History of Psychiatry, 20(3): 311339 Copyright 2009 SAGE Publications

(Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DC) www.sagepublications.com
[200909] DOI: 10.1177/0957154X08337643

The vocabulary of madness from Homer

to Hippocrates. Part 1: The verbal group
of *
HLNE PERDICOYIANNI-PALOLOGOU**
Hellenic CollegeHoly Cross, Brookline, MA

In Part 1 of this two-part paper, I examine the evolution of the concept of

madness expressed by the various forms verbal and nominal, simple and
compound of the verbal group of in the archaic and classical periods.
I point out how the divine madness is contrasted to pathological madness
considered as a psychic and mental disease and foreseeable by doctors as well
as curable by medications. This new procedure highlights rational knowledge
of the Greeks about the cause and the medical care of madness.
Keywords: behaviour; congenital; divine; emotional; Greece; history;
mental illness; moral; pathological; physical; psychological

In Greek thought, madness represents an abundant source of tragic events. In

this two-part paper, we will study the terms belonging to the verbal groups of
and , as well as the noun and its nominal and verbal
derivatives, from Homer to Hippocrates. Firstly, we will single out the meaning
of the various forms, verbal and nominal, simple and compound. Secondly, we
will compare them in the totality of their usages in order to bring to light the
similarities and dissimilarities between them. This synchronic and diachronic
study of these terms is the first to be undertaken and will enlighten our
understanding of the evolution of the concept of madness from the archaic to
classical period.

* Part 2 will be published in History of Psychiatry, 20(4).

** Address for correspondence: 44 Washington Street, Apt 403, Brookline, MA 02445, USA.
E-mail: hperpal@hotmail.com

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The simple verb

Despite its close etymological relationship with the Indo-European verbs
meaning to think, in Greek indicates a mad and furious state
(Chantraine 19681980: sv).
M in the archaic period
When used with an ecstatic connotation, indicates raving
Dionysus because of his association with wine and wild, ecstatic religious rites,
and consequently bacchic frenzy.1 This mental state () is also connected with the celebration of Lenaia.2 M also occurs in a fragment of
Heraclitus referring to the mystic revelations of Sibylla. Used metaphorically,
indicates the mouth of the possessed prophetess, transported by
divine illumination.3
M expresses a passing psychological state of intense trouble or exaltation, caused by violent emotion and considered as madness. Most usages of
occur in a military context and convey martial furor in gods and men.
In the divine world, the fury of Ares, the god of warfare, continually causes
great and irreparable harm. His intense anger provokes all kinds of misfortune
in battle, without respect for individuals.4 Besides, the enraged Ares prevents
Menelaus from returning home after sacking Ilios.5 At Il. 5, 8304, Athene
rebukes Diomedes and urges him to attack the enraged and unreliable Ares.
His unreliability is demonstrated by breaking his promise to fight against the
Trojans. Finally, at Il. 15, 1289, Athene reproaches Ares for his frenzy and
his deranged and shameless nature.
In the human world, expresses warlike ferocity. At Il. 6, 99100,
Diomedes fierceness gives the impression of the strongest and most formidable
of all Achaeans, including even Akhilleus. According to Bacchylides,6 the latter
makes manifest his bellicose madness by brandishing his spear. This expression
is also used to describe Ajaxs warlike ferocity in a fragment of Alcman7 and in
another in the Anacreontea8 where Ajax is depicted as a mad man brandishing
the sword and shield of Hector. Excessive combative fury causes innumerable
disasters in the enemy camp, as well. At Il. 8, 35456, Athene warns Zeus about
the plight of the Achaeans before the imminent attack of Hector, who rages past
all bearing. Additionally, at Il. 21, 45, the reference is to the prompt flight of
the Achaeans in order to escape from Hectors rage.
Warlike madness can result from divine intervention. Hector is a dread warrior
who acts furiously by the inspiration of Zeus and respects neither man nor
gods.9 When frenzied, he is comparable to furious Ares, wielder of the spear,
or a destructive fire.10 Divine bellicose dementia can be compatible with a gods
beneficial acts. Indeed, the brave son of Tydeus reveals his violent anger with
the aid of some god standing close by him.11
We have identified usages of having as subject a bodily organ,
such as (Rogge, 1928) and (Bolelli, 1948; Cheyns, 1980, 1985;

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Ireland & Steel, 1975). ` indicates the furious heart of

Achilles12 who refuses to surrender Hectors body to the Trojans. ` then
denotes the seat of feelings. The term also possesses an anatomic connotation
and subsequently refers to the membrane which covers the heart ( ) agitated
by compassionate feelings: ` ` ` .13 In fact, the
hearts of Here and Athene are aroused to help the Argiens, regardless of Zeus
prohibition. We found three metaphoric usages of having as subject
either a weapon, i.e., a spear, which rages in the warriors hands14 or one of the
elements, i.e., a forest fire.15
Used with a divine connotation, indicates the suitors feeling of
intense pleasure in social life.16 In the Anacreontea fr. 9, the poet expresses his
ardent desire to drink red wine abundantly so that he may feel the sweet and
non-violent madness of drunkenness.17
M ` describes a man who is overwhelmed with a perfect
love madness.18 This psychic state is inconstant19 or the result of an excessive
desire.20
M refers to madness provoked by a harmful event. At Il. 6, 3889,
Andromache has rushed to the fortifications of Troy like a madwoman
upon hearing that the Trojans are being beaten down and the enemy is
dominating.
M also describes the state of being transported with a cannibalistic
furore. In the uncivilized world, Cyclops experiences a fierce pleasure in
devouring the companions of Ulysses.21 Polyphemus madness has the result of
breaking the ground-rules of hospitality ... because it leads to social isolation
(Heubeck and Hoekstra, 1992: 32).
M indicates an unreasonable and unusual behaviour, which is
considered as a state of mental illness and a lack of morality. In a political
context, means not being able to take control of ones behaviour. In
Solons fragment, the council, consisting of Pisistratus supporters, declared
that the man who rushed into the assembly armed with spear and shield and
warned them of the designs of Pisistratus was mad because he could not control
his words and acts.22 One who approves an impious act is considered mad. In
Heraclitus fragment, one who thinks a person could be purified by a bloody
stain would be frenzied.23
Madness related to an excessive haste is the cause of mentally disordered
behaviour. According to Theognis, madmen make mistakes through haste
because their hearts and minds are flighty. It is planning in the depths of ones
own heart and with good sense that leads to what is beneficial.24 Moreover,
madness is considered as a mental state that can be adopted, dependent upon
social circumstances. In the first Elegy, Theognis points out that among those
who rave, he raves with the best.25 In Homer, drinking wine to excess provokes
irrationality, making Centaurus behave indecently. At the feast given by

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Pirithoos, under the influence of wine, Eurytion completely ruins the palace of
his host.26 The destructive moral blindness caused by  appears in his desire
for vengeance.27
In conclusion, indicates acquired and passing madness caused by
divine interference, intense psychic disturbance, or mental trouble, as well as
a lack of righteousness. Innate madness as the mental state of a god is rare.
M in the classical period
M describes disturbance of the mind and/or behaviour resulting from
diseases altering mental faculties. These diseases manifest themselves in
perceptible symptoms. M thus possesses a pathological connotation.
Most of the usages occur in Hippocrates but there are also some in Herodotus,
Euripides, Aristoteles and Plato.
In Hippocrates, is caused by the intensity of internal bodily heat.28
High temperature as the result of drunkenness makes the patient lie in a drowsy
state. If on getting up he vomits bile, he then rages and usually dies shortly
afterwards.29 Besides, drunkenness, along with eating meat, sleepiness, and a
thoughtlessly coming into contact with any degree of temperature, is part of an
unhealthy lifestyle and leads to insanity.30 Drunkenness is also related to the
psychological state of a person going insane from black bile (Roy, 1981), which
is associated with a melancholy temperament (Mueri, 1953) and persistent
depression.31 We should note that madness as the result of excessive use of
alcohol is mentioned once in Euripides. Drinking excessive wine provokes
the loss of consciousness, and then the drunk, i.e., Cyclops, becomes an easy
victim.32 This use also occurs in two passages in Herodotus, who considers it
as the opposite of divine madness ( ).33
Another cause of madness is abnormality of the bile, which, when it breaks
out, provokes a violent uncontrollable anger in the patient,34 or the brain,
functioning as the coordinating centre of sensation and intellectual and nervous
activity, including madness and delirium ( /  ).35
Abnormal moistness of the brain36 and its corruption by phlegm (Craik, 2002)
or bile are considered as explanations for madness. Those maddened through
phlegm do not make a noise or disturbance. In contrast, those who are insane
from bile are clamorous, restless and inopportune.37 Besides, irregular beats in
the hypochrondrium indicate a disturbance or a delirium (), which
may cause rapid eye movement in the patient, who is expected to go mad.38
Varicose veins or a swollen group of veins in the region of the anus can
make the patient mad.39 However, insanity can occur after the treatment of
haemorrhoids.40 Abnormal enlargement of wounds, typically as a result of an
accumulation of fluid, occasionally prompts convulsion or madness.41 A slight
unforeseen inflammation can madden the half-mads ( ), i.e.,
those who suffer from nightmares resulting from extreme quickness of the soul,

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which is provoked by the fact that the water is more mastered by the fire. The
inflammation can arise from intoxication, or from being overweight, or from
eating too much meat.42
Abnormalities of blood circulation such as blood gathering in the breast,43
congenital physical deformity such as a squint,44 unsuccessful treatment of
fractured or cleft bone,45 or an excessive dose of a medicine such as mandrake
root (Besnehard, 1993)46 give rise to madness. Moreover, melancholics
and patients with phrenitis become deranged (), some even mad
(), because their blood is disordered by bile and phlegm.47
In Aristotle, indicates people unreasonable because of irascibility of soul.48 Moreover, insane people are fond of drinking alcohol49 and
incapable of realizing circumstances relevant to an event50 as well as of deliberating over a topic rationally.51 Additionally, they are unable to face dangerous
celestial phenomena normally.52 However, irrationality has its own limits. The
demented never confuse two different earthly phenomena, such as fire and
ice.53 Madmen are comparable to animals, which are guided by bad sense
and aberrance of innate instinct.54 Besides, horses are subject to madness caused
by the scent of a mare in heat, or horsing.55
Finally, Plato finds a congenital reason in madness. Therefore can
be explained by the fact that not all humans possess from birth the entire faculty
of thought () and therefore do not have complete adult intellectual capacity
().56 M then indicates an innate mental state. Apart from the
congenital origin of insanity, Plato identifies other causes. He distinguishes
madness provoked by diseases from that prompted by aggravation of natural
violence resulting from exterior circumstances, e.g., bad education. In this case,
patients are both most susceptible and most offensive. At the least offence, they
shout loudly and insult each other. This aggressive behaviour is dangerous and
inappropriate for a well-conducted city.57
In conclusion, Hippocrates and Herodotus search out the causes, primarily,
of acquired madness, rather than its symptoms, as Aristotle does. In these
authors, only the pathological aspect of insanity is stressed. By contrast,
Euripides describes the causes of passing and acquired madness, as well as its
consequences. Finally, Plato emphasizes both the causes of madness, innate or
acquired, and its manifestations. The accent is clearly put on the pathological
aspect. Innate dementia is aggravated by exterior influence. It can also be a
mental immaturity, appearing in early life and vanishing in adulthood.
In contrast to uses of indicating congenital or acquired mental
trouble, there are those related to divine madness, manifested either as a divine
gift or an inflicted punishment. Sometimes a heros resentful rage for having
failed is reinforced by pathological hallucination instilled by a god as a penalty.
Additionally, hallucination can be inspired by a goddess in order to satisfy her
hostility.

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In the field of poetry, denotes skilful and perfect poets by virtue

of divine inspiration by the Muses. These poets are in contrast to those who
possess only a technical ability to make poems (Simon, 1978: 150).58 Also
inspired by divine power are those who praise great poets, such as Homer.59
Indeed, Socrates interprets this as resulting from divine dispensation rather
than from Ions aptness to exalt Homeric poetry.60
Prophetic dementia instilled by Apollo is constituted of mediumism or mantic
power. Mediumism is a rare gift given to those the god favours. Cassandra
was blessed by Apollo with the gift of prophecy in return for sexual favours.61
When possessed by her visions (), she displays wild excitement which is
characterized by illusion and incoherence of thought and speech.62 Divination
or prophecy belonging to the prophetess at Delphi and to the priestesses at
Dodona, as well as to Sibyl, is one of the four platonic types of divine madness.63
These foretold the future and were reverenced by both states and citizens.64
Mantic power (), which gives the maddened ( ) visions of
the future, is also inspired by Dionysos, the prophet () (Casevitz, 1992:
118), when he enters into the body.65
Being initiated into Dionysiac mysteries presupposes willingness66 and the
accomplishment of a solemn religious ceremony. Once seized by the deity
(), Skylles, the king of Scythes, took part in the Bacchus ceremonies
() and in a state of wild ecstasy (, ).67 Women possessed
by Dionysiac madness are imagined as immortal nymphs who honour DionysosIachos with night-long orgies of dancing and drinking wine.68 Dionysiac
madness as an inflicted punishment for an impiety is collective (# )
and considered as a result of a complete bacchic frenzy () (Simon,
1978: 11321).69 In the Bacchantes, Dionysos exacts revenge on the women of
Thebes, his aunts Agave, Ino and Autonoe, and his cousin Pentheus for not
believing his mother Semeles claim she had been impregnated by Zeus and
for denying his own godhead and therefore not worshipping him. Pentheus
was slowly driven to madness by Dionysos and lured to the woods of Mount
Cithaeron to see the Maenads.70 When the women saw Pentheus, they tore him
to pieces. As he begged for his life, his mother Agave tore off his head.
Madness is also imposed as retribution for matricide (Simon, 1978: 10813).71
Orestes is put through ordeals of terror by the Erinyes, goddesses that Electra
will not name.72 His madness is represented as self-neglect, keeping him away
from food and bathing,73 and as intermittent, so that for most of the play he
can speak and act coherently (West, 1987: 184). Orestes madness is used as
a comparison by Aristophanes in describing the behaviour of a young drunken
man who wanted to injure a fellow-citizen.74
Divine hallucination can strengthen a heros rage75 caused by frustration
(Simon, 1978: 12430). Ajaxs vow to kill the Greek leaders for disgracing him
expresses his wrath at not winning Achilles armour,76 awarded to Odysseus.
Athene deludes him into believing that the sheep and cattle that were taken by
the Achaeans as spoil are the Greek leaders. He slaughters some of them and
takes the others back to his home to torture.77 Athenes cunning outwitting

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of Ajax is explained by her desire for revenge, because of his arrogance. Ajax
appears as one who has offended Athene by the presumptuous self-confidence
with which he has rejected divine aid in war (Jebb, 2004: xi). A similar divine
madness is the result of Heres unappeasable hatred for her husbands bastard
son Heracles (Simon, 1978: 1309).78 When he had performed Eurystheus
tasks, Here decided to make him kill his children,79 setting his feet leaping,
stirring him up, letting loose the rope of death.80 The progress of Heracles madness81 is described from the initial physical symptoms of rolling, protruding,
bloodshot eyes,82 foaming at the mouth83 and an hysterical laugh,84 to the
mental illness including hallucination85 and a sudden sleep.86 Bewildered by
this madness, Heracles kills each one of his children with arrows dipped in the
blood of the hundred-headed hydra.87
In sum, the immortals can use inspiring madness to express their feelings for
a human being or a hero. The maddened is either in an unfortunate condition
or possessed by a supernatural gift.
Strong feelings and emotions lead to passing and intense insanity. These
feelings include bellicose fury, hate, love, desire, joy, pleasure, pain and
indignation.
In a military context, conveys the fierceness either of a people determined to fight against the King88 or a warrior, e.g., Eteocles, whose anger is
caused by Ambition, the most unjust goddess.89 Military behaviour of a whole
people is also considered a permanent madness leading to obsession.90 Martial
vehemence is expressed by metonymic use of the name of Ares (
). This fervour makes conquerors behave with disrespect.91 Bellicose
madness also has an influence on the seat of feelings ( ) of Argiens
warriors, who bluster against the city of Thebes with irrational aggressiveness.92
Used metaphorically, characterizes the insane conflict between
Eteocles and Polyneikes in battle,93 as well as the hope of having destroyed the
great city of Athens.94 Military madness also attacks animals, such as Potniad
colts. In the battle against the Thebans, these, upon Polyneikes shield as a
device, were running around and leapt distraught, cunningly, somehow enclosed
inside by pivots close to the handle, so as to seem crazed.95
M expresses an intense dislike for his enemies, which is considered a
great illness.96 Prometheus, a Titan known for his wily intelligence, displays
a deep-seated aversion to his enemies, i.e., the gods, especially Zeus, who inflicted physical sufferings on him as a punishment for providing fire to humans.
Throughout the play PV, Prometheus is bound to a rock with an eagle eating
his liver each day, only to have it grow back to be eaten again the next day.
M means to be transported with rage caused by the behaviour
of another person. Rage can be provoked by an unjust decision of a person
possessing supreme power. In one passage, is coordinated with a
verb expressing the speakers hostility.97 Besides, blaming ones husband
for adultery is considered a madness.98 In fact, Love rules gods and mortals as
he pleases.99

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Madness due to love overcomes all immortals and mortals who possesses it.100
Moreover, divine love is an evil ( )101 (Doyle, 1984: xx; Neuberg,
1993) or a sort of insanity which is contrary to wisdom that those who are not
in love possess.102 In a social context, a tyrant is considered as mad because of
his intense erotic lust and desire.103 Madness caused by sensual passion inspired
by Eros is expressed by the expressions 104 and
.105
M can convey a transport of desire for death, ones own106 or that of
a daughter.107 A father, like Creon, is also considered mad because he intends
to cause moral pain to his son Haemon by making him witness to his lovers
murder.108 Hoping for the impending arrival of Orestes, who was believed as
lost forever, is another aspect of madness.109
M expresses the state of overwhelming joy upon learning of a miserable event, such as the death of ones enemies. The enemy may be a member
of the family of the raging person110 or a third party.111 Satyrs, a class of lustful,
drunken woodland gods, are also transported with joy upon hearing how Ulysses
will blind Cyclops.112 M results, too, from a feeling of great pleasure,
of eating, and often overeating,113 or of drinking up a cup of wine.114 Being
crazy from drinking wine is also a habitual and agreeable way of behaving and
living.115 Therefore, the man who refuses drinking can be considered insane.116
In a poetic context, the quality of Euripides plays drives the god Dionysos mad,
by giving him delight and arousing his admiration.117
M indicates the state of being maddened by pain, the result of physical
or moral affliction imposed by gods. Ios mad flight occurs as the consequence
of Heres vengeance,118 which explains the epithet applied to her, Bacchante of
the goddess.
Apart from the divine connotation, possesses a familial one. The
decision of the Achaean army to sacrifice Iphigeneia in order that the Greek fleet
may set off provokes Agamemnons grave affliction.119 Furthermore,
conveys the combination of suffering and rage that husbands feel when they find
their wives improperly outdoors.120 In a social context, expresses the
strong psychological pain that affects slaves overhearing their masters gossiping
about them.121
possessing as subject an internal organ, such as and ,
expresses excessive sorrow aroused by either an impious act or an announcement of the cruel destiny of a third party. denotes the
maddened heart of Oedipus when he becomes aware of his appalling marriage.
His rage leads him to blind himself.122 In addition, the sentence
reveals the overpowering madness of the choreutes souls upon learning
of Polyneikesdeath. indicates soul as the seat of the feeling of pain, displaying its insane grief by bursting into tears.123
We have found a metaphoric meaning of possessing as subject
a feeling of deep distress caused by a physical pain. The suffering is provoked
by running a sword through the body.124

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In sum, denotes madness resulting from unstable and instinctive

feelings, as distinguished from reasoning.
M indicates a lack of reason, preventing correct appreciation of
oneself, a third party or an event. When a man professes to be excellent in all arts,
without any such skill, he is comparable to a madman whom others either
scorn or are annoyed with. His people come and reprove him for being so
insane.125 Further, he who thinks all people, including himself, completely unfortunate is considered mad.126 Reproaching someone with madness is a way
to react to bad judgement. At IT 1300, using , the Chorus leader revolts
against the messenger who states outrageously that the Chorus helped Orestes
and Pylades to steal the statue of Artemis and to flee the Tauric Chersonese.127
In medicine, not being cautious, thus making wrong predictions, is for a doctor
a misfortune because he is subject not only to hatred from the patient but
perhaps even being thought mad.128 Moreover, madmen are considered those
who are under the illusion that they are gods.129
Also insane are: a person who is not capable of being aware of facts;130 those
who are ignorant and consequently behave boldly.131
A complete change of mind is regarded as madness. At IA 3889, Agamemnon
wonders whether, having made a blameworthy decision, he is mad for now
adopting a correct one.132 A speaker uttering insolent or unbelievable statements
is held to be drunk enough to have lost control of his words133 or is mentally ill.
At Ion 526, Ion refers to Xouthos as mad stranger, because he does not believe
that he is his father.134 Furthermore, according to Ctesippus, Hippothales is
insane because he asserts that he does not write for one who loves neither poetry
nor prose.135 Finally, o denotes those who feel base fears and base
boldness.136
M indicates an immoral religious, family or social behaviour. This
misconduct is both a mental trouble and a loss of sense. M then
possesses a pejorative connotation. It indicates a provocative attitude against
religion. In the dialogue between Pentheus and Tiresias, the latter reckons
the king of Thebes to be cruelly insane because of his obsession to fight the
Gods and especially Dionysos. This irreligious spirit corrupts his soul.137 At
Nub. 14767, Strepsiades admits to having been insane when he rejected the
Gods because of Socrates.138 At Pax 54, conveys the strange madness
that affected the master of the second slave. As a result, he gazes at the sky all
day, railing at Zeus.139 In Herodotus, Cambyses madness manifests itself by
deriding religion and customs.140 At Bacch. 999, possessing as subject
a word indicating the heart is juxtaposed to in order to
express Pentheus rage, insulting the cult of Bakkhos and his mother.141 Used
metaphorically, indicates the enraged mind of those who
deprive the Gods of their legitimate veneration.142

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M refers to improper social behaviour, such as banging on the door,143

impolitely requesting money144 and trying to seduce an old woman.145 The verb
expresses unreasonable misconduct of political men or between citizens and
against institutions. M also conveys the absurdity of a group of teachers
of philosophy. Finally, the verb refers to the social status of madmen.
Calling ones interlocutor mad is an insult between two military chiefs. In
the course of a dispute between Amomphiaretus, leader of the battalion of
Pitane, and the Spartan general Pausanias, the former took up a stone and
cast it down before Pausanias feet, crying that it was his pebble wherewith he
voted against fleeing from the foreigners. As he could not interpret this symbolic
act, Pausanias called him a madman and distraught.146 Hybris is a symptom
of political leaders madness,147 which results in the destruction of their city.
Furious and mad tyrants are determined to lead both the Gods and men.148 A
kings madness causes family, social and political misfortune. Astyages manifests
his insanity by ordering a slave to kill his daughters male offspring to prevent
him from ruling in his own place.149 According to the Egyptians, Cambyses
madness is caused by a religious crime150 and not by wine, as the Persians
state.151 Because of this mental state, Cambyses killed his brother Smerdis152 and
his sister, whom he had married.153 His insanity also resulted in the conquest
of his empire by the Medes.154
Social misconduct, such as running, wrestling, fighting and deceiving, follow
as the consequence of drinking excessive wine and subsequently going mad.155
Revealing divine purpose and foretelling events in the assembly of people is
insane political behaviour.156 A citizen loyal to his city would be behaving like a
madman if he avoided making any compact with anybody to suppress injustice.
Indeed, justice is accepted and approved as a thing honoured in the lack of vigour
to do injustice.157 Also, tragic poets and the state as a whole would be absolutely
mad if they gave permission to foreign actors to set up their stage before the
magistrates had decided whether or not the composition deserved to be made
public.158 Finally, we note a metaphorical usage of , possessing a social
connotation. The polymorphic aspect and function of a city is rendered by the
expression mad wine. This makes a comparison between
the enormous differences of wealth and character in a city and a bowl of mixed
wine, poured so that it foams madly.159
In reference to Sophistic education, indicates the maddened behaviour of Sophists and their disciples. According to Socrates, Sophists would be
mad if they corrupted young people without their knowledge.160 This idea is
rejected by Anytos, who thinks that young people are the true madmen because
they pay Sophists, and their parents are even madder in permitting them to
follow their perverse training.161 In turn, these young people call traditional philosophers insane because they teach the customary Athenian moral education
and denounce sophistic training as disadvantageous.162
The social aspect of is completed by usages indicating the status of
the insane in society. They are not allowed to participate in war163 nor appear

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publicly in the city. Their relatives should keep them indoors by all possible
means or be liable to a penalty.164 The language and behaviour of these insane
people must not be a model for imitation to a true honest man.165 Finally, a
virtuous man must never go mad.166
In conlusion, indicates for the most part passing and acquired
madness, caused by intense psychic or mental trouble and a lack of moral sense
or, possibly, divine interference. In the latter case, the mad have the benefit of
spiritual and intellectual faculties or they are subjected to divine anger which
makes them commit outrageous acts. Moreover, pathological insanity provoked
by diseases is usually permanent and mostly leads to death. In addition,
congenital madness is considered as a natural and temporary irrationality,
constant in all human beings at the very beginning of life.
Conclusion
In archaic and classic times, madness is caused by psychic and mental trouble
and manifests either as a vein of feeling or as family, religious or social misconduct. Usages of indicating divine madness occur in both periods.
Prophetic dementia and mantic beneficial power are common in all usages. By
contrast, divine destructive madness only appears in the archaic period. In this
period, is characterized by a pathological aspect resulting from either
diseases that affect an anatomical organ or physiological effects of illness or a
psychic trouble.
Compound verbs
E in the archaic period
In a divine context, used with the meaning to drive mad with passion,
conveys the furious love that Cybele instilled in her companion Attis.167
E in the classical period
Used in the middle voice and with a pathological connotation, is
found in Hippocrates and expresses an acutely disturbed state of mind that
mostly occurs in high fever, which is either the main cause of this mental state
or a symptom of another disease. When fever is the main cause, conveys
mad delirium, which, along with death, is one the final symptoms of other
physical and mental disorders.168 In every fever, patients who are in danger of
raving may suffer from a pain in the neck, which is one of the worst signs in such
cases.169 Madness as well as other mental and physical disorders is caused by
burning fever when regarded as a feature of other diseases, such as a headache
which increases through heavy drinking,170 a violent pain in the great toe,171 a
bad regimen,172 or a difficult labour and bad lochial discharge.173
Dementia is also present after one has been heated by drunkenness and sexual
indulgence174 or has drunk a quantity of undiluted wine.175 Additionally, in a

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deaf and sleepless person, insanity manifests itself just after he vomits greenish
material during a headache.176
In short, mad delirium, as a persistent disorder of the mental state, is consequent on physiological abnormality, such as fever or alcohol dependency, as
well as satisfaction resulting from having sex.
In the divine context, expresses the state of wild excitement and
ecstasy into which Dionysos drove all the women of Thebes in order to punish
them for not believing in his divine origin and status.177
E means to kindle mad desire by love or by fear. In the first context,
refers to Cypris, goddess of love and beauty, who drives a young man
mad for a girl.178 Moreover, alludes to Dejanira who attempted to
inflame Hercules passion with a love charm.179 Used with the second meaning,
is used in reference to the wild bull sent by Dionysos in order to drive
the four-horse team of Hippolytus mad with fear and cause them to drag him
to his death.
In short, indicates an insane mental state into which man and
animals are brought forcibly by divine intervention so that they may either feel
a great pleasure and happiness or commit brutal slaying.
E indicates the state of going mad through a religious crime. This
mental state leads the patient, e.g., Cambyses, to misbehave in both family
and society.180 However, the acquired aspect of his madness is disputed by
Herodotus who explains it as congenital epilepsy and subsequently permanent.
This illness is also called by others sacred disease. Herodotus, too, makes the
following reasonable remark: when the body suffers from a grave illness, it is
not surprising that the spirit is also affected. The way Herodotus speaks makes
clear that he was sceptical about a divine origin of madness and somehow fought
this belief, like Hippocrates.181 We then observe that the historian assimilates
congenital madness to the divine one.
In conclusion, a divine origin of mad delirium is expressed by usages of
in both archaic and classical times. In the human world, mad delirium
expresses a strong lust. By contrast, when referring to animals, it indicates a
wild and destructive excitement. Moreover, the Herodotean usage of
for the first time assimilates congenital madness to madness of divine origin.
Finally, severe mad delirium resulting from a physiological abnormality, mostly
an acute fever, occurs solely in Hippocrates treatise.
E in the archaic period
E means to feel an extreme and uncontrollable love.182
E in the classical period
With a social connotation, the verb occurs at Vesp. 744. refers
to the judicial madness of Lovecleon who used to spend all his time as a juror,

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judging others. In the family context, , possessing as subject ,

conveys the insane delirium of the mind of Clytemnestra, who stained her
soul by killing her husband.183 Used metaphorically, , possessing as
subject , occurs in a military context. It refers to air that is
going mad with the brandishing of spears.184
Usages of are less frequent in the archaic than in the classical
period. During the earlier period, the verb possesses a loving connotation. By
contrast, in the classical period it indicates unusual social conduct of a citizen
or insane furore which causes irreparable damage within a family. Metaphorical
usage of expresses violent furore in battle.
I
In Aristotle, the verb means to be horsing, or in heat: said of mares.185

In the archaic period, refers to Cybele who inspires an old man with
love.186 By contrast, indicates the rage of man-slaying Ares shouting
around the grove of Phoebus Apollo.187

occurs once in Hippocrates.188

Nominal derivatives
in the archaic period
expresses primarly love fury that is complete189 or followed by mental
disorder ().190 Moreover, the spirits of Madness () that Eros
nursed are considered cruel and disastrous. For example, Troy was destroyed
because of Helens elopement with Paris, Theseus because he accompanied
Pirithoos in an attempt to carry off Persephone, and Ajax because of his rape
of Cassandra.191
In a familial context, was used to indicate the divine madness that
made the possessed person, Orestes, commit matricide.192
In sum, the divine and emotional aspects of madness are strongly emphasized.
in the classical period
Used with a pathological connotation, occurs in Hippocrates, Aristoteles,
Plato and Herodotus.
In Hippocrates, like other diseases and also death, is a mental trouble
predictable by a doctor.193 Derangement () and dementia ()
are considered dangerous mental afflictions because they produce suffering to
the brain and the other glands.194 Insane people may hallucinate that they have
to cross rivers or face an enemy in arms or strange monsters.195

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Madness can be caused by pathological abnormalities. A patient with an

abnormally high body temperature goes mad because of the internal heat
from the fever and the exterior heat.196 Moreover, a continuous fever followed
by physical pain can generate insanity.197 Mental illness is also produced by
either prolonged involuntary muscle contractions in a persons limbs198 or an
inflammation due to intoxication and unhealthy nourishment, especially too
much flesh.199 Irregularity of internal organs also gives rise to insanity. This can
result from a gathering of blood in a womans breasts, which is called puerperal
madness,200 as well as an infection of varicose veins and haemorrhoids (see
above, p. 314). An extreme abnormality of bile can also lead to insanity.201 This
mental state is also provoked spontaneously or by a disease, such as typhoid
fever.202 Additionally, dementia may occur after swellings on wounds disappear
suddenly. The after-effects of the disappearance are either wounds behind that
are followed by sudden involuntary convulsions and bacterial disease, e.g.,
tetanus, or wounds in front that are followed by delirium, physical discomfort,
or an infectious disease, such as suppuration or dysentery, if the swellings are
inclined to be red.203
Another possible cause of insanity is a difference of temperature between
the fire and the water in the soul during steam baths. If the fire in the soul is
overpowered by the water, people can then become either senseless or grossly
stupid. Incapacity of sensation and lack of intelligence or common sense which
are considered as madness are manifested by slowness in performing a specified
action and an unstable emotional state.204
In a persistent distress, melancholy is determined by physical diseases, e.g.,
apoplexy of the whole body, convulsions or blindness, or mental disorder,
e.g., madness.205 As discussed above, in patients with melancholy and in those
with phrenitis, derangement and madness are caused when blood is disordered
by bile and phlegm (see above, p. 315). The difference between melancholy
and phrenitis is related to the strength of the bile producing them: weaker in
phrenitis than in melancholy, so the derangement and madness are also less
intense (Potter, 1988: 178, n.1).206
Pathological abnormalities are not only causes but also symptoms of madness. Infection of the intestines, sweat and an increase of the maniacal symp207

toms, helping to bring the disease to a crisis ( )
are considered good
symptoms that follow madness.
In Aristotle, madness occurs intermittently in patients suffering by nature
from black bile as a result of an acute fever.208 Moreover, madness, as well as
epilepsy, can diminish the logical powers of the mind.209 People affected by
insanity are not able to distinguish two distinct realities, e.g., between objects
that are really beautiful and those which seem to be beautiful by convention.210
Additionally, they are subject to committing dreadful acts, such as sacrificing
and devouring ones mother or eating the heart of ones fellow slave.211 Madness
may be cured by medical treatments that, along with a special diet, have the
purpose of eliminating disease from the body and consequently the soul.212

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Aristotles History of Animals is the only text to provide us with information

about madness in dogs or rabies ( / ).213
In Plato, madness is considered as a mental disease, like deficiencies of
hearing, seeing and all other kinds of physical feelings or perceptions.214 The
sole difference between madness and other mental diseases is in its duration.215
A mentally ill person continues to be capable of bodily feelings. Therefore, he
does not imagine that he is joyful when he is not, nor that he is suffering when
he is not.216
Finally, in Herodotus, refers to Cleomenes madness caused
by drunkenness.217
To conclude, Hippocrates and Aristotle use to describe both the
causes of a phenomenon and its symptoms. In contrast, Plato deals solely with
its manifestations. It is worth noting that in Aristotle we have the first explicit
reference to treatments, provided by a doctor, intended to relieve or heal ,
as well as the sole reference to animal madness and its cause.
In contrast to pathological madness caused by human diseases, a source of
misfortune, divine delirium frees a person from customary laws218 and provides
all kinds of benefits.219
In Plato, there are four aspects of the divine delirium associated with four
gods. Apollo grants the first, divinatory inspiration. From Dionysos comes
mystic inspiration. The Muses confer poetic inspiration. The fourth and highest
of all is love, inspired by Aphrodite and Eros.220
According to the ancient Greeks, divinatory delirium is, by its beauty,
superior to human wisdom () that men create.221 The faculty of
divination as a divine gift is thus predominant over a moral quality considered
a human invention. The ancient Greek conception of the beneficent role of the
prophetic delirium honourable and glorious is illustrated by the adjective
indicating the supreme art, i.e., the deliriant art ( ) of
discerning the future.222
A person possessed by Dionysiac delirium is able to cast out diseases and
hardships by means of prayers to the gods and purifying rites. Ritual dementia
then enables the possessed to get free from present and future difficulties.223
As discussed above (see above, p. 316), Dionysiac dementia was inflicted on
of the Theban women as a punishment for their religious impiety.224
The poetic impulse constitutes the third kind of divine madness under the
creative inspiration of the Muses. Without inspiration, there is no poetry,
because technical ability alone is not sufficient. Purity and delicacy of the soul
are inseparable from this poetic inspiration. Divine inspiration and integrity
of soul are necessary conditions for the poets performing the creative and
pedagogical task of composing verses that glorify the accomplishments of the
ancients and educate posterity.225
The fourth kind of divine dementia is Love although the beneficial role
ascribed to it by Socrates is sometimes disputed. Indeed, the philosopher argues

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that if the delirium of Love is good, it will then be good both for the person
loved and also for the lover.226 As the source of the greatest goods that can
befall us,227 the madness of Love results from the shock of emotion caused by
sensuous beauty. By the sight of a beautiful object, one is reminded of the true
Beauty and wants to fly upward. Yet one has not the power, but inasmuch as
one gazes upward like a bird, regardless of the world beneath, one is considered
demented.228 Beauty, then, evokes recollection, which is not always easy. For
some souls had seen little of the vision, and some have forgotten what they
saw, being corrupted by evil associations.229 When moved by earthly beauty,
one is deprived of self-possession and is subsequently passive and shaken out
of ones adjustment to the real world. For earthly beauty can strike the receptive
mind efficiently and powerfully. This kind of Love is the best of all the kinds
of ecstatic enthusiasm. The madman who falls in love with a beautiful human
being is, under such circumstances, called .230 He whose vision of the
mystery is fresh, and who saw much vision contemplates a physical Beauty,
first trembling convulsively, then feeling a deep wonder and reverence as at the
sight of a god; but, to avoid the risk of being regarded as an actual madman,
he abstains from offering sacrifice to his beloved, as one otherwise might to a
holy image.231 As a true amorous passion, ravishment, devotion, `
provides to lovers a great reward. After death, their souls will leave the body with
budding wings. Once having taken the first steps on the celestial highway, they
will walk together in a life of gleaming happiness and will no more return to dark
pathways beneath the earth.232 This point of view is intended eschatologically.
Sincere and heartfelt love is a means of salvation, and salvation is achieved
only, though always, where true love exists (Pieper, 1962: 88).
In Sophocles, Euripides and Aristotle, is often seen as a divine punishment. Upon seeing the bloody face of Oedipus, the Chorus wonders about the
god who has given [thee] sorrow which almost exceeds the imaginable limit
of human suffering.233 The madness of Ajax inspired by Athene (see above,
pp. 31617) is mostly regarded as a disease ()234 or an ill ().235
This madness is caused by the disgrace of the hero,236 who, believing that he
is killing the two Atreids, slaughters sheep and cattle.237 Moreover, this divine
madness makes Ajax refuse the sympathy of the Chorus.238 Heracles regrets
that he contemplated the dementia instilled by Cypris.239 Indeed, the goddess of
Love inspired his desire for Iole, which gave rise to his misfortunes. Heracles
madness also manifests itself in the mental trouble that leads him to assassinate
his children.240 This mental state was provoked by Lyssa at the instigation of
Here and Iris (see above, p. 317) as an expression of their hate for Zeus son.241
As indicated above (p. 316), madness is imposed by the Erinyes on Orestes
as a retribution for his matricide.242 Pursued by the Erinyes, supernatural personifications of the anger of the dead Clytemnestra, he runs as if mad.243 Divine
dementia causes him abnormal pathological physical, psychic and mental
symptoms. It makes him shout like an animal244 and causes rolling bloodshed

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in his roving eyeballs, which is a manifestation of the blood he has shed (West,
1987: 241).245 It gives birth to fear,246 intense psychological pain, convulsive
trouble of his hands247 and hallucinations, making him imagine himself in
imminent danger248 and fighting the Erinyes, while in reality he is attacking
heifers.249 At the end of the crisis, Orestes falls down, foam dripping from his
chin.250 Accomplishing Apollos wish to steal the statue of Artemis is the sole
way for him to avoid the madness of the Erinyes and be purified.251
In sum, divine madness possesses a double aspect. As a divine gift, it has a
beneficial function of bestowing on the maddened person divinatory, creative
and poetic faculties, as well as love, pleasure and happiness. When maleficent,
divine madness is inflicted as punishment to a person hated by the gods.
is prompted either by emotional reactions such as fear, bellicose fury
or anger, or an agreeable affective state such as desire, love or pleasure. Upon
learning of her future wanderings, Io feels fear that results in violent pain,
followed by convulsions and delirium.252 These physio-pathological troubles
are accompanied by convulsive rolling of the eyeballs, great verbal violence and
confusion of thought.253
In the divine world, bacchic furore appears in battle. Dionysos, who here
somewhat resembles the martial nature of Ares, intervenes in the battle in order
to disperse a terrified army before the fight has begun.254 By contrast, can
result from the fury of a fighter, as in the case of Neoptolemus, determined to
take revenge for his fathers death.255
can be provoked by the violent anger a person feels upon seeing his
rival. In front of Euripides, Aeschylus displays his fury by rolling his eyeballs,
which is a sign of brief mental trouble.256 can also result from anger
related to the impetuous desires of love.257 Finally, is used to express
the furious anger of a noble person, such as Lycurgus, son of the king Dryas,
hostile to Dionysos cult.258
Corporal desire is considered as a source of and passion (), to
which all human souls are subject. This avoids Hades retaining them in the
Underworld by chaining them with the desire of virtue.259
In intemperate people comes from a violent pleasure. The madness
manifests itself in furious and dreadful cries.260
When caused by love, indicates a lovers fury that may provoke the fear
of the beloved.261 Love and the resulting furore are replaced by reason () and
wisdom () when the lover ceases loving. In this sense the opposites
of love and madness are seen as reason and wisdom, respectively.262
resulting from emotion affects both divine and human beings. By
contrast, as a result of sexual desire and the pleasure of love, violently
attacks the souls of mortals.
In a martial context, can indicate an unwise military tactic. This usage
occurs twice in Herodotus. The Persians, preparing for the imminent arrival of

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the Athenians, observed that they came on the run without cavalry or archers.
This tactic was judged by the Persians as a frenzy that would cause their utter
destruction.263 Xerxes men also consider the offensive of the Greeks to be
madnsess, since they have only a few ships.264
Used with a pejorative meaning, refers to religious, familial, and social
turpitude.
In Aristophanes, religious madness possesses a contradictory aspect. Indeed,
refers to committing impious acts, denying Zeus existence, or, on the
other hand, deep devotion to him. At Thesm. 680, indicates a
demented person committing sacrileges. At Nub. 83233 alludes to
Strepsiades declaration that the world is ruled by chaos, Zeus having been
dethroned. By contrast, at Pax 65 refers to the pious attitude of Trygaeus
who kept muttering to himself about how he could ever get even with Zeus.
In a family context, is used with regard to either the madness of husbands when their wives are away from home265 (see above, p. 318) or the series
of murders committed in the royal Mycenaean family, i.e., Iphigeneias sacrifice
by her father and then his assassination by Clytemnestra as vengeance for her
daughters death.266 Also, a fathers neglecting the education of his children for
the sake of wealth is considered madness.267
In a moral and social context, can exert a beneficial or maleficent
influence. As wisdom and passion, beneficial madness gives birth to moral
qualities, such as power () and bravery (). These qualities are,
respectively, opposed to force (`) and courage () resulting from
nature and good nourishment (o`  ) of the body and
soul.268 With a maleficent aspect, madness indicates behaviour against moral
and social principles. comes from degenerating courage, which leads
to moral decadence.269 As unethical behaviour, madness is compatible with
licentiousness and violence.270

Within a society, destructive is equal to ,
the primary cause of
bad actions271 and a corrupted lifestyle.272 When accompanied by a maleficent
spirit (), madness causes unjust financial conditions, with bad
people becoming rich by unjust gains, while others who are honest suffer from
hunger.273 Moreover, madness abolishes moral values in a society. Under
the effects of madness, citizens deny the just politics that their city follows in
honouring gods.274 In addition, madness provokes a strong feeling of getting
corrupted by Sophists education.275
Innovations in art are constantly parodied by Aristophanes. At Vesp. 1486,
hints at madness in Lovecleon dressed up in Polyphemus clothing and
performing a grotesque dance parodying Euripides Cyclops.276 Aristophanes
intends to satirize the poets coming after Phrynichos for having introduced into
tragedy new dances with contortions and pirouettes.
Destructive madness plays a role auxiliary to Love ( ), nourished and
growing from other desires. In its most advanced stages, Love creates a wild
and uncontrolled insanity so that if it finds any shameful opinions or appetites in

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the lover, it slays them and pushes them out until it purges his soul of sobriety
and infects it with frenzy. This is the generation of the tyrannical man, who
exercises power in a cruel, unreasonable and arbitrary way.277
When they held power, the Thirty Tyrants recast laws, including one
regarding the social status of the citizens suffering from . Until then,
Athenian law had authorized all citizens to offer their goods to anyone they
wanted unless the givers were mad, weakened by old age or influenced by a
woman. This clause was abolished by the Thirty Tyrants in order to deprive
sycophants of all kinds of actions regarded as undesirable.278
In conclusion, is a mental trouble caused by ferocious or agreeable
affective states and also by pathological disorders, in which case it can be predicted and healed by a doctor. Divine beneficial madness grants people poetic
gifts and happiness. In contrast, divine maleficent madness is destructive
and is inflicted on those the god intends to punish. The pernicious aspect of
, as insane misconduct, manifests to the detriment of religious, moral and
social values.
Contrary to the usages of in texts from the archaic period, usages in
classical times are more frequent and richer in connotation. In the totality
of usages, only the emotional and divine aspects of madness are common to
both eras.

With a pathological connotation, occurs in Hippocrates, Aristophanes

and Aristotle.
In Hippocrates, madness occurs in spring and autumn.279 In acute fevers,
insanity is announced by deafness280 and can solve them as long as the
patient does not suffer from cardialgia. However, bile inhibits this reaction.281
Moreover, madness followed by death occurs when the teeth grind in fever,
if this has not been a habit from childhood.282 Being affected with nausea and
vomiting makes the voice shrill and the eyes take on a wool-like covering, which
causes delirium. In some cases, patients become speechless.283 In elderly people
suffering from headaches or heaviness of the head, madness can occur after they
become dizzy at the same time as the pains go away and along with paralysis
or blindness.284 Additionally, people suffering from opisthotonos, a spasm of
the muscles causing backward arching of the head, neck and spine, become
mad.285 Finally, high and rapid blood circulation in the veins can make people
irascible and even mad.286
In Aristophanes, denotes an expression in the eyes revealing a mental
state. At Pl. 424, Povertys gaze is characterized as troubled and tragic. This
permits a comparison to Erinyes, whose terrible aspect arouses fear.287
In Aristotle, the term refers to those who are frenzied by excessive wine288 or
by genetic causes, such as degeneration of lineage,289 as well as an increase and
heating of black bile. Indeed, excess and heat of the bile exert an influence on
the psychic and mental state making a person exalted, brilliant, sensual, and

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sometimes loquacious.290 The heat can attack the seat of intelligence, i.e., the
breast and heart ( ), producing madness or inspiration. This is
the case with sibyls, seers and all possessed people whose psychic state can be
explained by a natural temperament and not by a disease.291 We may observe
that Aristotle does not consider prophetic dementia as a divine gift, but rather
the result of a pathological cause.
In conclusion, Hippocrates and Aristotle lay stress on pathological causes of
madness. Also, Hippocrates singles out its recoverable and beneficial aspect. In
contrast, Aristophanes describes only the physical signs of madness.
Ritual dementia manifests in bacchic transports () and all kinds
of mad dances inspired by Dionysos, who seeks to take revenge for Heres
deranged judgement.292 Wine and religious dancing represent two great benefits
given by Dionysos to mankind.293
With an expressive connotation, indicates those who feel a strong
and violent emotion. Their inclination to anger displays exaltation rather than
courage.294 Moreover, makes reference to both agreeable feelings,
such as the pleasure of love (the most furious)295 and great psychic suffering.
Indeed, the greatest and most violent pleasures cause mad pains that disturb
the human soul.296
Madness and genius are considered as creative poetic impulses. Skills in
poetry are granted to naturally gifted men and to the exalted who abandon
themselves to poetic delirium.297
In reference to the art of speech, can describe a speaker formulating
contradictory arguments so that he may not succeed in convincing his
interlocutor.298
In a social context, alludes to thoughts and actions contrary to social
conventions, even considered as violent.299 Moreover, described
the grotesque dance performed by Lovecleon, disguised in Polyphemus, to
parody Euripides Cyclops.300
In the light of the usages of indicating a madman and and
expressing madness, we observe that mental trouble may be caused by
genetic disorders. Madness manifests itself in unreflecting feelings as well as
by unreasoned thoughts and actions. In contrast to the maleficent aspect of
madness, a beneficial one results in poetic skill.

The adverb occurs in Hippocrates and Plato.

In Hippocrates, describes one of the pathological symptoms of
arachnitis. On the seventeeth day of the fever, the patient chews or swallows
avidly and angrily (). On the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth days
the patient is caught by manic delirium: he shouts, he makes an effort to get
up, as he cannot support his head, he extends his hands at arms length, and
continuously waves them in the air.301

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In Plato, expresses the mad behaviour of some philosophers

within society. Indeed, they appear disguised as statesmen and sometimes
as sophists.302
In an emotional context, is used to describe a person
attacked by the madness of love and neglecting mundane matters.303
denotes pathological insanity as well as unreasoning behaviour.

occurs in Hippocrates, Thucydides and Euripides.

In Hippocrates, is used to describe maniacs and also diseases related
to madness or organs whose dysfunction causes madness. indicates
those maniacs who have become blind because of an unexpected spasm.304
People with a bilious breast are subject to stammering, madness and baldness.305
designates the illness from which young people suffer in winter.306 In
bald people, small varicose veins can also lead to madness.307
In contrast to the usages with a pathological connotation that constantly
occurr in Hippocrates, can refer to the speech of a statesman. In
Thuc. IV, 39, 3, 23, describes Cleons unrealistic and mad
promise to bring the Athenian army back from Pylos in a short time.
With a divinatory connotation, o` occurs in Euripides indicating
bacchic delirium.308

In the archaic period, can indicate a demented woman, e.g,. the goddess
Demeter driven mad upon seeing Hermes,309 and Hecuba upon hearing of
Hectors death.310
In the classical period, makes reference to the Bacchants or Maenads
from Asia, Dionysos devoted companions, who compose the Chorus in
Euripides play of the same name.311 also describes the Erinyes who
resemble Dionysiac maenads in their wild appearance, their violent dancing
and their mercilessness towards those who offend them (Sommerstein, 1989:
174). One of their tasks is to watch the dead.312
can indicate a noble woman, such as Cassandra, transported by
prophetic delirium inspired by Apollo (Perdicoyianni, 1992: 60).313 We should
also note an adjectival use of indicating the bird of love delirium that
Aphrodite first brought to humans.314
As a substantive, / generally indicates a woman or group of
women under the influence of prophetic, ritual dementia.
(Aeolian, Dorian: ),
In the archaic period, (Meillet, 1932: 1302) indicates a raving
woman315 or a raving heart.316

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In classical times, occurs in Aeschylus. At Suppl. 109,

reveals the furious intention of the pursuers of Danaus daughters,
who, fleeing a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt, turn to King Pelasgos
of Argos for protection.

The term means furious. In Euripides, it is used as a qualifier with ,317

,318 , indicating Orestes madness inspired by the Erinyes319 as well
as to express the mothers shed blood that makes him mad (West, 1987: 183).320
The nominal compounds
A
In Herodotus, the term possesses two meanings, indicating with regard to
the political leader, Cleomenes,321 both at the limit of his madness and completely mad.

In the Iliad, is used twice by Hector to insult Paris as being mad

of women.322

At Eur. Suppl. 485, the term is used in reference to the Greeks raging with
the spear.

With a pathological connotation, ` refers to young peoples

tendency to excessive wine-drinking.323 In the animal world, is used
of female elephants in the rutting season.324
indicates one or a group of maddened women under divine
inspiration. At Bacch. 1094, refers to the Theban women, who, having
been driven mad by Dionysos,325 tore Pentheus to pieces. At Eur. El. 1253,
makes a reference to demented Orestes driven mad by the Erinyes. His
madness could be thought of as a direct consequence of murder-pollution or
as an experience [sic] form of terror associated with the murderers anticipation
and experience of the Erinyes (Cropp, 1988: 184). These can also corrupt
young men, making them mad with a fierce spirit that does not result from
wine (Sommerstein, 1989: 252). Indeed, wine causes rowdiness and violence,
which is a social danger.326 Divine madness can also afflict a monster, such as
Cyclops, maddened by Here.327
For a god, metamorphosing a person into a delirious animal is a way to
realize his plans and to satisfy his pleasure. At Aesch. PV, Zeus, seduced by Ios
beauty, changes her into a mad heifer to escape Heres detection. At PV 675,

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333

describes the mad leap of Io, transformed into the heifer,

when she leaves her paternal house.
In sum, is a qualifier used with regard to both human and legendary
monsters, whose madness is mostly inflicted by a god as a punishment.
Used in coordination with , describes Cambyses, driven
mad by a religious crime.328
With an emotional meaning, denotes madness provoked by love or
anger. Love, the fourth platonic category of delirium, is accompanied by fury
in a temperate person. By contrast, in the intemperate it is characterized by
excessive fury.329 E expresses furore provoked by a persons actions. In
a family context, the term is used as a qualifier for Clytemnestra, driven mad
by Electras stealing Orestes and smuggling him away.330
Briefly, the divine aspect of is more frequent than the affective one.
Usages with a pathological connotation occur least often.

The word is used in Aeschylus and Euripides. In the former, it is used to indicate
Oedipus family, hated by the gods.331 In the latter, Io uses to refer to
Creusa as being in a fit of divine madness because she claims that she is his
mother.332 Also, describes Orestes rage, sent by the Eumenides.333
Used metaphorically, refers to Helens fatal destiny.334
In short, is used as qualifier indicating divine and destructive
madness.
H
In Aristophanes, ` refers to a sun-crazed cicada.335

At Eur. Phoenissae 792, the term indicates the thyrsus-maddened god.

I
The term occurs mostly in Aristotle and indicates a small black fleshy substance on the forehead of a new-born foal, which, if procured before it was
eaten off by the dam, was held to be a powerful .336 It also is used for a
mucous that runs from mares in heat and is used by women who make philtres,
.337
At Soph. Aj. 144, o` are the words the plain wild with
horses, i.e., on which great numbers of horses (out to pasture) disport themselves (Jebb, 2004: 33).

At Aesch. Ag. 1140, is used of Cassandra who, under the influence of

Apollonian dementia, dances wildly, with mad, distracted speech and gestures.

334

HISTORY OF PSYCHIATRY 20(3)

At Aristoph. Thesm. 961, refers to the mad way the women of

the Chorus perform their circular dance in celebration of the Olympian gods.

In archaic times, the term designates a madly lustful woman.338

Conclusion
In the light of the above data, we can draw the following conclusions:
1. The verbal group of is less productive in archaic than in classical
times.
2. In the archaic period, divine madness is well represented. It is considered
a mental trouble affecting gods, such as: Dionysos, who manifests
bacchic frenzy; Ares, driven mad by martial or love fury; Demeter,
driven insane upon seeing Hermes; and Eros, source of human disasters.
Moreover, divine madness is inspired in men by gods either as a benefit,
e.g., divinatory art as well as love passion, or as an atrocious impulsion,
even to committing matricide.
In the human world, madness manifests as a psychic state caused by
a feeling of cruelty such as military fury, or a strong emotion such as
pleasure, love, fear or moral pain. Madness can also possess an immoral
connotation when affecting the spirit of citizens so that they behave to
the detriment of religious, social and political values.
We should note that the ferocious pleasure of monsters, e.g.,
Cyclops and the Centaurus Eurytion, in behaving contrary to the rules
of hospitality and social conventions are infrequent appearances of
in the uncivilized world.
3. In the classical period, divine madness is contrasted with pathological
madness. Indeed, madness is more often considered a psychic and
mental disease, resulting from either a genetic or an adventitious cause
and predictable by doctors, as well as curable by medical treatments.
This new approach reflects the rational knowledge of the Greeks about
the origin and the treatment of madness and the lessening of the wider
belief that all kinds of mental troubles are caused by divine intervention
against which all human action is ineffective.
As a passing trouble of the psychic faculties, madness is provoked by
a strong emotion.
As a mental trouble, madness manifests as a passing alteration of
reasoning, preventing the patient from making correct judgements and
good decisions.
Moral transgression of religious, family and social norms is the last
manifestation of madness.

H. PERDICOYIANNI-PALOLOGOU: VOCABULARY OF MADNESS. 1

335

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[Part 2 of this paper will be published in History of Psychiatry, 20 (4)]

336

HISTORY OF PSYCHIATRY 20(3)

Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.

Hom. Il. 6, 132.

Heracl. fr 15, l. 14 (Diels-Kranz).
Heracl. fr 92, l. 35 (Diels-Kranz).
Hom. Od. 11, 537.
Hom. Il. 5, 7147.
Bacchyl. Epin. 13, 11920 (Snell &
Maehler).
Alcm. fr. 68 (Page).
The Anacreontea, fr. 9, l. 1315
(Edmonds)
Hom. Il. 9, 23739.
Hom. Il. 15, 6036.
Hom. Il. 5, 1847.
Hom. Il. 24, 114, 135.
Hom. Il. 8, 413.
Hom. Il. 8, 1101; 16, 745.
Hom. Il. 5, 1847.
Hom. Od. 18, 40640.
The Anacreontea fr. 9, l. 13, 79
(Edmonds).
The Anacreontea fr. 60B, 12
(Edmonds).
Anac., fr. 83, 12 (Page).
The Anacreontea fr. 12, 912
(Edmonds).
Hom. Od. 9, 3501.
Solon fr. 10, l. 49 (Gerber).
Heracl. fr 5, l. 15 (Diels-Kranz).
Thgn. Elegy I, 104954 (Gerber).
Thgn. Elegy I, 31314 (Gerber).
Hom. Od. 21, 2978.
Hom. Od. 21, 3014.
Hippoc. Loc. 33, 12; Jud. 49, 12.
Hippoc. Morb. 2, 22, 610.
Hippoc. Prorrh. 2, 2, 915.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 5, 1, 2, 12.
Eur. Cyc. 61718.
Hdt.. 6, 84, 14, 1114.
Hippoc. Affect. int. 29, 24.
Hippoc. Morb. sacr. 17, 910.
Hippoc. Morb. sacr. 17, 1419.
Hippoc. Morb. sacr. 18, 18.
Hippoc. Progn. 7, 610.
Hippoc. Aph. 6, 21, 12.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 4, 1, 58, 12.
Hippoc. Aph. 5, 65, 12; Morb. pop. 2,
3, 18, 23.
Hippoc. Di. I, 35, 9196.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 2, 6, 32, 12.

44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.

56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.

Hippoc. Morb. pop. 2, 6, 14, 23.

Hippoc. Loc. 32, 38.
Hippoc. Loc. 39, 17.
Hippoc. Morb. 1, 30, 711.
Arist. Pr. 956b, 40 957a, 13.
Arist. Pr. 948a, 2325.
Arist. Eth. Nic. 1111a, 67.
Arist. Ethica Nic. 1112a, 1921.
Arist. Eth. Nic. 1115b, 268.
Arist. Gen. corr. 325a, 1921.
Arist. Eth. Nic. 1149b, 341950a, 1.
Arist. Hist. an. 577a, 1112. On the
horsing, cf. Arist. Hist. an. 572a, 10, 21,
27; 577a, 9; 605a, 2.
Pl. Leg. 2, 672c, 14.
Pl. Leg. 934d, 1934e, 2.
Pl. Phdr. 245a, 58.
Pl. Ion 56.
Pl. Ion 536d, 13.
Aesch. Ag. 109899.
Aesch. Ag.10647.
On the other four types of divine
madness, see p. 325.
Pl. Phdr. 244a, 9244b, 6.
Eur. Bacch. 3001.
Hdt. 3, 79, 2.
Hdt. 4, 79, 1017.
Soph. Ant. 114952.
Eur. Bacch. 1296.
See below p. 331
Eur. Or. 135.
Eur. Or. 338.
Eur. Or.425.
Ar. Ach. 11667.
Soph. Aj. 81.
Soph. Aj. 40.
Soph. Aj. 5165.
Eur. HF 8401.
Eur. HF 8303.
Eur. HF 8367.
Eur. HF 952, 1137.
Eur. HF 9323.
Eur. HF 9334.
Eur. HF 935.
Eur. HF 9471000.
Eur. HF 1013.
Eur. HF 118990.
Hdt. 8, 140, 1213.
Eur. Phoen. 5315.

H. PERDICOYIANNI-PALOLOGOU: VOCABULARY OF MADNESS. 1

90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.

Ar. Lys. 55556.

Aesch. Sept. 3434.
Aesch. Sept. 4835.
Aesch. Sept. 9347.
Hdt. 8, 77, 6 .
Eur. Phoen. 11247.
Aesch. PV 9778.
Eur. Med. 8745.
Soph. Trach. 4458.
Soph. Trach. 4412.
Soph. Ant. 78790.
Eur. Hipp. 241, 2478.
Pl. Phdr. 244 a 47.
Pl. Resp. 578a, 1012.
Eur. Hipp. 127475; Med. 4323.
Pind. Pyth. II, 2627.
Eur. Hec. 1280; Eur. IA 12512.
Eur. IA 876.
Soph. Ant. 7635.
Soph. El. 87980.
Soph. El. 115354.
Eur. Md. 112931.
Eur. Cyc. 465.
Pl. Leg. 888a, 23.
Eur. Cyc. 164.
Arist. Mir. ausc. 832b 212.
Eur. Cyc. 168.
Ar. Ran. 103.
Aesch. Supp. 5624.
Eur. IA 4041.
Ar. Thesm. 7923.
Ar. Ran. 751.
Aesch. Sept. 77784.
Aesch. Sept. 967.
Soph. Aj. 8989; 9067.
Pl. Prt. 323a, 8 323b, 2.
Pl. Symp. 173e, 23.
Eur. IA 12902.
Hippoc. Prorrh. II, 2, 1315.
Pl. Tht. 158a, 9158b, 4.
Eur. Bacch. 397401; IA 12556.
Pl. Prt. 350b, 16; Prt. 350c, 13.
Eur. IA 3889.
Hdt. I, 211, 57.
Eur. Ion 526.
Pl. Lys. 205a, 67.
Pl. Prt. 360b, 46.
Eur. Bacch. 3256, 3589.
Ar. Nub. 14767.
Ar. Pax 549.

140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.

151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.

337

Hdt. III, 38, 13, 78.

Eur. Bacch. 9971001.
Eur. Bacch. 8847.
Ar. Ran. 41.
Ar. Ran. 564.
Ar. Plut. 1070.
Hdt. 9, 55, 11112.
Soph. OC 15367.
Pl. Resp. 573c, 35.
Hdt. I, 109, 58.
Hdt. 3, 30, 12. Concerning the crime
that caused Cambyses madness, cf.
Hdt. 3, 29, 114.
Hdt. 3, 34, 710; 35, 1213.
Hdt. 3, 30, 217.
Hdt. 3, 31, 132, 20.
Pl. Leg. 3, 695b 46.
Hippoc. Di. 24, 810.
Pl. Euthphr. 3c, 12.
Pl. Resp. 359a, 9359b, 4.
Pl. Leg. 817c8817d, 3.
Pl. Leg. 773c 8 d 2.
Pl. Menex. 92a, 26.
Pl. Menex. 92a 68.
Ar. Nub. 932.
Arist. Poet. 1451a 2627.
Pl. Leg. 934c, 6934d, 5.
Pl. Resp. 396a, 35.
Pl. Resp. 396b, 67.
The Anacreontea fr. 12, l. 14
(Edmonds).
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 1, 3, 13(8), 78.
Hippoc. Prorrh. 73, 12; Co Pres. 267,
12.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 3, 2, 4, 10.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 1, 3, 13(9), 7.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 3, 3, 17(13),
1415.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 3, 3, 17(14), 9.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 3, 3, 17(16), 13.
Hippoc. Morb. pop. 4, 1, 15, 810.
Hipp. Prorrh. 10, 12. Co Pres. 165,
12.
Eur. Bacch. 356.
Ar. Eccl. 967.
Soph. Trach. 1141.
Hdt. 3, 33, 134, 1; 3, 37, 37, 12.
Hippoc. Morb. sacr. 1, 16.
Anac. fr. 14, 13 (Page).
Aesch. Ag. 14267.

338
184. Aesch. Sept.155.
185. Arist. Hist. an. 572a 10.
186. T h e A n a c r e o n t e a f r . 5 3 , l . 3 5
(Edmonds).
187. Hes. Sc. 98100.
188. On the meaning of the word, see
above p. 314.
189. T h e A n a c r e o n t e a f r . 6 0 B , 1 2
(Edmonds).
190. Anac. fr. 53, 12 (Page).
191. Thgn. Elegy I, 12314 (Gerber).
192. Hecat. 1a, 1 fr. 107, l. 2 (Jacoby).
193. Hippoc. Prorrh. 2, 1, 912; 2, 2, 57;
2, 2, 201.
194. Hippoc. Aph. 15, 13.
195. Hipp. Di. 4, 93, 235.
196. Hippoc. Loc. 33, 13.
197. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 7, 1, 25, 27.
198. Hippoc. Loc. 39, 911.
199. Hippoc. Di. 1, 35, 858.
200. Hippoc. Aph. 5, 40, 12.
201. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 4, 1, 2, 7.
202. Hippoc. De iud. 42, 2; 7, 1, 11, 345.
203. Hippoc. Aph. 5, 65, 16.
204. Hippoc. Di. 1, 35, 5661.
205. Hippoc. Aph. 6, 56, 14.
206. Hippoc. Morb. 1, 30, 1213.
207. Hippoc. Aph. 7, 5, 12.
208. Arist. Pr. 860b, 2224.
209. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1149a, 912.
210. Arist. Gen. cor. 325a, 1923.
211. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1148b, 257.
212. Arist. Phygn 808b, 216.
213. Arist. Hist. an. 604a, 56.
214. Pl. Tht 157e, 14 .
215. Pl. Tht 158d, 89.
216. Pl. Phlb 36e, 58.
217. Hdt. 6, 75, 45.
218. Pl. Phrdr. 265a 911.
219. Pl. Phrdr. 244a 69; 245b, 12.
220. Pl. Phdr. 245b, 26; 265a, 67.
221. Pl. Phdr. 245d, 35.
222. Pl. Phrdr. 244b 7244c, 3.
223. Pl. Phdr. 244d, 6244e, 5.
224. Eur. Bacch. 334.
225. Pl. Phdr. 245a, 14.
226. Pl. Phdr. 244b, 8 244c,1.
227. Pl. Phdr. 266a,7266b, 1.
228. Pl. Phdr. 244d, 4244e, 2.
229. Pl. Phdr. 250a, 1250b, 1.

HISTORY OF PSYCHIATRY 20(3)

230.
231.
232.
233.
234.
235.
236.
237.
238.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
276.
277.
278.
279.

Pl. Phdr. 244e, 1244e, 4.

Pl. Phdr. 251a, 2 6.
Pl. Phdr. 256d, 5256d, 2.
Soph. Aj. 12991302.
Soph. Aj. 56, 66, 186, 271, 274, 280.
Soph. Aj. 274, 280.
Soph. Aj. 221617.
Soph. Aj. 5665.
Soph. Aj. 60911.
Soph. Trach. 9979.
Eur. HF 8357.
Eur. HF 840.
Eur. Or. 400.
Eur. IT 824.
Eur. IT 2934.
Eur. Or. 8368.
Eur. Or. 532.
Eur. IT 2834.
Eur. IT 28591.
Eur. IT 2969.
Eur. IT 3067.
Eur. IT 8588, 9801.
Aesch. PV 87780.
Aesch. PV 8816.
Eur. Bacch. 3025.
Eur. Andr. 503.
Ar. Ran. 81417.
Arist. Eth. Nic. 1147a, 1517.
Soph. Ant. 95961.
Pl. Crat. 404a 16.
Pl. Phlb 45e, 24.
Pl. Symp. 213d, 67.
Plato, Phdr. 241e, 34.
Hdt. 6, 112, 48.
Hdt. 8, 10, 14.
Ar. Thesm. 793.
Aesch. Ag. 15736.
Pl. Euthd. 306d, 6e.
Pl. Prt. 351a 24.
Pl. Plt. 310d, 68.
Pl. Resp. 400b, 23.
Pl. Resp. 382c, 89.
Ar. Nub. 925.
Ar. Plut. 5014.
Eur. Heracl. 904.
Pl. Men. 91c 25.
Ar. Vesp. 1486.
Pl. Resp. 573a, 4 b, 6.
Arist. Ath. Pol. 35, 2, 710.
Hippoc. Aph. 3, 20, 14; 3, 22, 15.

H. PERDICOYIANNI-PALOLOGOU: VOCABULARY OF MADNESS. 1

280. Hippoc. Co. pres. 192, 12.

281. Hippoc. Co. pres. 539, 12.
282. Hippoc. Progn. 3, 1921; Co pres. 230,
12.
283. Hippoc. Prorrh. 1, 17, 12; Co pres.
550, 13.
284. Hippoc. Prorrh. 2, 30, 3132; Morb.
pop. 1, 2, 6, 1213.
285. Hippoc. Morb. 3, 13, 89.
286. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 2, 5, 16, 12.
287. Ar. Plut. 4234.
288. Arist. Pr. 873a 23.
289. Arist. Rh. 1390b, 278.
290. Arist. Pr. 954a, 314.
291. Arist. Pr. 954a, 348.
292. Pl. Resp. 672b, 37.
293. Pl. Resp. 672a, 5b, 1.
294. Pl. Tht. 144a, 6b, 1.
295. Pl. Resp. 403a, 46.
296. Pl. Phlb 63d, 56.
297. Arist. Poet. 1455a, 335.
298. Pl. Soph. 242a, 10b, 1.
299. Pl. Plt 307b, 9 c, 1.
300. Ar. Vesp. 1496. See above p. 328.
301. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 7, 1, 5, 269.
302. Pl. Soph. 216c, 9d, 2.
303. Pl. Phdr. 249d, 7e, 1.
304. Hippoc. Co. pres. 475, 12.
305. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 2, 6, 14, 12.
306. Hippoc. Aer. 7, 2223.
307. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 2, 5, 23, 12.
308. Eur. Bacch. 2989.
309. Hymn. Hom. Dem. 3845.
310. Hom. Il. 20, 46061.
311. Soph. OT 212; Eur. Bacch. 52, 103,
224, etc.; Ar. Lys. 1284.

312.
313.
314.
315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324.
325.

326.
327.
328.
329.
330.
331.
332.
333.
334.
335.
336.
337.
338.

339

Esch. Eum. 500.

Eur. Tro. 415, 307, 349.
Pind. Pyth. IV, X, 21617.
Archil. fr. S478a, 30 (West).
Sapph. fr. 1, 1718 (Page and
Lobel).
Eur. HF. 878; Or. 326.
Eur. Or. 270.
Eur. Or. 2278. On the divine origin of
Orestesmadness, see above p. 316.
Eur. Or. 367.
Hdt. V, 42, 12. On the madness of
Cleomenes, see above p. 325.
Hom. Il. 3, 39 & 13, 769.
Pl. Leg. 665a, 28.
Arist. Hist. an. 571b, 324.
Eur. Bacch. 10934. On the madness
of the Theban women, see above
pp. 316, 325.
Aesch. Eum. 85960.
Eur. Cyc. 34.
Hdt. III, 25, 67. On the madness of
Cambyses, see above pp. 319, 320.
Pl. Leg. 733e, 6734a, 5; Ti. 86c,
7d, 1.
Soph. El. 2947.
Aesch. Sept. 653.
Eur. Ion 14023.
Eur. Or. 845.
Eur. Or. 788.
Ar. Av. 10956.
Arist. Hist. an. 577a, 79; 605a, 24.
Arist. Hist. an. 572a, 172; HA 572a,
257.
Anac. fr. 101, l. 2, 7 (Page).