt it r vrl olcr thc srnrc rrngc lor rni
5\stcn} thxt xrc .dded to the progranr
The FSC.hrncteri\ti. \nr crlculrrtd brscd on fLrcd prruictcr ulLr$ $ith.
li)r esrlpl.. r .lenne.l relrtionship between collector sizc rnd storc vohule.
Ahentlons ofudiviLlLul pxrllict.rs .on..rnnrg of.mtion. hc.t lo$e\ ct(.
..lrnot b..dnde.There is dus lLmitcd flclb itv
The crlcrlrted slings rr. rliti\'. to tlic Txsk 26 rclercncc srsteur. rvhich hrr
r s.\ blrr)er wirh 85'.r, ein.iLar.! th(Nithout thc krr, lndeFerd.'r1t oflou.l.
Sr\n)gs rehrive to orher boilcLs oL LclcLuice svstenr rvoulcl nerd to be
cllclrhtcd s.p.rirelv u!ng thc nionthlv vrlLrcs oflorcl\ crl.uLtted Lr\
TRNSYS i-or th. LIiLlDg in question

The results crlculatcd by thc tool alc sarings rvith rcspcct to the Task 26 leference
syslcm. Thcsc rcicrence collditiolls irrc Llseful ill oldel to cortlpare systr-nls on ill
ea}lil basis. Holcvcr, user_s ar-e likely to want to cstinl:tc savillgri corllpalc(l to I
speciflc

systcm thclr own or their clietlts' systelrr. I[ ordcr to do lhis,

ihe

co1lsuD1ptio11 of the user spe.lficd syste[r rle"^ds to be esti]]lated by divid1lig rhc

r11o thl,v Ioxds by thc ruouthly boiler- eflicicncy of that systct-n, and thcn sr.rmnrin(

ln:r similar wa), the s:rri[!!s call l]c cstimaled lor

different boilel in the sohr heating systenr.
these nronthlv corlsr.1mptio11s-

i1

8.3 SIMULATION OF SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

TI\NSYS (K1ein rt al.. 1991t) as thc tool lor siuiulation ofsystenr
pelfolDrurcc- lt is just one of sevelal possiblc tools,:rs discusscd itr lhe prevrous
scctiorl. It is a moclul:rl ploglam widl e:lch nlodule represe[ting a partic]-1lar
conlPollel1l Or grcup of colllporlerlts i1l the s,vstenl. These ale Proglinl1llcd ul
Foltrlli aud the soulce codc is avaiiablc to the user-. TRNSYS has been usecl lbr
over 25 ,\'eArs lbr rhc sir-nu1:rtior-r of solar heating s.vstems, xnd there is wide range oi
cornponr-nt lllodels thiit have beeD \-:llidlrcd ovcr lhc ,vcurs. Dctails oi the
Task 2(r has uscd

lound in Section 1J.,1.

In morr- r'nodern sinlLrlalion progranl such as Il)A. Snlile lnd M;rt1ab Simrlilk.

cot11pol1crlt Dlodcls that \ver-e usecl in Task 26 can be

rhe process of crlculariorr rs cLili:rclt to tlut rn TII.NSYS. In these prcgftu1N the

eclLr.ltion5 used to deline tht' beh:rviour of rht- irrdividu;il corllpolicnts arc all
grouped, anLl solved alJ together'. This iype ofpro!!rxr11 is sonretimes ref'er-r'ed to :rs
equation-based, as opposccl to TRNSYS. rvhich rs a corrrponent-based

DIMENS ONING OF SOLAR COIVB SYSTEMS 219

plog1irn. ln TRNSYS, the conlponents ar solved separately and sequentiall)', xs

dcscribcd ir.i detail in Section ti.3.1. TI\NSYS distinguishes benveen inputs, lvhich
:ue tinre dependent, and par':rmetels, u,hich hai,'c fixcd valucs for thc rvhole
siruulation. AJ1 inputs and par-ameters have to have :r given valut', t'ither constalit
throughout the sinrulation, or given to thc'D111-or11 another colnponcnt. Outputs al'e
the lesults of the inteinil calculrtions in the componcnt rnodcl, and arc used as
inputs to other conrponent\. Equation-based plogranrs gcncrally do not distingr.rish
benveen inputs and paranreters, as all can be tinle-dep endent. The solvers can llso
calculate the lequiled inpr.rt to give a celtarn output value, if the outpr-rt is fixcd.
TRNSYS cannot easily do this, rrakins it lcss t'lcxible.

8.3.1 TRNSYS simulations

In TRNSYS the components arc calculated sequentially, i.e. tl.rey te calculrted one
otl-rer-. The rcsults, or outputs, 6olr a conrponent are given to succccding
conrponents. If an input has not been calculatcd as the outpLrt Iiom another'
conlponent for the currenl tinle step, then the ,,alue 1i-om the previou' rrme step 1r
used. If components fi:lm a loop with leedback, where at least one of the inputr into
one of the colnponents is dependent on its orvn output, then an iterabon procsr is
pcrformcd. Here, calculations in the loop proceed fiom conrponent to conlponent
r,vith outputs from one being givcn to the ncr-t, as ir.r Figurc 8.20. When all
col.nponents in thc loop havc becn calculated, then the new inpr.rt v:ilues (ln,) to the
first component are comp:rrcd to thosc for the previous iteration (In, ,).lfthc'y:rre all
rvithin tire convergencc tolcrancc lirut sct for- th!' sinrulation, then the prograrn can
go on to rhc ncxt loop or process. The convcrgence tolerance tllus affects horv
consistent the r-esults ale rvithin a loop and therelbre also the energy balancc for the
1oop.A tight tolerance leads to consistent results l,ith lorv cnergy- b:rlance errors, but
at the same tirre call r'equirc Drore itelations a[d therelb1: glcalcr conrputational tiDre.
There is tl-rus ahvays a conrpromise between conlputatiollal timc and thc accuracy ol'
tl.re lesults.This is truc ibr all dynalnic sinrulation progmms, not justTIINSYS.

alter the

Figurc B.2A The iteration prccess lat laaps in TRNSYS

220

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOTAR

CON.4B!SYSTEN,4s

This ploccss of calculating a1l conrponents procccds until a1l loops and lll
conlponents have been conrpleted successfulll ()ccasionalll,, a particular'loop rvrll
not converge rvithin the dcsjred toler:rncc limir. ln this crse, the last values are r.rscd
and a lvllning is generatL'd. [ftoo tnlrry such w:rlnings occur in ;t sitttu]ation, rhcn
thc simr.rlation is terminatcd irnd considcrecl to have failed.
In order to cl-reck drat the simulatiot-i is rvorking properll', tl-re cr-cator of the
systen'r r-nodcL must be lblc to check the simulation oulPuts and lo colllPalc thcnl
r,vith hou, dre r-eal s-vstenr pct{orms undcr thc' sane conditions. This is gc'nelall}
done in trvo ways. The first is to check the total ener-gies and tl-re enelgy- balances
for sub-systcnrs. The secorrd is to look lt the dctailed dynanric behlviour of dle
systen. ln TRNSYS this is donc rvith the so-called on-line plotter, an cxaurple oi
u,hich is shorvtt in Figure 8.21. HcrT:, the sitnulation of Systcrl #11 c:rn bc seetr
over onc. day. Only a t'-;l, of the possible outputs of the simul:rtiou trrodel ate shorvn.
The dynanric behaviour ofthe collectot model is clearly shorvn by the pcak in the
hcating late wl-ren thc collector-looP pulrp is tulned on.

re

t
,

l)ll\\ irs!lir' !.i

oilcr hcurirrg
r1\!ll'
li

Figure 8.21 . Plat far ane clay from a simulation ol System # I

plate 22

/ using

TRNSYS. See alsa

colaut

8.3.2 Simulation of Task 26 systems

In ordel to be able to compare the pelfor-mance of vcry diller-ertt systcnr, a
sinrulation methodologv has to be cleated, as r.vcl1 ;Ls a set ofrefelencc conditiorls.
Tl-ris cnsures thlt thc' tesults arc as consistent as possible and thus ate thc bcst

DIN4ENSION NG OF SOTAR COMB SYSTEN/lS 221

lbr corrrp:rrltive purposes. The r-elelence conditiolis nsc'cl in Task 2(r,

including clilrlate xnd load, are described in detail in Section (r.1.Thc ruodcls used
for rhe diilererrr colnpollents are dctailed in Section ll..l, as rvell as the values used
for the starrdard boilers. Horvever', despite these colrlinon grounds, there arc still
possrble brsls

ofold ver-sions ofcomponent definitions. Severrl of

the components uscd aIe vely compler and l-rar,'e dilTcrtr-rt ver-sions. Other

possible pitlhlls, such as the use

colnponents lurve had to be created ibr specific systems, as they did not previously
exist. It should bc noted that Task 26 r-rsed TRNSYS vcrsion 1.1.2 fol all of the
rvork.
A specilic methodology- rvas used inTask 26 to ensule consistency of the diffcrcnt
systenl simulrtioll models. E:rcl-r user cre:rted his/her ou,n version ofthe calculation
progranr. the so-called l)LL. The DLL contained all the cornponent detlnitions
necess:uy ibl the srmnlatron of the s_vstcru. Thcsc individual DLLs r,vele then used
to sinlul:lte x relerence svsten to check that it gave the slme results as lbr othcr
users. In tlie second step o[ the nrethodologl: a sensitivity analysis on the rnain
siruularion paranrctcrs \\ras pcr.forrllcd. These are convcrgcncc tolcrancc, nlre-\tep
and the number of nocles il the store nroclel. These three parauleters strongly
influcnce the corliput:ltion tirrre, and thus it is good to have a set ofthese valucs thar
givcs consistcnt rcsults rvith thc minirlunr possible ruuning time. -Each systcm was

sirnuhtcd so thrt rhc lcslrks wele rvithin 1% of rhose rvith vcry right clror
toler-ances. The l11a\inlum possiblc time step in Task 2(r is 0.1 hour, as tl-ris is thc
rcsolLrlio[ of the hot rvater loacl flle. Most sy\telrrs were sinrulatec] at tilre steps of
0.05 or ().025 hour and rvirh convcr-gence tolerances of0.001 0.01.
Solar combisystems vary consrdcrably 1n srzc! and thc cncrl1 1n thc storc can bc
lelatively lar-ge. If the conditions ln thc stort- arc rlot thc sanle al thc start arld crld
ofthc 1'car. thcn there can be a significant inconsisten c1'- Tb ar''oid this, al1 systerr irl
Task 26 ar-e simulart'd lbr 13 rnonths. fior-n 1 l)ccember one -vear to 31 l)eceruber
the,vear after. Onlv t1-re lesults Ibr the crlendll ye:u lle co1$1dered.
There are a nlullber of major' :rssunrptions and sirnplific:rtions thxt ate co1l1n1on
to :rl1 rhe Task 2(r systeru ruocicls.Thcsc arc'listcd ilr Tablc 8.7.Thc major ouc, aucl
one thit c:llrses rDuch discussion. is rhc fact th:rt thc hcat losscs fron both the store
and tl-re boiler- have riot been consider-ed :rs heac input into the building. This is a
sinlplificatiorl and is valid as :r lirst approxillation for cc'rtdn types ofhouses, bur ir

is cert:rinly not valid for m:rny othcr tlpcs of

houses.

T]re influence of this

uncontrolled heat input varies consiclerabll,. depending on thc cxact placeruent of

the store and boilcr and horv this rcorn is uscd and vcntilatcd. This requiles the
modelhng of the l.rouse in ser,'elal nodes, r'equiring a significlrt incrcrsc in
conlputation:rl tiD1e. ind so tlis option rvas discarded. The othcr assurDptions lnd
sinlplillcations xtlect how rccurrte the rtsults are, compared to a systcm undel red
opcrating conditions. The Duin prupose of simulatrng in Task 2(r hls been first to
lead to improvcr1lents in the systenl pefornunce and second to bc lblc to compalc
the dillcrcnt systcnr. In both thcsc cascs sirlruhtion resr]lts are comparcd rvith other'
sinlulrtioi results, and inost of thc rssunlptiolls and sirnplifications aili:ct the
ditTerent systcnr variations in nror-c or- Iess the same rvay. They thcrclorc havc a
rclativelv linrited eflect on the resr-r1ts of the Task.

222

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEN4S FOR HOUSES:

DES GN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS

8.7. l',4ajar simplifications and assumptians used in the stmulattons of

with theit im plications
Table

ftrD the stok d,rJ boiler ire ,.r tr.-xtecl

gai withir the building

He.u lo\\es

Gcncrrted liourlv \.crther datr froD

Meteonor.r

The Llses nclrher help in thc heuting olthe

builrting durmg rvintet Dor rctrt to okrhcrtrng
proble$ in thc srtrlrner

The data are basc'd on :rvenge DoItlJv drtr :rrd

hrve no vxrixtioD wrthm the hou. Short-tnnescile
dvDatrn. e*lcts ir drc collcctor loop causcd b-r
.louds rrc thcrefore ,)egle.ted

Rcrllv drort ctrchrrges ivtth ]o\v flo$ rrres xF

negl.ctcd. Hish flolv Lrtes ofup to 2{) l/ }rn itre

Hot rvrtcr lord Nifi tixed tirnc *eF of().l liour

Collcctor ritatcd incleperdentlv frtnr

26 lagether

ltnplication

SnnFlilicxtions/i$uDiptiorl
rs heet

Task

Thc collcctor doer rot rllect hcrt transyrt

buikinrg

thrtgh

that ar-e syst.m sPccilic carl be lound in the detailcd tcchnrcal

docuucntatiort lor cach svstcm, rvhich is available ii-ortt tl-rc Task 26 rvebsite. A list
Assr-rnptior-rs

of thc systerus can be found in Tablc ll.-1.

Of the ru:rny systenr thxt wcrc crtlJogr.red at the stxr-t of thc $'ork ofTask 26.
ouly ninc h:ivc bcen moclcllcd and sillltlhtcd in dctail. although sr'\'cr.tl ver-sions of
somc systcms hlvc- beeD n1adc. This rcllccts the alnount of tillle and cflbIt nccclecl
to nccrir:rtcly nrodcl a s.vstclll :rn(l to ellsrrrt thxt the lllodcl wolks like the rcll
s)-sten1- This $pcct of chccking fol thc corrr:ct bchaviour of the tllodel is oftct-t
callccl prrlllnetcr identificatron ancl \rerific:1tlol1, tDd is discusscd 11r l11ore detail 111
Section U..1. Tlblc 8.ll lists the systenr thxt were sinlul:rtcd in Task 26.

persan wha created tlle system madel

Crertor olsvstenr
#2

nr

cl

K. Ellehrugc

ll I'jrpillorr

Shrh

.1.

Boiv

#11

(1. Dulcs

#12

Brlcs

#t5

.hehds

8.4 NUMERICAL MODELS

FOR SOLAR COMBISYSTEMS

Nnrnericel lnodcls :rre the b;rsis of all simulation pt-ograms. They consist of ii
l-tlluber ofr'qultions that describe nl.rtherlatically thc opelation ofthc colrponcDt
()1'!i1oup of conponel]ts. Thcrc a1e olten logical collstlai1lts

o11

thcse eqLr.ltiuD

\.t\.

DIMENS ON NG OF SOTAR CON,,]BISYSTEMS 223

Thc'nrorlcl c:ur cithcr bc a physical rnodel or ur ernpirical rnodel. ln a physical

nrodc'1 thc cqurtions descr-rbe rvell krrorvn and velrfied physrcal pherroruena blsed
on fi.urd:tnrental properties rnd clinrensior-rs. In an errrpilical rrrodel, the processes ;rre

of cqLratiorls s.hosc pareructcrs lccd to bc iclcntihccl using

Thc enrpilic.rl rrrodels lle obvrously nrore drlficult to ilppl-v for thc
rvcrrgc' Llscr_, as the)' require either r d,lt:rb:rse of conlPonents rvith pteviously
idcntificd plalneter ralucs, rl1 a ncl. cxpcrintcut in u,hich ncrv vdues c:rr'l be
icleDtified. Hon c'vct, in cc'rtli|i compone[ts t]re plocesses lle so conrplex rhnt the
investment 1r1 tirrc is too greit to develop r rvor-king physiceJ nrodel th:rt is
valid:rrcd. In other c.rscs it cali bc judgcd tllilt thc computrtioli:11 tirne lequiled for
a pl-rysical model is roo grclt and thlt l sinrpler enrpiliclLl moclel is better- It is;tlso
dt-scribcd u,irh sc'ts
cxpc'r'inrcnts.

possible to lrave conrbinltior-rs oft-rnpirical ancl ph_vsical rnorleis, and thcse .rre oftcn
callt'd grey box models. Enrpiticll rrodels ar e sonretinres r eler t.ecl to es black box
rreodels. and pl.rysicll ruodcls as white box r-t.rodels. It should be rotecl that it rs,
in qcneral, best to hitve corlrponcnts ofthc sanre ler''el ofdetlil. Ifonc conrponent
is urodelled in grert cL'tlil rvhile otirel important colllponcnts rrc r11uch sinlplcr-.
nruch of thc Nor th of the dct:ri1 is lost.
InTIINSYS thcrc':rr-e dl three t)pes of nrotlc-l. M:ur1,of thc sirnplcr rnodels are
phl'sice1 ones, rr,hcrt-ls thc molc colllplcli oncs xrc ircncllll) glc1' box models. A11
aIc writtca as Fortllrn subxrutirres. or in othcr hngLr:rg(-s in the latest ver_sion. Each

u[1que nlodcl is ca]led a Type anrl givcn:r t)'p. nunrbcr. Erc11 componcnt 01
subro[tinc is c:r]lcd in tll11l un.l thc soivcl corrtrols the iter;rtion ptocess. As rhc'
rDodcl is wlittcn in Fortr'iLn, \'ery corllPlc]. corrlporlents crn be cr-elted with
intt'r-nll solvers, etc., xnd ne$, nrodcls e1. rclativcly casy to cr-catc ancl aclcl to thc
dltirllasc. In thc so-callcd ccputiol blsed sirnulrrion prograurs. tire nlodels ltt:e built
Llp as al sct of !'quatious lnd coDslllirrrs o1l thcse eqlrations.The solr-er then rakcs
all the eqn.rtrons tionr lll of the nrodcls in thc systcm and sol\res thetn in thc tuosr
efllcient \vay it can. Thc' rcsulting sct of cquirtio[s th;rt is soh,t-d is thus ior thc
\vholc sl ste[r :lt o1le tilDe, is conrpaled to TRNSYS, rvhich solves plr ts .rr .r ltrnr.
For sinrilar levels of mlthc-nr:rtical dt'tail the trvo mcthocls rvill lcatl to iclenticrl
lcsrilts.

8.4.1 Models used in Task 26

Solar- combisystems consist of a rclativc'l,v largc nr-rrnber of clillirent conlponents,
rrost of rvhich are modc'llcd rs scparatc conlponents in the sirrrulations. This

lpgrlolcl-r recluires nuny dilTelent cornponcrrt nrodcJs orTy pcs. Most ofthcsc ur-c thc
sanre ls used fbr_ sinrul:rring solar hot s,ater s-vstenrs, but several have not beel used
fi'equentl), be'forc'. Thc '1,r'pcs uscd ol a cornnron basis lr Task 2(r are listed rn Trble
8.9. Thc ruajority of thcnr elc standard components, i.c. thcy arc dclivc'rcd u,ith
TII.NSYS. Tcn of therrr are, horver.'er, noli-stanclard conrponents and have beeu
cleatcd by :r valiety of diilerc'nt uscrs. ()f these, many lre available flonr TranssollrEner-gietechnik ClmbH (http:,/ / tr:urssollr. cl e/ ts / english/ maineng. htm), rvho
donatr:tl thcnr lor use in Task 2(r.

224

SOLAR HEATING SYsTEMS FOR HOU5ES:

DES GN HANDBOOK FoR SOLAR CoN4BISYSTEN'4S

Table B g. The TRNSYS companent types that were used as standard in Task 26. Camponents
that da nat come as pan af the starldard database have ret'ercnces to the saurce af the
canponent in parentheses The lJnit numbet refers to the sequential number of the
campanent in the example syslem in Figure 8.22

T1'pe

Tt'pc

lip"

2
i

Dil'lirentixl .oDr.oller

l-1.2 )
15.22

hrDrp
Sh.rritlcd \torige trnk

-l

Trpe

SensiLrlc

'1\'|r 9
T!f,e I I

]i'f. 1.+
lj?e la
Tvpc la

l.

12,

ll,

Algebfui. operrtiors
RldixtioD f.ro.c\vJr
Qlr,rnrir! int.g)r()r

Tlpc l+

11f.2:
T\ pc

SnnLrhtid \unrDrr)

2t

T1pe
]i pe

31
3+

Tvpc

Tlpc

a6

2.+.25

Tinre-def endent loi c!rg iinr.tioD

l')
+,

heit ex.hriscl

1(,.

+
lJ

l--rt.61)

lli
OveLhrng

rrd winsul $rding

Ci)rr\dgor.c Fror)oter
ljurldirq tlpe
Srrtilied,torrge tlnk

Tvpe 65

Fi.tile skl te rptrtrtlrc

llxrcN,rl

lor s,rter unr ln.l..ontroll.r (I)ru.k, IT\u. Lrnitr!tiit

SturLsrrr)

rg (Prfill{,n, (llipnr, lielisnrn)

PIll .o,,n 1l.r (Tr anssolit Intrgicterhn ik (;nibH, Sturrsrll)
(iontroller lorTipe L7(l (Tnnssohr tnetgletechljL (}nbtl Stlrttc}t)

'Iipe

1i

l+

QIIT .olle.tor

Tvpc

h.

l1l1r

'Iipe

12rl

I\ t)c lzl

l12
1ir
Tvp. I .lll
Trp.

Floor

II

117

T!p.

162
T_vpe l71l

1r)

li

her

SltlCl, Hi;g\kolin l)rlrrrr,r)

h.rtnrg \cuson (I'iPillol,. Clifso1, TI d igttrtt)
Nlult4Drt storc niodel (l)rii(k. IT\V Unir.i\idit Sruttg.rrt)
Mult4rort stori irod.l with integrired g.rs burnd
(l)rii.k, ITW UDi\ersitit Stuttgx,t)
D\!rrnlc mdirtor (Tfunsolrr Energretechril C.rbH, StLrttg:rrt)
1],o,Dr\\/Si\/oil Doilet (Trrn\soh, En$gicte(bnik GDrbtsl. St!trsrrr)
(l'].R'ts.

(}l.uhfun ofthe

8.4.1 .1 ExamPle sYstem model

As ;r typical e\arnplc' of the systenl models fiom Task 2(r, Figure 8.22 drorvs the
rrrodel for Systcrrl #11 in the glaPllic prc-processor to TRNSYS, Pt.csirn The hlack
lrumbcr next to each colllponeDt is the so-called unit nurllber, dre sequential
nunber lbr the caLculation. FoI sinrplicitl,', tl.re multitude of output corDPoncnt\ i\
not shown. Thc tl-uec nlost ilnportant [on-standard colllpolents xrc describcd
briefly in separate secrions, \'vhilst thc other i1'llpo1tlu1t colrPonents arc desctibed
be

1olv

Thc data reader is used to re:ld data froln files for-climate (Unit 1) and hot rvatcr
loarl (Unit 3). The ladiarion plocessor-s (Units '1 and 5) ue used to celculate the
radiation on the six different sur&ces ofthe house walls as well as the collector.This
componeDt receives hourly radiatiot't dat:r lbr a hor-izonLal surfacc and c:rlculates the
position of the sun in the sky dcPendellt on time and location beibrc calculating
the radration on the relevant surlace. No intelpolation ofdata is clrried out within
the hour', but because the sunls positior-r varies over an hour, thc calcul:rtc'd radi:rtion
on a sufacc also viries soluewhat over that tinre. At the end ofan houl it chlnges

DIMENS ON]NG OF SOTAR CON,4BISYSTEMS 225

,-,

o&

HS

gE

ii3!

.E

E3

p6

5 EE

s3

0!;

fr9
r+

Bt9

SA

d;9dix
? EgO

:ias
So

sI

Si

-,
3br;"
o:=o6
EB 6 9;

d:i
be

3P

i;
ET

Ep

t:s;
':

\T
EE

?e

5:

TP

F:
fE
Fi

t*

o:
Qc

Lrl 5

\E
TT

aa

226

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

DES GN HANDBOOK FOR

5OIAR COMB

SYSTEtulS

n stcp fashion.This step is sc'el clearly ir Figure 1,i.23. For tl.rc buildrng nrodcl :r
fur-thcr calculation is requlcd to t;rke into accolrnt lhe c'ffects of ovcrhangs and
sh:rding (Unit 7) for the rvindorvs. Anothel tuodel is rised to estimatc thc sky
tempcrirtLlr-e so that the rldiation b:rl:rnce tbr- the building cau bc cllcuhted
accrlr:rtcll,, especirlly lt night.
Thc nrultizonc building nrodel (Unit 8) is i very couple\ model, capable of
calcuhting nrany st-par-ate thctm:r1 zoncs in a building. ln Task 2(l otrl,v ollc' zorle rvls
used. so th:rt simulation tit'ues could be kept rcasonably short. This nrodel is ttsed
cxtensively ibl building simulaliorts, cspecially'in (iermanl'. It has amongst olhct

in

things:

clctlilcd ndiation balurcc-s fot the rvalls

a detailed u,indor.v nrodcl rvith mr.rltiple reflc-clions

lllol-ittg

accurate

c.rlculation of solat rnput

tllnsn'rission lnd vertil:1lion losses
:r hunriclit,v c:rlculltion and thcrmal caPacit:lrlce
tl.re possibiliry ofinput fiotn he.lt soultes such ls I ladiatol (both racliltive
convectivc heat)
inter-nrl hclt gains fi-ott't m:rchincs. lighting ancl peoPlc-

.Il.rd

Thc moclcl calcuhtc-s the lesulting air tcrnper-etlrre itt rhe building dcpcndcrrt orr
the .llnl:rtc dat:r, ;r schcdulc of intelual qairrs, r'cntilatiott ncl the irtput fiotrl the

lldiator moclel (Unit l 0). Thc modcl also calctthrcs the rldiativc :ttid
com'ccti\.e helt tllnsfer- dcpcndcnt on the r-ootll tcnlPer_attlr-c. tllc 11ow tcnlPcmttlr-e
lrrcl thc llorv to thc l:rdiator. A PII) controllcr (Unit 9) is ttst'd to nrodcl thc
ttrer-Drostatic vah'c thirt ttrodulates tht' t'lorv ro thc rircliltol in older lo tll.ttttt-titi
1oom tc111pcr-rture of20oC.T o r.alvcs (Units 12 :rrtd 13) lle usecl to adjust thc 11ol'
throLrgh the stolc in oldcl to feed drc'radiatot rvith thc tlor'r' tcnlpetaturc c:rlculated
b,v a sct of equations (EQU -1 in lighrer t,vpc irr Figulc 8.22) .rrrd thc orrtsidc ;iir'
rl1-nanric

.L

tollperilt].11c.
The he;ir ibl the radjrtor'loop, and thus thc'builcling. comes fiotn thc Multiport
storc nrodcl (Unit 11). lvhich is dcscribed in rrrode deail irr Section 8.'l.1.2.This
hr,'at b1'both dre collector':rncl boilcr 1oops.The
collector (Unir 17) iceds he:Lt to the slole via a pipe (Ulrit 1li) that lurs lherural nrass
and l-reat losscs to the sllllouildings. Ftotti the i:rtc'rttal heat exchlngc-r iI1 the stol'c.
thc punrp (Unit 15) supplics fluicl to the collectol vr.r arlother PiPc (Unit 1(r) This
punrp is controlled by an on/olf controller l,idr l.rystctt'sis (Unit 1'+), rvhich has as
its iuputs thc colLector_ tcnlpelature and relevant stolc te11-IPemturc. Overheatills
cut olfis included in thc conrtoller.Thc oil boiicr (Unit 23) is fed by another punrp

thelmJ store is providcd rvith

(Unit 22), rvhich is contlolled by u on/off conrloller with hystclesis (u1lir 201
dlc r-c]cvant store tcnrpctxtule. Thc boiler tlrodel has ;[r inte:-nl]
controller fol nrodulatilrg the but'nc'r'.
A peculiarity ofsystenr #11 is thilt it uses clccrr-ical back up hcatirrg during the
surrulrcL :urd the oil boilel clurirtg thc rviuter. This is duc to the lorv c{Eciencv of
thc orl boilcr dur-ing rhc sunrnrel (scc Figr-u'e 1t.23) s,hen it is 11ot hcavil,v loadecl.
based o[1y o1r

D MENSION NG OF SOLAR COMBISYSTEMS 227

This switchiDg of heat soulcc is controlled by a tiDte-dcpendent forcing fr.rncrion

(Unit 19) and sets ofequations (equations 2 and 3 ir.r lighter-type near Units 19
and 2()).

Thc hot rvater mass l'lorv is rc:rd 6om a data file (Unit 3) and the telrperature of
the mains rvrter is calcrrlated b), equations (equation 1) based on the location and
tirne of year. As rvith the radiator loop, two valves (Units 2.1 and 25) arc used to
adjust the florv through the storc, in tlis case through trvo seliaily connectecl
rnternal heirt exch:rngers, in order to maintain the desir-ed donrestic hot rvater
delivery teurperaturc of .l5oCl.
8.4.1 .2 The multiport store model
This model has five double ports for direct connection to othcr conlponents irnd
circuits xs rvell as three internal heat exchangers.These ir-rtcrnal he:rt exchlngers can
be used to model tubular hcat cxch:rngers inside the store, ltltntle heat exchangers
or tanks inside rhe main store. Thc hcat transler coef0cient can bc defined with
tenpcraturc, florv and time dependcncl'. Diflcrent heat loss coefllcrents can be
deiined for diilerent parts of the srore. Therc is also :rn electricll heating elcrlent
rvirh its orvn thclurosrat controller. The double ports can simuLate per{cctly
stratilicd ir.rlct of fluid, as can the hcat cxch:rnger- if configured as :r nunde he:rt
exch:rtgcr. The possible sffxtification in the model is dcpcndent on thc number of
nodcs, thc n'iodcl allorvinq I lraxiDlun of l9lJ. Most sysrcrns wefe simulated rvith
betrveen 50 and 100 noclcs.
The modcl is a gley box lrodel rnd }us been valiclatcd for scvcral vcry difcrcntlv
configured storcs. [t is uscd by rrany r-esearch gr:oups. The heat exchangcli hcrt
tr:lnsfer pruireter values rre not easy to estirLrtc withour dcmiled measurcments
and parametcr idcntifi c:rtior-r.
A ncrvcl bcta velsion ofthe multipor-t stort model \\,is llso uscd rvithin the Task
lbr- the systems rcqt ring ibr-u heat exchangers- This vcrsion can also calculate
natural convection flor.vs in cncapsulated hear exchengers :Lnd stratifiers. A further
e\tcnsion to the 111odel has been madc in ordcr to sinrulate an integratcd gas
burncr.

8.4.1.3 The ODT collector model

This model l-ras been created so that rcslrits Ii'om the nerv Qulsi Dylranric collcctor.
Test urcthod (Perers, 1993) can be used directly as paranleter values, ud has been
r'-alidated for this use. It hls a single thermal capacirance node rnd terms lbr wind
and long-rvave radiation losses as rvell as incident-angle modifier values that cln
r,aly in nvo dimensiolrs. It is thus suitable for unglazcd as rvell as glazcd collectors
;rnd collectors wlth reflectors. The nlodel has been vahdated against nreasured dat:r
lor sevc.r:rl collector-s. Most systelu c culatious rvere perfonned lvith the Task 26
standard llat pl:rte paraltietet vaht-s.These par-ameters arc giver1 in Scctiou 6.1.2.
8.4.1

.4 The biomassigas/oil boiler model

The boiler modcl r.vas originally dcvclopcd lor large-scale boilers rvith rclatively
little volunre rn relltion to thc t'lou, and heating rate. It was modified rvithin the

228

SOLAR HEAT NG SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

DES GN NANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMB SYSTEMs

Task to be:rpplicablc to sruailer systeurs sucir as domestic solar combisystenrs' It hls

not becn validated in detail fbl this srzc aud typc ofboilcr and the standard r-alrtcs
shorvn belos, are not for :rny specilic boiler. Tl.rc model is lelatively detailed and
calculates fucl usage and he:rt transfer depcndent on the tcmpetatule

ofthe

exh:rust

incomplerc combustion, condctrsation and excets aidlo\\r, as well as stand-b)'

losses. No detailed modelling ofstar t and stop iirel usage :rnd er-nissiotts ir crlcul:rted'
rvhich is one urlportant sirnphlication of tl-re ruodel-Three luel rypes ;trc lr'arlable:
biomass, gas (trvo vuiations) alid oil.The rlodel has trvo tnain ulodes:a single-node
hert e\ch^nler urodel and a tuultinode hcat exchlnger rllodel The sir-lgle-node
model rvas r-rscd in Task 26.
gas,

Table ti.1() sho*,s the par-alrlctel r':rlues that were chosell for the starldald boilcts

to be uscd rvithin Task 26.These rvere to be uscd fol systems that are not sLlpPhed
u,ith a specilic boiler. These Pxrameters ate for a moderately good corrdcnsing gls
boiler and ibr a good non-condensittg oil boiler-. Figure 8.23 shorvs }rorv thc
simulrtcd ovet:rll efliciency oftheseTask 2(; boilers varies ovcr-the y.:u, both in th!reference system rnd in Systern # i 1. ln all cases rhc efficicnc,v is signilicantly Iorver
cluLir-rg sumnrer, as less heat is supplied and the boiler sralcl-by heat losses arc moLtsignificant.This is espccially tlue whcn connected lo a soler combisystcrr thxt hls
1(X)'% solar coveLage ovct- thc sululllc1', lhc case fuI nrost systcrl)s with
'111
amrual fiactioual cnergy- saving of above 15%. In this casc thc ctliciency durit.rg the
mitldle of suurmer is lear zcto and it nray tuake cconomic setrse to turn off the

nearly

boiler durirrg these periods.

gas bailer and
Table 8.1A. The parameter values far the boiler modet Type 17A, fat the standard
an ail bailer

()rcrrll .rnuurl eflnicncv lor theTrsk

i-or

(hr Zurr.h clinritc

Lloller Nrte,
FL,.l

rvp.

r)d

()r)

2r, tefcrcncc svstem

sitholt v)hr hciting urr'

kwli/n1r per \'.rr Lou\.

!olLn)r.

Desire.ioLrtlet ttrrpcnnLre (prnnreter

L)

tIr.flril (onrroll.r on/oaa

rconr
T.Drpcrature for lo\s dr (|imn1.tcr 6)
Rat(l hertnig poscr
Lo\cst Luodulrtior lercl
lvlode (prrinicter l.+)
B.ti - fi..tion oaCO in cxhxust grs (lnPut 9 - .onrtrnO
.onst,rnr)
L.rnrbdr (rnpLrr ll
tcrrycnure ditlircnce bentc.n iDl.t $'irer rd exhlurt gr\ (int'ur L:
]r.id;.ure lor!.s. ixcrlrltr ofmttcl po$er (ultlrt 13 constinr)
St.nd-b\ losses. tluctioD ofr.rted Po\eL (prnt)reter 13)
Anlbicrt ien+'crrtLrE Lr boll.r

8.4.1

.otr5tant)

kil
(5)
75'(l
Trrc/7i'C
l5'C
62'(1
li kw
11)1r:;
lr)
ll i)2
I 12
1011
+'91rrl
t)'1n'N

9ttN'

17

7 5 Lg

oil

sl

(2)

7o'(l
:1ro/71r(l

li"(l

9(f(l
15

kW

b'1'
lr)
o 1r2

],

l1)

I iL
1

't'

.5 System-specific models

Ser,'clal of the systems simulatcd rvithin the Task have special conlPonents th:lt a1e
usecl in othcr systenx. New colllPonent modcls h:n'e been developed fot drese
and l-ravc been impleurcuted in the reLcr,':ttt systcms. Eramples of such models arc
the floor' I.rerti[g nlodel for Syslerlls #1 and #3, rhc advltrccd coutloller for Systc'ui

not

DIMENS ONING OF SOLAR CON,4BISYSTEIV]S 229

l!- - --*
- -t* -

7o%

o
'6
E

60%

u
I'd
o

-t*-t

--_,

so*
40%

+Oi
-'

#'11 Stockho m

Gas.#11 Slockho m

Oi refZurch

JAN

FEB

IVIAY

JUN

JUL

Month
B 23. Variatian af averagc manthly efftclency far the Task 26 batlers as simulated in
System #11 with 10 mt collector tn Slackhalm and for the reference systcm tn Zunch. All
sin)ulations are far the 6A kwh/m' pet year hause

Figurc

#12 and the florv cont|ollcr lbr doncstic hot water plepar:rtio1l rn Systelr #1-5.
Thesc rnodcls arc not dcscribccl her-e, but llt- dcscribi:d in the technical leports for
rhc rclcvant s)stenls.These teclrnical reports ale :rvail;rblc fl-orn the Task 2(r rvcbsitc.

8.4.2 Parameter identification and verification

Fol rcall-v dct:riled siunhtion of slstems it is ticccssar,v to have both a good nrodc-l
lrid the colrect paraureter values in thc trrodel lbr the specihc systcm. Fot physicll
nrodels, the fundamcnt:rls of the physics ue' l,cll knorvn and so the nlodcls iirc also
accurate, althor-rgh in sonrc crses tl-rere lre simplificltions thrt cause iu.r.curr.ies.
Thc studard models rvithinTI\NSYS l.r:rve been validared agrinst rcd corlponents
over-several ,ve;trs.This is :rlso true for the non-stlnd:rrd rnoclels, rvrth tl-)e exceptioll
of the boiler model, l,hich has only bc'cn v:Llidated ibr larger boilers.
Fol tl-ie glel'box modcls and the pulely physicrl nrorles thc p:rr':rmctcr values tbr
the diilerent svstenx havc bccD identiiled usiDg Ineasurerllent dltl. Severll of the
systems have been tcstcd according to strict test methods such as thc Conrponcrlt
Ti:st ud Systcm Simr-rlation method (OEN. 1997). r,,,hilc othcrs havc used:rvail:rble
rlt':rsulcd data to idcr-iti$- the parxlueter vdues. Once the paralllcter r'alucs have
bccn iclcntiiicd, the model should thcn bc chcckcd, or vcrificd, agairlst other
measur-ed drta. to ensur-e th:rt thc rlodcl can correctl-v sinruhte the real behrviottt'
ofthc cornponcnt or s.vstenr.This is :ur importurt plocess,:rnd is nt'ct'ssary if onc is

to lely on thc'results.

230

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS FOR HOUSES:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR SOLAR COMB SYSTEMS

REFERENCES
CIEN, 1997. -LNI,- 12977 2,Thunal Solar S1-vrrr-' nrrd Cot l)o|ctns - Crr,vo,, Brilt S-/-rt.r,J /)drt
2r ?51 ,1Llro/s, Eurcpcen Conrnittee for St.urchrdiz.rtion Brussels, Beigium.
Dufiie J itnd tsecklrun W, 1991, So/,rr Errqnrr,r\;n! of 'L h,::nnal Pntccsts, 2ncl e dn. John Wiley & Sorrs.
Chichester. UK.

Driick H and Hrhne E. 1998,'Tcst:urd conrparnon ofhot *.rter srores i)r $lirr.onlbis,vsrenrs'.
l\rtcrdings Errc:ut '98,I\'ttont:, S/olcaia, pp.1..1.1 7.
Heiinredl l\. 2002, 'Report on solar corlbisl,srerns moclellcd in Task 26 (s,vstem description,
rllodcling, scnsidvn,v, optjniiz;tioD).', Appcndix 9: Svstenr #19,,7 rethnial rq,ort of-rrlrnsl C,
IEA SHC Trsk 26 So1.rr co]nbn,vsten s. http: /./rv$ $.: iee-shc org/usk2(r
I{.rrlsson B rnd Znrko H (edr. 1997, CEC-TltutliL B Cottttdi S).IL/0055/95,Sl;Solit H,:dtit!

C trnl Enop.. Final report. ZW Tek11ik. SNeclerl.

A. Beckm.ur W A., Mitchell JW DLrlEc JA, DLrfEe NA, Freenran TL, Mitchcll JC, 13rrun
JE, Er.urs BI, KLuurcr Jl'], Urb;ur llE. Fiksel A, Thonrton JW BlliL NJ, 1998, TR\S115', ,.1
Tanlicnt Syrtulti Sit] tlntblt Prc3nt lrit\ion 112 (as uscd nr rhis proJecr, Solltr Erlcrg_v
Lrbolatory, Univc iti of WncoDsnr-Madnon. USA.
lolcnz K. a:rles C rnd Bronurr L, 1997, 'Pcrlbrnunce conrpilrision of conrbr nks Lrsirlg. siriitt llrrtlk\n dtld

Kleur

d.r1,-test', rn, Aoardnlq-r

N)rrl, .Sr,, '97,

E-rr(,(,, Fi,r/drd, pp.

119 128.

Lororz K, Bllcs Cl ind l'ersson T, 2000,'Ev;rlLratioo ofsol.tr rlrerlrr colrbisystcrrrs for the S*,edish
cLirnrtc', in, l)roar,,y'nry. Emt:nt 2000, (f,Valntlit, L).lrr'r:,rkNordlancter S :rr)d l{ijnrrelicl M. 20Ltl,'Lorcl rd:rpted collectors fdr hlgh sohr fircrloDs'. in,
Prorrrrlr1qi N,r.rl, Sun 2001, Lddu, tltc Nttlrnands.
Pnuschinger ! l)rlick H xr)d Hrhrrc E, I998, Comp.rr-non tcst of soler helrirg rystcnrs for
dorrrcstic lrot rvrtL:r :rnd sp:rcc hc:rtiDg', in. Prcti.l.llittls Errt)s u '9|J, Ponanz,.Sl,r,r.rria, pp.

r[.2.37.1-E.
Pcrers B,

lir solrr collecror xrrly resting rnd

prosrinr\', rn, So/"r trrrlgy 50(6),517 52(,.

1993.'Dvrnlric nrcthod

d:rrxbrse

rnd

si ul:rtio

lrlurtior uuh

strndrld

Strcichcr W, 20(12:r, .So/r,./r.,,.r.(i.,rri-:r,,q, lecture book, GriLz Univcr.sit,v ofT!cllnology

Srrclcher W, 2( X)2b, 'Milirizing the risk of tater hrmrnel rnd orhcr prol'rlcrls rt tllc bcgnxing
ofsrrgnxtion ofsohr drernul pl:urts r thcorcticrl :rppx,lch', rn. .Solrrr Erl,qqy, 69 (Supp1. 1-6).

187 196.
WcrslW (ecl.), 2001, lrrctttlitgs lL,'l-SHCTask 26

rctry

llitrk:ln| I',

Dclf-r, rhc Nedrer'l.rnrls.

SIMULATION PROGRAMS
Colsinr: htrp:,//rvrv*.ise.ihg.dc
D-r,no1;r: http:
F-cher.tr lrttp:

//urvu:dvnirsirn.sc/
//rr'\\'$:fcherr-conr,'

IDA: htq: //u,ul:cqur.se

Mrdrb SinrL rnk: http: //rvu,\\:rnath\\rrtks.cor[//pro(luc$/sirnulirlk

htp: //w\\1\isolirencrsl,.ch
PSD-MI: lrttp r //o l. cstb.h /soft/prcscnt.rsp?.ontc\t= PSDc\linsuc:u\&iruprinrer=c\r)) =hr
SHW-WIN: htrp: //\t.ru srlz.lc.rt/sNdo\vnlord/shNindl.htni
Snilc:http: //s,,r,*:lirst glud.cle,/snrile/. h.tp: //u rvr.r:snilenet. dc/
T sol: ht+: //\\\\'\rt$l.de
I'olysun:

T1\NSYST http:

//scl.nrc.t

isc.r'rlu./trnsys./