Solid Waste Management

December 21, 2013

Farhana Asnap/World Bank

Ask a mayor of a developing country city about his or her most pressing problems, and solid
waste management generally will be high on the list. For many cities, solid waste management is
their single largest budget item and largest employer.
It is also a critical matter of public health, environmental quality, quality of life, and economic
development. A city that cannot effectively manage its waste is rarely able to manage more
complex services such as health, education or transportation. And no one wants to live in a city
surrounded by garbage.
As the world urbanizes, the situation is becoming more acute. More people mean more garbage,
especially in fast-growing cities where the bulk of waste is generated. In our seminal report What
a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management, we estimate that cities currently generate
roughly 1.3 billion tonnes of solid waste per year; with current urbanization trends, this figure
will grow to 2.2 billion tonnes per year by 2025 an increase of 70 percent.
Managing waste will also become more expensive. Expenditures that today total $205 billion
will grow to $375 billion. The cost impacts will be most severe in low income countries already
struggling to meet basic social and infrastructure needs, particularly for their poorest residents. In
a follow-up analysis, two authors of that study forecast that global waste production would not
peak until the next century without transformational changes in the use and reuse of materials,
and that it would triple by 2100.

Because it is such a major issue, waste management also represents a great opportunity for cities.
Managed well, solid waste management practices can reduce greenhouse gas emission levels in a
city, including short-lived climate pollutants that are far more potent than carbon dioxide. A
citys ability to keep solid waste out of drainage ditches can also influence whether a
neighborhood floods after a heavy storm.
The World Bank's solid waste program supports local government agencies, communities and
other entities responsible for removing and managing waste materials in a safe, environmentally
sound, and cost effective manner.
Bank experts provide guidance on how to design the best possible waste management system
given limited resources, including strategies to make the polluter pay and help cover the cost of
the program. Our researchers track waste generation levels and expenditures by local authorities,
helping mayors benchmark their solid waste programs against other cities.
In order to spur economic development, World Bank projects explore how to use waste materials
as the basis for job creation for low skilled individuals. Our teams also help build markets for
activities that transform discarded materials into valuable commodities.

Examples of projects include:

The Solid Waste Management OBA Pilot in West Bank, which features an innovative
pilot use of output-based aid that is expected to benefit 840,000 Palestinians in the West
Bank and Gaza. It is part of the Southern West Bank Solid Waste Management Project.

The Integrated Solid Waste Management Project, which has already helped Baku,
Azerbaijan increase the percentage of residents served by formal waste management by
15 percent

A series of projects in Morocco, where the World Bank has helped some 80
municipalities improve their waste collection service and upgrade their landfills, as well
as pioneering a national carbon finance program.

According to the Caribbean Community Secretariat (2003) the quantity of waste is closely linked
to the level of economic activity in a country. Wealthier economies tend to produce more waste.
The lack of land areas and resources available for the safe disposal of wastes, population growth,
the growing tourism industry, and the increase in imports of polluting and hazardous substances
combine to make pollution prevention and waste management a critical issue in most Caribbean
States.
People generate solid wastes such as food and kitchen wastes, paper, glass, metal and plastic
containers and packaging, construction wastes (bricks, tiles, concrete, rebar, lumber, sheeting,
etc.), clothing, and hazardous wastes (medications, batteries, paints, chemicals, etc) and if not
handled appropriately (recycled or disposed of properly) have the potential to become litter.

Marine litter or debris is any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded,
disposed of or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment from any source
(http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/, Coe & Rogers 1997).
Marine litter can be classified into land- or ocean/waterway-based, depending on how the debris
enters the water (UNEP 2008). Land-based sources include dumps/landfills, riverine transport,
untreated sewage and storm water discharges, industrial and manufacturing facilities, tourism,
and beach-goers. Sea-/ocean-based sources of marine litter include fishing vessels, cruise liners,
merchant shipping, military and research vessels, pleasure crafts, oil/gas platforms, and fish
farming (http://marine-litter.gpa.unep.org/facts/facts.htm).

Effects
Marine litter is an environmental, economic, health and aesthetic problem affecting all regions
around the world (UNEP 2005b, UNEP 2006a).

Environmental
Entanglement and ingestion of marine litter is directly damaging wildlife and the environment in
which they live. Marine litter can cause habitat destruction including smothering of the seabed,
entangled litter on coral reefs and deposition on seagrass beds. According to Chiappone et al.
(2002), fishing gear (hooks and lines) and debris from lobster traps causes damage to the coral
reefs in the Florida Keys. Furthermore, alien species may use the transport mechanism of marine
debris in the ocean to migrate into new areas and disturb the ecosystem.

Economy/Aesthetics
Marine litter along beautiful beaches and waterways destroy the beauty and enjoyment of those
areas, and hence, negatively affect tourism and the economical benefits they bring. Maintaining
the beauty of these areas also costs time and money for both the private and public sectors.
Ghost fishing, which is when fisheries are accidentally caught in abandoned or lost fishing gear,
nets and pots, can also lead to economic losses for fisheries. According to Joint Nature
Conservation Committee (2005), $250 million of marketable lobster is lost in the United States
annually to ghost fishing.

Human Health & Safety

Discarded fishing line, rope and plastic trash or food bags can disable boats and ships by
wrapping around boat propellers or being sucked into outboard boat engines. Medical wastes and
drug paraphernalia dumped or transported onto beaches by winds and waves can threaten public
health through disease transmission and broken glass and other sharp objects can harm humans
especially young children.

Global versus Caribbean Studies on Waste and Marine

Litter
Marine litter is found globally in all seas around the world. It often stays buoyant and can travel
long distances with ocean currents and winds. In 1997, the U.S. Academy of Sciences estimated
that 6.4 million tons of marine litter is deposited in the oceans and seas each year. Eight million
items of marine litter are dumped every day and five million of them from ships. According to
Moore (2002), the amount of plastic pieces in the Pacific has at least tripled in the last ten years.
This study further indicates that a tenfold increase in the next decade is not unreasonable.
In the Ocean Conservancys 2007 International Coastal Cleanup (ICC), 378 000 volunteers
cleaned 33 000 miles of shoreline worldwide and removed 6 million pounds (2.7 million kg) of
debris in one day. The collected debris was tabulated as follows:

57 percent of the debris was related to shoreline recreational activities,

33 percent from smoking-related activities,

6.3 percent from fishing or waterway activities,

2 percent from dumping and

less than 1 percent from medical and personal hygiene activities.

http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/PageServer?pagename=press_icc.

Marine litter is a significant pollution issue for the Wider Caribbean region and poses one of the
most severe threats to the sustainability of the natural resources of sensitive habitats and wildlife
and people of the region (UNEP 2008). The status of the local waste management situation is
daunting and most Central American and Caribbean countries do not have adequate landfills and
wastes are most often disposed into open-air dumps
(http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/ESTdir/Pub/MSW/RO/contents_Latin_A.asp). According to
UNEP/GPA (2006) household waste continue to be a problem as well as the increased number of
tourism resulting in an increase of waste.

According to Pan-American Centre for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences, 424
000 tons of waste are generated daily in Latin America and the Caribbean, and less then 35
percent is processed into regulated sanitary landfills. This means that, nearly two-thirds or 275
000 tons daily ends up in open-air dumps or local waterways. During storms or coastal flooding
events the water can easily bring the waste from the open air dumps and rivers into the sea. The
same study shows that more than 100 000 families or 200 000-300 000 children in the region
survive through selling dumped material and working in hazardous and unhealthy conditions.
According to UNEP (2005a) solid waste collection coverage in major Caribbean cities varies
from 60% to over 90% of the population with the exception of Haiti where it is much lower.
In the small islands in the Caribbean such as the Bahamian family islands, the Virgin Islands and
the Grenadines, as well as in other densely populated areas of the Caribbean, there is difficulty
locating suitable sites for landfills (UNEP 1999). According to Ivar do Sul and Costa (2007),
who conducted a review of existing literature on marine litter from Latin America and the Wider
Caribbean Region, during the period 1970-2007, plastics were the most common material
reported. The dominating litter source in many areas surveyed (i.e., Colombia, Panama, Puerto
Rico, Barbados, Mexico/Yucatn Peninsula, Saint Lucia, and British Virgin Islands) was
household trash and litter from recreational activities. Some areas, such as Dominica, for
example, had a significant amount of ocean-based litter related to fishing activities.
During the period 1989-2007, a total of 9.3 million pieces of litter were collected during the
annual ICC in the Caribbean countries. Of this amount, 90.7% was considered to have a landbased source (LBS) and 9.3% an ocean-based source (OBS).

Shoreline/Recreational Activities (LBS), Ocean/Waterway Activities (OBS), Smoking Activities

(LBS), Dumping Activities (LBS), Medical/Personal Hygiene (LBS)
*Compiled from annual Ocean Conservancy, ICC Country Data Reports by Sheavly
Consultants, Inc.

According to the 2004 GIWA Regional Assessment 3a for the Small Island subsystem, solid
waste management receives low priority when compared to other national needs (CEHI 2003).
As a result, many citizens inappropriately dispose their waste into gullies and along riverbanks,
which pollutes rivers, streams and ultimately, the coastal waters into which they drain (GEF et al
2001). Solid waste on beaches in this region causes public concern regarding recreational use.
Furthermore, there are concerns regarding the high amount of waste generated by the cruise
industry.
According to the 2006 GIWA Regional Assessment 3b and 3c for Colombia, Venezuela,
Central America & Mexico, there is an inadequate collection service for solid waste and the
waste management from the tourism sector is particularly weak. In 1990, the National Park
Morrocov in Venezuela had to close down after excessive dumping of solid and liquid wastes.
This was because existing capacity for waste management services could not cope with the large
number of tourists (Windevoxhel 2003). In the region there is evidence of both sea turtle
mortality and damaged coral reefs caused by marine litter.
According to the 2004 GIWA Regional Assessment 4, for the Islands of the Greater
Antilles,, these countries report inadequate solid waste collection systems, and as a result the
waste is deposited in mangrove swamps, drainage channels and along riverbanks. This causes
permanent and harmful contaminants to leach and seep into the surface, ground and coastal
waters, thus degrading the associated ecosystems. According to the GIWA experts, Haiti is the
most severely impacted island by solid wastes in the region. According to this study 70-80% of
marine debris originates from the shipping traffic in the region. The ports in the region lack
waste reception facilities, and many ships dump their wastes at sea, which is then transported to
distant locations by winds and currents. Paper and foam are a major transboundary problem in
the region. The Bahamas pick up solid wastes from the Lesser Antilles Current. The Florida
band, from Key West to Cape Canaveral, is one of the biggest solid waste disposal sites in the
Wider Caribbean (UNEP/CEP 1994). In the Bahamas, solid wastes have caused mortalities and
reduced the reproductive success of sea turtles, marine mammals, and sea birds (BEST 2002).

Laws, Regulations and Policy Response on Marine Litter

Land-based and ocean-based marine litter are regulated though many different frameworks
ranging from regional legislation, international non-binding and binding agreements, to action
plans and national legislation and regulations. The widespread nature of marine litter, its
transboundary impacts and the difficulties in identifying the sources have made effective laws
difficult to draft and even more difficult to enforce.
The most important regional legal framework is the Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena
Convention). The Convention entered into force in 1986 and is a legally binding, regional
multilateral environmental agreement for the protection and development of the WCR. It was
developed by the countries of the Wider Caribbean and is the only legally binding agreement for
the protection of the Caribbean Sea.

The Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol) of
the Cartagena Convention is an important framework for combating solid waste at sea (marine
litter). Annex I lists Primary Pollutants of Concern which include persistent synthetic and other
materials, including garbage, that float, flow or remain in suspension or settle to the bottom and
affect marine life and hamper the uses of the sea. Annex II provides parameters for determining
how to evaluate wastes, including parameters for 1) the characteristics and composition of the
waste, 2) the characteristics of the activity or source category, and 3) alternate production, waste
treatment technologies or management practices. Annex III sets acceptable levels of waste
concentrations in wastewaters, and says that "floatables" (solids) should not be visible.
Examples of international conventions dealing with marine litter are:

1972 London Dumping Convention or the Convention of the Prevention of Marine

Pollution by Dumping of Wastes. Read more at http://www.imo.org.

MARPOL 73/78 is the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of

the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes. MARPOL has six
annexes, covering oil discharge (I), hazardous liquid control (II), hazardous material
transport (III), sewage discharge (IV), plastic and garbage disposal (V), and air pollution
(VI). Read more at http://www.imo.org.

Additional international conventions to be mentioned are UN Convention on the Law of

the Sea (UNCLOS); Convention on Migratory Species; Agreements on the Conservation
of Albatrosses and Petrels; Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement
of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal; FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing;
Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA); Regional Fishery Management Organizations
(RFMOs).

Important global action plans are;

The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
from Land-based Activities (GPA) is a programme that provides guidance for
sustainable development of oceans and seas and their resources. Read more at
http://www.gpa.unep.org/.

Agenda 21 is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable

development. Read more at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda_21 and
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/index.htm

The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed at the World Summit on

Sustainable Development affirmed UN commitment to 'full implementation' of Agenda
21, alongside achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and other international
agreements. Read more at
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POIToc.htm,
http://www.un.org/events/wssd/, and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda_21.

The United Nations Programme of Action on the Sustainable Development of Small

Island Developing States, referred to as the Barbados Program of Action (BPOA), is a
policy document that both addresses the economic, environmental, and social
developmental vulnerabilities facing islands and outlines a strategy that seeks to mitigate
those vulnerabilities. Read more at http://www.sidsnet.org/,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados_Programme_of_Action and
http://www.unep.ch/regionalseas/partners/sids.htm.

The Mauritius Strategy (International Meeting for the 10-year Review of the Barbados
Programme of Action). Read more at http://www.sidsnet.org/MIM.html.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight goals to be achieved by 2015
that respond to the world's main development challenges. Read more at
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/.

For more information read the document International Treaties and Conventions related to
marine litter. LINK

What is the Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP)

doing?

In 2005, UNEP-CAR/RCU and its Regional Activity Centres for the Land Based Sources of
Marine Pollution Protocol and Oil Spills Protocols with support from UNEP Regional Seas
began the development of a Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter in the Wider Caribbean. The
objective of this activity was to assist in the environmental protection and sustainable
management and development of the WCR through the development of a Regional Action Plan
on Marine Litter in the Wider Caribbean Sea.
A series of region wide surveys, literature reviews and ICC data were compiled by marine litter
researcher and Caribbean Regional Consultant, Seba Sheavly. This assessment was followed by a
regional workshop of experts in Aruba in February 2007 which ultimately led to the development
of the Caribbeans first Regional Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Marine Litter
(RAPMaLi) in 2007. The RAPMaLi was designed to addresses the complex and interconnected
nature of the marine litter problem and outlines several actions at the National and Regional
Level within five thematic areas:
1. Legislation, policies and enforcement
2. Institutional framework and stakeholder engagement
3. Monitoring programmes and research
4. Education and outreach
5. Solid waste management strategies

Documents produced under the Regional Action Plan for the Sustainable
Management of Marine Litter (RAPMaLi) are;

UNEP, 2008, Marine Litter in the Wider Caribbean Region: A Regional Overview.

UNEP, 2005, Marine Litter an analytical overview

UNEP, 2006, Marine Litter in the Wider Caribbean

Links to the database

Recognizing the need to implement these actions outlined within the RAPMaLi , UNEP
with support
from UNEP Regional Seas Programme recently initiated pilot projects within Barbados,
St. Lucia and Guyana to improve public awareness and national capacity to manage
marine litter. Links or names of the projects)

The 2007 International Coastal Clean-up Activity, a component of the Marine Litter
Project, was carried out in September 2007.

During April 23-25, 2008United Nations Environment Program supported the Ocean
Conservancys
International Coastal Cleanup Conference held in Jamaica. Links to reports from the
conference.

For marine litter information collected over the period 1989-2007, click on the relevant country.

What can you do?

Simple ways of taking action:

Dont through any wastes on the ground.

Keep streets, sidewalks, parking lots and storm drains free of trash - they can empty into
our oceans and waterways.

Eliminate open landfills.

Recycle whatever possible.

Solicit and help establish more and better recycling facilities in your area.

Bring your bottles, plastics, and batteries to local recycling companies.

Dont discard cigarettes or other litter on the beach.

Reuse plastic bags or preferably use paper or cloth bags for shopping.

Do not flush diapers or other items down the toilet.

Serve as an example to others and participate in local beach and river cleanup events.

Inform and teach kids and adults about the problems associated with waste and marine
litter.

Dont dispose garbage and other wastes over board when on boats.

Waste should be stored onboard and discharged ashore in a proper reception facility.

Fishing gear should be marked to make it possible to find them again if they are lost at
sea.

For more information read the document What Can You Do About Marine Litter. LINK

Links

Information from NOAA on marine debris, http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/

United Nations Environment Programme, Regional Seas on Marine Litter

http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/

Twelve Regional Seas programmes (Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caspian, East Asian Seas,
Eastern Africa, Mediterranean, Northeast Atlantic, Northwest Pacific, Red Sea and Gulf
of Aden, South Asian Seas, Southeast Pacific, and Wider Caribbean) developed regional
initiatives that assessed the magnitude of the marine litter problem through collection and
analysis of existing data and other information, and published regional reports
highlighting the status of this problem in their region, identifying priorities and strategies
for response. The knowledge generated will be used to further develop global and
regional activities and implement concrete actions in each of the 12 regions for improved
management of marine litter.
Below is the link to the 4 new reports released by UNEP (and other partnering
organizations) on marine litter based on these initiatives. These reports, will provide you
updated information on current programs and research.
http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/publications/default.asp

International Waters Learning Exchange and Resource Network, http://www.iwlearn.net/

Ocean Conservancy, http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/PageServer?pagename=home

Information on The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs),

http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/

Information on The Mauritius Strategy, http://www.sidsnet.org/MIM.html

Information on the Barbados Program of Action (BPOA), http://www.sidsnet.org/,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados_Programme_of_Action and
http://www.unep.ch/regionalseas/partners/sids.htm.

Information on the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation,

http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POIToc.htm,
http://www.un.org/events/wssd/, and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda_21

Information on Agenda 21, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda_21 and

http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/index.htm

Information on MARPOL 73/78 from International Maritime Oranisation,

http://www.imo.org/Conventions/contents.asp?doc_id=678&topic_id=258

Information on London Convention from International Maritime Oranisation,

http://www.imo.org/Conventions/contents.asp?doc_id=681&topic_id=258

International Martime Organisation, http://www.imo.org/

Kids against marine litter at GPA, http://marine-litter.gpa.unep.org/kids/kids.htm

Information on agenda 21,

http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21toc.htm

Information on the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA), www.gpa.unep.org

Information on the Global Environment Facility (GEF) International Waters projects,

http://www.gefweb.org/index.html

References

BEST, 2002, Bahamas Environmental Handbook, Bahamas Environment Science and

Technology Commission, The Government of The Bahamas, Nassau New Providence,
The Bahamas

CEHI, 2003, Environmental health, Caribbean Environment Health Institute, Taken May
2003 from http://198.173.244.33/infosources/publications/cch/envheal.pdf

Chiappone M, White A, Swanson D W, & Miller S L, 2002, Occurrence and biological

impacts of fishing gear and other marine debris in the Florida Keys. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 44: 597-604

Coe J M, & Rodgers D B, 1997, Marine Debris: Sources, Impacts and Solutions,
Springer-Verlag: New York

GEF/CEHI/CARICOM/UNEP, 2001, Integrating watershed and coastal area

management in Small Island Developing States of the Caribbean

Global Marine Litter Information Gateway, Taken 2008-03-30 from http://marinelitter.gpa.unep.org/facts/facts.htm

Goddard G, 1997, Background Paper on Solid Waste Management in Trinidad and

Tobago, Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago, Port of Spain

Greenpeace, 2006 Plastic Debris in the Worlds Oceans. Amsterdam Netherlands,

www.oceans.greenpeace.org

Ivar do Sul J A, &.Costa M F, 2007, Marine debris review for Latin America and the
Wider Caribbean Region: From the 1970s until now, and where do we go from here?
Marine Pollution Bulletin 54, pp. 1087-1104

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), 2005, Ghost fishing, Taken 2008-04 10from http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-1567

Laist D W, 1997, Impacts of marine debris: entanglement of marine life in marine debris
including a

comprehensive list of species with entanglement and ingestion records, In: Marine
Debris. Sources, Impacts, Solutions. J M, Coe & Rogers D B, (eds.), Springer-Verlag
New York, Inc., pp99-140

Moore C J, 2002, Out in the Pacific, Plastic is Getting Drastic (The World's Largest
Landfill is in the Middle of the Ocean), Algalita Marine Research Foundation.

http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/publications/articles/default.asp

Ocean Conservancy, ICC Data Reports, Taken 2008-04-10 from

www.oceanconservancy.org/ICC

Ocean Conservancys International Coastal Cleanup, Taken 2008-04-16 from

http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/PageServer?pagename=press_icc

PAHO/WHO, 1996, Municipal Solid Waste Management in Latin America and the
Caribbean., Washington, D C

Pan-American Centre for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Solid Waste
management in Latin America and the Caribbean: Scenarios and Outlook, Taken 200805-05 from http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-97966-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

UNEP, 1999, Caribbean Environmental Outlook, Mexico

UNEP, 2005a, Caribbean Environment Outlook. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya

UNEP, 2005b, Marine Litter an analytical overview, Nairobi Kenya

UNEP, 2006a, Marine Litter in the Wider Caribbean, Kingston Jamaica

UNEP, 2008, Marine Litter in the Wider Caribbean Region: A Regional Overviewand
Action plan,

United Nations Environment Programme. 81 pp, Kingston Jamaica

UNEP/CEP, 1994, Regional Overview of Land-Based Sources of Pollution in the Wider

Caribbean Region, CEP Technical Report No. 33. UNEP Caribbean Environment
Programme, Kingston, Jamaica.

UNEP/GEF/Kalmar Hgskola/Cimab, 2004, Global International Water Assessment

(GIWA), Caribbean Islands Bahamas, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica,
Puerto Rico Regional Assessment 4, Kalmar Sweden

UNEP/GEF/Kalmar Hgskola/Invemar, 2006, Global International Water Assessment

(GIWA), Caribbean Sea/Colombia & Venezuela, Central America & Mexico GIWA
Regional Assessment 3b, 3c, Kalmar Sweden

UNEP/GEF/Kalmar Hgskola, 2004, Global International Water Assessment (GIWA),

Caribbean Sea/Small Islands GIWA Regional assessment 3a, Kalmar Sweden

UNEP/GPA, 2006, The State of the Marine Environment: Trends and processes, The
Hague

UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, Taken 2008-04-25 from

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/ESTdir/Pub/MSW/RO/contents_Latin_A.asp

UNEP on Marine Litter, Taken 2008-04-13 from

http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/

Windevohxel N, 2003, Costas del caribe de Colombia-Venezuela., Captulo 1.

PROARCA-Costas, The Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund for Nature,
University of Rhode Island, Taken Feb 2003 from
http://www.wetlands.org/inventory&/SAA/Body/01cos_ caribe@.htm

Environment Minister on waste recycling:

Weak legislation in place

Gail Alexander
Published:
Thursday, May 21, 2015

Ganga Singh
The average person in T&T generates approximately four pounds of garbage waste daily, each
Port-of-Spain inhabitant generates 1.54 kg of garbage daily and every month in T&T, 50 million
plastic bottles and one million glass bottles are dumped, according to Solid Waste statistics,
Environment Minister Ganga Singh has said.
He spoke on Tuesday in Parliament, piloting a bill for the establishment of a waste recycling
management authority and a resource recovery fund to facilitate the efficient co-ordination for
the implementation of a waste-recycling system that would protect human health and the
environment.

Singh said: A phenomenal growth in waste production in T&T, brought about by our increasing
standard of living, has unfortunately not been mirrored in the advancement in waste
management.
There exists no segregation of garbage, very little reuse and recycling of waste, limited landfill
capacities, weak legislative and management systems, high costs and a lack of education of the
general public relating to alternative waste management such as recycling.
He said: The solution to waste management issues must be initiated now.
A system of waste management that incorporates the principles of the four Rs: reduce, reuse,
recycle and rethink.
It looks at the aspect of waste diversion with different waste types and processes required for
special collection, transportation and final disposal identified.
Statistics for waste generation in T&T are alarming. The generation rate of garbage for the city
of Port-of-Spain is 1.54 kg per inhabitant per day.
Every month we dump 50 million plastic bottles and one million glass bottles. That is 600
million plastic bottles and 12 million glass bottles each year.
The average person generates approximately four pounds or 2.2 kilogrammes of waste a day
which amounts to 1,548 tonnes of waste reaching waste-disposal sites a day.
Well over 80 per cent of residential waste is recyclable and the residential stream represents
two-thirds of overall waste generated in T&T.
He said to prevent the problem assuming crisis proportions later, T&T needed to prolong the
lifespans of landfills.
One way of doing this is by reducing, via recycling, the amount of waste reaching landfills.
He said landfills receive grass cuttings, food waste, plastic containers, old microwaves, car
batteries and even hazardous waste, since there is no segregation of waste in households.
Peoples dump includes batteries, fluorescent lights, needles, cellphones, radios, computers and
television sets via municipal waste-disposal systems, completely unaware they contain hazardous
substances like toxic mercury, cadmium, nickel, arsenic and lead.
I had initial discussions with the Minister of Science/Technology on a specific programme
regarding electronic (e)-waste, similar to dealing with beverage containers.
Discarded tyres, particularly, present environmental and public health risks. Tyres routinely end
up in rivers contributing to flooding.

He said tyres in landfills did not deteriorate and provided breeding grounds for mosquitoes and
rodents. Burning for the recovery of copper wire exacerbated fires, plus caused harmful
emissions.
He said: Its critical an immediate short-term solution be determined for the environmentallysound disposal of waste tyres.
Within this week, Ill present for Cabinets consideration a proposed solution on the use of
waste tyres in road-paving and use in the manufacture of rubberised asphalt.
He said the Environmental Management Authority (EMA) would soon initiate the Recyclable
Solid Waste Collection Project to prepare T&T for the passage of the EMA Solid Waste Rules
and this waste recycling management authority.
The project establishes drop-off collection sites and depots for sorting.
Tyres and e-waste from the public will be collected. Primary and secondary schools will also be
engaged in the collection initiative.
Through stakeholder consultation, the Government has also been able to develop the Beverage
Container Regulations being subsequently laid in the Parliament.
Groups will meet with the Government today to further enhance the bill.

ews Releases
Apr 14, 2011

Latin America and the Caribbean seek a

greater share of the outsourcing market
IDB to foster the global services industry in the region
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) will hold on April 14-15 the first Latin American
and Caribbean Forum on Offshoring and Outsourcing OUTSOURCE2LAC in Montevideo,
Uruguay. The event, which will be attended by entrepreneurs from Latin America and the
Caribbean, India, the Philippines, the United States, and Europe, is being jointly organized by the
IDBs Integration and Trade Sector, Uruguays Agency for Promotion of Exports and Investment
(Uruguay XXI) and the consulting firm Tholons.
The outsourcing industry accounted for more than $200 billion in global revenues in 2010, of
which less than 10 percent went to Latin America. However, the region has strong prospects to
grow in the sector. Latin Americas favorable conditions for increasing its participation in the

international services market include its well-known economic and political stability, skilled
human resources, and government support.
"OUTSOURCE2LAC" aims to introduce entrepreneurs from Latin America and the Caribbean
to developments and global trends in the service industry and to opportunities available in the
international market. At the forum, representatives of firms and associations in the service sector
from India, the Philippines, the United States, Europe, and Latin America will lead discussion
panels attended by representatives of export and investment promotion agencies from more than
15 countries in the region.
These entrepreneurs also will have the opportunity to meet with potential strategic partners for
outsourcing operations. The forum will provide technical support and matchmaking services for
business meetings at no cost.
More than 400 business and service sector representatives from around the world will attend the
forum, with more than 800 bilateral business meetings expected.

Wastewater, Sewage and Sanitation

Contents

Effects
o Human Health
o The Environment

Global versus Caribbean Studies on Sanitation and Sewage

Laws, Regulations, and Policy Responses on Sewage

What is the Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP) doing?

What can you do?

Links

References

Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence
and comprises liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry,
and/or agriculture and can encompass a wide range of potential contaminants and concentrations
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater).
Sewage is the part of wastewater that is contaminated with feces or urine, but is often used to
mean any wastewater. When this is done sewage refers to wastewater from sources including
domestic, municipal, or industrial liquid waste products disposed of, usually via a pipe or sewer
system (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater). Untreated sewage may contain water;
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus); solids (including organic matter); pathogens (including
bacteria, viruses and protozoa); helminthes (intestinal worms and worm-like parasites) ; oils and
greases; runoff from streets, parking lots and roofs; heavy metals (including mercury, cadmium,
lead, chromium, copper) and many toxic chemicals including PCBs, PAHs, dioxins, furans,
pesticides, phenols and chlorinated organics.
Sanitation is the hygienic means of preventing human contact from the hazards of wastes to
promote health. Examples of waste that can cause health problems are feces, solid wastes,
domestic wastewater and industrial wastes. Hygienic means of prevention can be by using septic
tanks sewage systems or simply by personal hygiene practices like hand washing with soap
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation). The Joint Monitoring Program for water and sanitation
of WHO and UNICEF defines improved sanitation as; connection to a public sewer; connection
to a septic system; pour-flush latrine; simple pit latrine; ventilated improved pit latrine. Not
improved sanitation is; public or shared latrine; open pit latrine; bucket latrines;
http://www.wssinfo.org/en/122_definitions.html.

Effects
Sewage released into the rivers and oceans can cause a threat to both human health and the
environment.

Human health
According to GESAMP (2001), contamination of the coastal marine environment by sewage
leads to significant numbers of infectious diseases linked to bathing and swimming in marine
waters and to the consumption of seafood. Human exposures to toxins associated with algae
blooms also impose significant risks.

Most illnesses are caused by pathogens, which are biological/infectious agents that cause
diseases or illnesses (Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen). They cause a wide
variety of acute illnesses including diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis A.
Pathogenic bacteria can survive in the sea from a few days to several weeks; viruses can survive
in water, fish or shellfish for several months while the hepatitis virus can remain viable in the sea
for over a year (GESAMP 2001).
Depending on its source and collection methods, sewage may also contain a range of chemicals
and specialized wastes including industrial chemicals, nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates,
heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, medical wastes and oils and greases. These result in additional
threats to human health.

The Environment
Nutrients are essential chemical elements that organisms need to survive and reproduce (Smith &
Smith 1998). Macronutrients, needed in large quantities, include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, magnesium, and calcium, while micronutrients like
iron, copper and zinc are needed in lesser quantities (Smith & Smith 1998).Excess nutrients are
discharged to the marine environment through sewage, fertilizers from agriculture and by
nitrogen oxides from burning fossil fuels. According to GESAMP (2001) sewage tends to be the
main source of nutrients near cities, while agriculture predominates in rural areas. Increased
nutrients may lead to eutrophication which is an excessive growth of marine plant life and decay
(Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/eutrophication). Plants such as algae often experience a
population increase (called an algal bloom) which limit the sunlight available and cause lack of
oxygen in water. When oxygen levels decline, marine animals, coral reefs, seagrass beds and
other vital habitats in the Wider Caribbean Region suffer and may die. Some algal blooms are
toxic and may harm or even kill whales, dolphins and other marine mammals - and cause
hundreds of millions of dollars worth of damage to commercial fisheries. Read more under the
issue Nutrients.

Global versus Caribbean Studies on Sanitation and Sewage

According to a report published by UNICEF and the World Health Organization (2008) the
world is not on track to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) on sanitation and 2.5
billion people still lack access to improved sanitation facilities. According to the same study 1.2
billion people worldwide live without any sanitation facilities. Without an immediate
acceleration the world will not even achieve the half of the MDG for sanitation by 2015. Based
on the current trends there will still be 2.4 billion people worldwide without improved sanitation
in 2015.
Improved sanitation facilities are defined as, facilities that ensure hygienic separation of human
excreta from human contact; connection to a public sewer; connection to a septic system; pour-

flush latrine; simple pit latrine; ventilated improved pit latrine. Not improved sanitation is; public
or shared latrine; open pit latrine; bucket latrines (JMP Joint Monitoring Programme for Water
supply & Sanitation).
The lowest coverage of improved sanitation facilities is found in sub-Saharan Africa and in
Southern Asia.
A global study by the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that bathing in polluted seas
causes some 250 million cases of gastroenteritis and upper respiratory disease every year. Many
studies show that respiratory and intestinal diseases and infections among bathers rise as a direct
consequence of increasing amounts of sewage pollution in the water GESAMP (2001).
According to Shuval 2003, the estimated economic loss globally, caused by pathogenic
microorganisms is about $12 billion per year. Seafood contaminated by harmful algal blooms
causes significant health problems and a study done by the European Environment Agency (EEA
2005) showed that the socio-economic impact in Greece, Italy and Spain is around 329 million
annually.
The number of dead zones, which are areas of anaerobic conditions at the sea bottom, due to
increased amounts of nutrients, has doubled since 1990 (GPA/UNEP 2006). A dead zone
appears off Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico each summer caused by excessive amounts of
nitrogen flushed down the Mississippi River.

Sanitation in Latin America and the Caribbean is characterized by insufficient access,

particularly in rural areas, and in many cases by poor service quality, with possible impacts on
public health. According to the Joint Monitoring Program of UNICEF and the World Health
Organization (2008) the percentage of people in the region who have access to improved
sanitation facilities has risen from 68% in 1990, 77% in 2004 to 79% in 2006. According to the
year 2004 calculations, of those 77%, 51% of the houses were connected to a sewer and 26% of
the population had access to septic tanks and various types of latrines. In total 125 million or
23% of the people in the region did not have access to improved sanitation. In Haiti only 25% of
the population in 1995 and 30% of the population in 2004 had access to improved sanitation (See
figure 1). Honduras, Dominican Republic, Mexico and Guatemala are the countries with the
largest increase in the access to improved Sanitation between 1995 and 2004 (Se figure 1).

Figure1: The percentage of the population with access to improved sanitation in 1995 and in
2004 (http://www.wssinfo.org/en/welcome.html).

The report published by UNICEF and the World Health Organization (2008) show that the Latin
American and Caribbean progress towards the MDG sanitation target is on track and by 2015
84% of the regions population should have access to improved sanitation.

According to the 2004 study GIWA Regional Assessment 3a for the Caribbean Small Island
subsystem, wastewater treatment facilities are often absent or insufficient in many countries of
the region. For example, in Saint Lucia only 13% of the population is connected to the sewage
system (GEF et al 2001). The unregulated disposal of human waste, for example in Antigua &
Barbuda, and insufficient drainage has resulted in standing pools of contaminated water. During
severe weather conditions, these pools present a major source of sewage-related outbreaks of
diseases (GEF et al 2001). Some bays in the US Virgin Islands have high levels of bacteria,
especially those with a large concentration of boats. The increase of bacteria cause serious threats
to human health and impair water quality with algal blooms. Additionally, fish kills have
occurred repeatedly, and beaches have been closed because of poorly designed and failing
sewage systems (DPNR/DEP & USDA/NRCS 1998). In Barbados the coral reefs have been
impacted by eutrophication, causing changes in the species composition of the corals (Linton &
Warner 2003). During the 1980s, many shallow reefs around Grenada & the Grenadines were
degraded and became overgrown with algae, presumably resulting from a combination of
sewage, agro-chemical pollution, and sedimentation caused by coastal development (Smith et al
2000).

According to the 2006 GIWA Regional Assessment 3b and 3c for Colombia, Venezuela,
Central America and Mexico, 472 653 m/day of untreated sewage is discharged into the sea
along the Colombian Caribbean coast. Eutrophication in the Cartagena Bay and the Cinaga de
Tesca in Colombia have caused mass fish mortalities due to discharge of non-treated wastewater
and fertilizer runoff (PNUMA 1999). In February 2000, there was also a mass fish mortality
recorded in Barlovento Venezuela associated with pathogenic bacteria (UNEP 2002).
Eutrophication has further caused degradation of coral reefs at Islas del Rosario, Colombia
(Garzn-Ferreira et al. 2000). Between 1991 and 1996, a climatic anomaly and pronounced
nutrient enrichment resulted in a severe phytoplankton bloom followed by sudden oxygen
depletion, which led to a reduction of coral reef cover from 43% to less than 5% in Morrocoy
National Park, Venezuela (Garzn-Ferreira et al 2000). Water quality and sediment studies
conducted on the major rivers of eastern Venezuela found that around Matazas the sediments
contained high concentrations of organic material and Coliforms which far exceed the
Venezuelan water standards (Senior et al 1999). Most of the communities in the lower reaches of
the Magdalena River Basin, Colombia do not have sewage treatment facilities and suspended
solids and faecal matter affect the health of downstream coastal communities.

In Mexico, tourism generates large quantities of wastewater and the management of this has
become problematic. The wastewater is often discharged directly into lagoons and bays such as
Chetumal Bay and Nitchup Lagoon in Cancun, Mexico. According to the 2006 GIWA study the
tourism industry has lost income and fisheries production has been reduced in Costa Rica and
Chetumal Bay as a result of pollution.

According to the 2004 GIWA Regional Assessment 4 for the Islands of the Greater Antilles
one of the main sources of nutrients in the marine environment is untreated sewage. Wastewater
treatment facilities are inadequate in many locations. In the Bahamas, 15.6% of the population
has access to sewage collection services and 44% of sewage treatment plants are in poor
condition (UNEP/CEP 1998). Human waste disposal in Haiti is the most urgent problem. There
are no sewage collection services and only 40% (mostly urban) of the population use latrines and
septic tanks, of which 80-90 % of the solids are dumped illegally into rivers and seas
(UNEP/CEP 1998).

This study shows that the pollution by sewage in this sub- region has caused

Fish mortality;

eutrophication;

threats to corals, swamp ecosystems and seagrass beds;

biological diversity loss;

red tides which have killed marine organisms;

threats to human health due to elevated numbers of pathogenic microorganisms (e.g.

viruses, bacteria) and toxins created by algal bloom;

threats to tourism.

In The Bahamas, health authorities have advised its citizens to avoid the consumption of the
marine gastropod Queen conch (Strombusgigas), at certain times of the year due to the presence
of a Vibrio pathogen in these organisms. Consumption of conch infected with this pathogen has
resulted in serious illness and one recorded human mortality[cc1] .
Sewage is according to (Siung-Chang 1997) regarded as one of the most widespread causes of
degradation of the coastal environment in the Caribbean. This was re-enforced by the regional
priority rankings of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA) categories, which showed sewage to be the first
priority (GESAMP 2001). The identification of untreated domestic wastewater as the number
one point source of contamination to the marine environment of the wider Caribbean (Ref) was a
major factor leading to the development of the Protocol on the Control of Land Based Sources of
Marine Pollution (LBS Protocol) of the Cartagena Convention.
According to UNEP/GPA (2006) the high costs of building and maintaining traditional sewage
treatment plants are frequently the reason for not treating sewage before its disposal.
Nevertheless, biological methods of treatment are available for sewage that is not contaminated
with industrial waste and which are suitable to the tropical character of the Caribbean region
(UNEP/GPA 2006).

Laws, Regulations and Policy Response on Sewage

Land and ocean-based sewage pollution is regulated in many different frameworks ranging from
regional legislation, international non-binding and binding agreements, action plans and national
legislation and regulations (UNEP 2005).
The most important regional legal framework is the Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena

Convention). The Convention entered into force in 1986 and is a legally binding, regional
multilateral environmental agreement for the protection and development of the WCR. The
Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol) of the
Cartagena Convention sets forward general obligations and a legal framework for regional cooperation, provides a list of priority source categories, activities and associated pollutants of
concern and promotes the establishment of pollution standards and schedules for
implementation. Annex III relates directly to domestic wastewater and establishes specific
regional effluent limitations, as well as a time table for the implementation of wastewater
treatment.
For the purpose of the Annex, effluent limits are divided in two classes, depending on the water
in which they are discharged. Class 1 waters are particularly sensitive to impacts from pollution
while Class 2 waters are less sensitive (see full text on LBS Protocol[cc2] for more detail). The
effluent limits for domestic wastewater in the LBS Protocol are set to:

Parameter

Class 1 Waters

Class 2 Waters

Total Suspended Solids *

30 mg/l

150 mg/l

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)

30 mg/l

150 mg/l

5-10 pH units

5-10 pH units

15 mg/l

50 mg/l

pH

Fats, Oil and Grease

Faecal Coliform or

Faecal coliform: 200 mpn/100ml

E. coli.or

E. coli: 126 organisms/100ml

Not applicable

entrerococci

Entrerococci: 35 org./100ml

Floatables
* does not include algae from treatment ponds

Not visible

Not visible

Facilities and communities in each country must comply with the provisions of the Protocol on a
phased basis after the Protocol enters into force for that country. The following will apply related
to treatment facilities:

Years after entry into

Effluent Sources required to comply with standards
force
0
All new domestic wastewater systems public and private
Existing domestic wastewater systems other than community wastewater
10
systems
10
Communities with 10,000 50,000 inhabitants
Communities with more than 50,000 inhabitants already possessing
15
wastewater collection systems
Communities with more than 50,000 inhabitants not possessing
20
wastewater collection systems
All communities except those relying exclusively on household (e.g.
20
septic tanks) systems

On the International level, Annex IV of the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships MARPOL73/78 is one of the most important Conventions on the
regulation on sewage discharges from the shipping sector. The Annex contains a set of
regulations regarding the discharge of sewage into the sea, ships equipment and systems for the
control of sewage discharge, the provision of facilities at ports and terminals for the reception of
sewage, and requirements for survey and certification. It also includes a model International
Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate to be issued by National Shipping Administrations to
ships under their jurisdiction. The Annex is optional, entered into force on 27 September 2003,
and a revised Annex entered into force 1 August 2005. The 30th of November 2006, 113 countries
representing over 75% of the world's tonnage had become party to this Annex. Cruise ships
flagged under countries that are signatories to MARPOL are subject to its requirements,
regardless of where they sail, and member nations are responsible for vessels registered under
their respective nationalities. Read more at http://www.imo.org/.

Important global action plans are;

The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
from Land-based Activities (GPA) is a programme that provides guidance for
sustainable development of oceans and seas and their resources. Read more at
http://www.gpa.unep.org/.

Agenda 21 is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable

development. Read more at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda_21and
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/index.htm

The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed at the World Summit on

Sustainable Development affirmed UN commitment to 'full implementation' of Agenda
21, alongside achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and other international
agreements. Read more at
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/POIToc.htm,
http://www.un.org/events/wssd/, and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda_21.

The United Nations Programme of Action on the Sustainable Development of Small

Island Developing States, referred to as the Barbados Program of Action (BPOA), is a
policy document that both addresses the economic, environmental, and social
developmental vulnerabilities facing islands and outlines a strategy that seeks to mitigate
those vulnerabilities. Read more at http://www.sidsnet.org/,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados_Programme_of_Action and
http://www.unep.ch/regionalseas/partners/sids.htm.

The Mauritius Strategy (International Meeting for the 10-year Review of the Barbados
Programme of Action). Read more at http://www.sidsnet.org/MIM.html.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight goals to be achieved by 2015
that respond to the world's main development challenges. Read more at
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/.

What is the Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP)

doing?
The following recent projects and activities were conducted by CEP to protect the marine
environment and are related to Land-based Sources of Pollution and Sewage:

CEP actively promotes accession/ratification of the Protocol concerning Land-based

Sources of Marine Pollution (LBS)

National Promotional Workshops for the LBS Protocol are convened in the countries of
the Wider Caribbean Region. As a result of this, the Governments of France and Saint
Lucia ratified the Protocol in 2007 and 2008 respectively bringing the total number of
Contracting Parties to four, including Panama and Trinidad & Tobago.

The CEP in collaboration with the UNEP Global Programme of Action (GPA) and NOAA
have assisted in facilitating the development and implementation of National
Programmes of Action (NPAs) for the prevention of pollution from land based sources
and activities. Direct support was provided by UNEP CAR/RCU to complete NPAs in
Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados. Future activities will focus on
strategic planning and sustainable financing for the implementation of NPAs in the Wider
Caribbean Region.

Following the preparation of a Sewage Needs Assessment Guidance document for

implementing Annex III of the LBS Protocol, relating to Wastewater Management, pilot
projects were completed in Saint Lucia, Jamaica and Tobago to develop national planning
mechanisms to control marine pollution from domestic sewage and proposed detailed
plans for improving infrastructure for sewage and wastewater management. Similar
sewage needs assessments are ongoing in Panama and once finalized efforts will focus on
the sharing of experiences from these national pilot assessments.

A regional workshop to promote Environmentally Sound Technologies (EST) in the

provision of sanitation and water at the community level was conducted in Kingston,
Jamaica in collaboration with the International Environmental Technology Center,
Division of Technology, Industry & Economics (UNEP-DTIE-IETC). Wastewater
management professionals and community members from across the WCR reviewed
available ESTs and discussed regional opportunities for funding for further action. One of
the proposed initiatives highlighted at the workshop is the establishment of a Caribbean
Revolving fund for Regional wastewater investment and management.

The GEF funded project Integrating Watershed and Coastal Areas Management
(IWCAM) for Caribbean Small Island Developing States (SIDS) supports legislative

and policy reform at the island states level, capacity building to implement those reforms,
and demonstration projects on key issues facing individual states.

As a Co-Chair of the White Water to Blue Water (WW2BW) Partnership Initiative, the
CEP continues to develop partnerships that would enhance integrated approaches in
wastewater and sanitation, WW2BW also provides for discussions and information
sharing between potential partners from these different areas to collaborate on projects to
be implemented in the WCR. Other areas include sustainable agricultural practices,
integrated coastal management, sustainable tourism and environmentally sound marine
transport in the WCR.

What can you do?

Simple ways of taking action;

Use biodegradable soaps and detergents without phosphates.

Avoid draining untreated sewage directly at sea, rivers or water bodies.

Do not discharge sewage from boats into coastal waters.

Report any dumping you may see. Note date, time and location of the incident.

Choose cruise ships with sound environmental practices. In advance of the trip you can
ask how they discharge waste.

Do not bathe or fish near sewage outfalls due to the high risk of contamination.

Dont flush household products such as cleansers, beauty products, medicines, paints,
tampons, diapers down the toilet.

Dont pour motor oil in the toilet or drainage system.

When you wash your car use biodegradable soaps over grass or gravel.

When having a flood discontinues use of your private sewage system. Use portable toilets
or a container.

During a flood the well may be contaminated so DO NOT DRINK THE WATER. Drink
bottled water, or disinfect water before drinking.

Do not bathe or swim in floodwater. It may contain harmful organisms.

Do not use the sewage system until water in the disposal field is lower than the water
level around the house.

Join environmental groups that protect the environment.

Teach children and adults with less knowledge that sewage is potentially harmful for both
the health of humans and the environment.

Links

International Maritime Organization, http://www.imo.org/

Joint Monitoring Programme for water supply and sanitation UNICEF-WHO,

http://www.wssinfo.org/en/welcome.html

IYS Partner Organization, International year of sanitation 2008, http://esa.un.org/iys/

The WELL website is a focal point for providing access to information about water,
sanitation and environmental health and related issues in developing and transitional
countries, http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/

The Council is an advocacy and knowledge network, and aims to be a key-source of

information concerning sanitation, hygiene, water supply and any related topics,
http://www.wsscc.org/resources.php

IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, bridging the knowledge gap and joint
learning with partners for improved, low-cost water supply, sanitation and hygiene in
developing countries, http://www.irc.nl/index.php

WSP Water and Sanitation Programme, an international partnership to help the poor gain
sustained access to improved water supply and sanitation servicesm,
http://www.wsp.org/index.asp

Global Programme of Action for the protection of the marine environment from land
based activities, information on sanitation and wastewater,
http://www.gpa.unep.org/content.html?id=246

UNDP information on water and sanitation,

http://www.undp.org/water/priorityareas/supply.html

Un Atlas of the Oceans, information on non point sources of pollution,

http://www.oceansatlas.org/servlet/CDSServlet?
status=ND0yNTg3JjY9ZW4mMzM9KiYzNz1rb3M~

World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/topics/sanitation/en/

References

Eea, 2005, Priority issues in the Mediterranean environment, eea Report No 5 European
Environment Agency, Copenhagen

DPNR/DEP & USDA/NRCS, 1998, United Watershed Assessment Report - United States
Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources in
cooperation with USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Caribbean Area, St.
Croix, USVI

Garzn-Ferreira J, Cortes J, Croquer A, Guzmn H, Leao Z, & Rodrguez- Ramirez A,

2000, Status of coral reefs in southern tropical America: Brazil, Colombia, Costa rica,
Panam and Venezuela, In: Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 (ed Wilkinson C)
Australian Institute of Marine Sciences (AIMS) (2000), Australia

GEF/CEHI/CARICOM/UNEP, 2001, Integrating watershed and coastal area

management in Small Island Developing States of the Caribbean, Taken June 2003 from:
http://www.cep.unep.org/programmes/amep/GEFIWCAM/SynthesisReport/FinalRegSynthesis.doc

GESAMP, 2001, Protecting the Oceans from Land-based Activities - Land-based Sources
and Activities Affecting the Quality and Uses of the Marine, Coastal and Associated
Freshwater Environment, GESAMP Reports and Studies 71

JMP Joint Monitoring Programme for Water supply & Sanitation WHO/UNICEF, Taken
2008-03-20 from http://www.wssinfo.org/en/welcome.html

JMP Joint Monitoring Programme for Water supply & Sanitation WHO/UNICEF, Taken
2008-03-20 from http://www.wssinfo.org/en/122_definitions.html

Linton D M, & Warner G F, 2003, Biological indicators in the Caribbean coastal zone
and their role in integrated coastal management, Ocean and coastal management 46:261276

Outlook, 2000, Regional Office for Latin America and The Caribbean, United Nation
Environment Programme, Mexico City

Senior W, Castaeda J, & Martnez G, 1999, Evaluacin ambiental de los grandes ros,
Informe nanciado por PDVSA, Universidad de Oriente, instituto oceanogrfico de
Venezuela, Departamento de oceanografa. 50 p

Shuval H, 2003, Estimating the Global Burden of Thalassogenic Disease-Human

Infectious Disease caused by Wastewater Pollution of the Marine Environment, Journal
of Water and Health, Vol. 1 no. 2, 2003, p 53-64

Siung-Chang A, 1997, A review of pollution issues in the Caribbean. Environmental

Geochemistry and Health, 19(2): 45-55

Smith A H, Archibald M, Bailey T, Bouchon C, Brathwaite A, Comacho R, Goerge S,

Guiste H, Hasting M, James P, Jeffrey-Appleton C, De Meyer K, Miller A, Nurse L,
Petrovic C, & Phillip P, 2000, Status of the Coral Reefs in the Eastern caribbean: The
OECS; Trinidad & Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French
Caribbean, In: Wilkinson, I and Australian Institute of Marine Sciences (AIMS) (eds.)
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000, Australia

Smith R L, & Smith TM, 1998, Elements of Ecology, San Francisco USA

UNEP/CEP, 1998, An Overview of Land Based Sources of Marine Pollution, Technical

Report No 40 UNEP Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston, Jamaica

UNEP/GPA, 2006, The State of the Marine Environment: Trends and processes, The
Hague

UNEP, 2002, Global Environment Outlook 3, United Nations Environment Programme,

Nairobi, Kenya, 416 p

UNEP/CEP, 1998, An Overview of Land Based Sources of Marine Pollution, Technical

Report No. 40 UNEP Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston, Jamaica

UNEP, 1999, Assessment of land-based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine,
Coastal and Associated Freshwater Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region,

UNEP/GPA Coordination Office and Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston

Jamaica

UNEP/GEF/Kalmar Hgskola, 2004, Global International Water Assessment (GIWA),

Caribbean Sea/Small Islands GIWA Regional assessment 3a, Kalmar Sweden

UNEP/GEF/Kalmar Hgskola,Invemar, 2006, Global International Water Assessment

(GIWA), Caribbean Sea/Colombia & Venezuela, Central America & Mexico GIWA
Regional Assessment 3b, 3c, Kalmar Sweden

UNEP/GEF/Kalmar Hgskola/Cimab, 2004, Global International Water Assessment

(GIWA), Caribbean Islands Bahamas, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica,
Puerto Rico Regional Assessment 4, Kalmar Sweden

UNICEF & World Health Organization, 2008, Progress on drinking water and sanitation
special focus on sanitation, Geneva Switzerland

Wikipedia, Taken 2008-03-07 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen

Wikipedia, Taken 2008-03-07 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/eutrophication

Wikipedia, Taken 2008-06-28 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater

Wikipedia, Taken 2008-07-10 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation

Windevohxel N, 2003, Costas del caribe de Colombia-Venezuela. Captulo 1.

PROARCA-Costas, The Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Foundation, University of
Rhode Island, Taken February 2003 from
http://www.wetlands.org/inventory&/SAA/Body/

How was the study conducted

1. Planning
Proposed interviews with SWMCOL
Questionnaires
Local Government
The minister of trade and Industry
Secondary Research- India, japan, Suriname
2. Implementation
Education

Integration
3. Performance Review
KPI
4. Monitor and Amend
5. Feedback / Recommendation

Limits and potential for waste management to energy generation in the caribbean

Enviado por Francisco Javier Burgos

Partes: 1, 2
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. The concept of waste and waste-to-energy
4. Energy demand in the Caribbean
5. Waste impacts in the Caribbean
6. Waste management practices in the Caribbean
7. Why focus on waste-to-energy?
8. Challenges to waste-to-energy in the Caribbean
9. Response by the energy and climate change division (oas/dsd)
10. Conclusions
11. References

Abstract
Waste accumulation is an issue of particular concern in many Caribbean cities and communities.
The lack of information on waste management performance and techniques in the region, and the
need to improve energy security in order to ensure economic and social prosperity are the main
drivers of waste management practices for energy generation. This article describes the current
situation of waste management in the Caribbean, highlighting the challenges and opportunities

for energy generation and improved energy efficiency via waste-to-energy technologies using
waste as feedstock.

Introduction
How much waste is collected everyday in the Caribbean countries? What is the impact of waste
on the environment? How can the Caribbean region transform its waste-related problems into
socio-economic and environmental benefits?
The accumulation and improper management, treatment and disposal of waste pose a serious
threat to environmental quality and public health in many cities and communities of the
Caribbean. These threats are exacerbated by the lack of awareness regarding the environmental
impact of waste and deficient systems for proper waste management and disposal. Specific
challenges include: a propensity of low-density collection points; high operating costs of
traditional waste collection and treatment systems; small economies that limit the viability of
recycling or alternative waste treatment systems; and limited land availability for sanitary landfill
activities due to competing land uses. These conditions lead to improper design and siting of
non-sanitary landfills, often in close proximity to groundwater aquifers, which create aesthetic
and odor nuisances, increased health risks and climate change effects caused by gaseous
emissions. The situation is worsened by the lack of information about municipal, industrial, and
hazardous waste generation, limited financial and human resources, ineffective policy
frameworks and poor planning capacity.
The region"s heavy dependence on fossil fuels for electricity generation represents an additional
threat; not only to the environment and to social cohesion, but also to national and regional
energy security and macro-economic resilience. In this regard, public policy and public-private
partnerships, among others, are essential ingredients of an integrated waste management strategy.
Waste-to-energy systems (WtE) offer a novel and effective response to manage waste and energy
issues such as pollution prevention, the protection of drinking water resources, energy generation
and increased energy efficiency. Efficient waste-to-energy generation also has the potential to
improve environmental health while creating better social and economic conditions by providing
new jobs; triggering the growth of small industries and environmental services; and lowering
waste collection and treatment costs. WtE technologies have the potential to become an effective
response to current challenges facing the Caribbean region with regard to pollution, public health
and the economy.

The concept of waste and waste-to-energy

The concept of waste is usually associated with Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)[1], industrial
hazardous waste, or wastewater. For the purpose of this research paper, we will define waste as
the material components, energy or substances formed and disposed of as a result of industrial,
services, and recreational and/or residential human activities that have lost their value or
functionality and, either directly or indirectly, impact the natural environment (soil, water and
air compartments of the natural world) and impede socio-economic development.[2]

This broader definition acknowledges the fact that waste is unequivocally linked to energy
considering that every product ever manufactured requires a certain amount of basic materials
and energy for its extraction, manufacture and transport. It also recognizes the fact that adequate
waste management techniques result in recovering large quantities of materials or chemicals
without losing their economic value in tandem with the highest possible energy recovery (in
some cases expressed as energy savings).
The term Waste-to-Energy[3]is used to describe a set of alternatives to collect, treat and dispose
of waste in a manner consistent with the basic principles of integrated waste management such as
Re-duce, Re-use and Re-cycle with a specific focus on Recovery. This concept refers to energy
recovery or savings, which should not be confused with the purpose of recycling. In some cases
recycling can lead to high energy intensive or net negative energy balance activities with the aim
of reaching a high level or quality of marketable products. In contrast to what is generally
perceived solely as the combustion of municipal solid waste to generate electricity and heat in a
power plant, waste-to-energy entails dealing with a wide variety of waste categories (e.g.,
conversion of waste and leachate water, and forest and agricultural waste, to organic waste in
recycling and disposal facilities); using a much wider range of conversion routes into a diversity
of energy carriers (e.g., biogas, electricity, or bio-fuels).

Energy demand in the Caribbean

Energy is essential for developing and maintaining a modern society. In the Caribbean region,
there are two main drivers affecting the demand for reliable and affordable energy services: 1)
sustained population growth, and the consequent need to augment economic activities where
energy is indispensable, and 2) the ever increasing challenge of energy security affected by the
volatile international crude oil market, which leads to expensive petroleum derived fuels such as
jet fuel, diesel, fuel oil, or gasoline, combined with increased competition to access basic energy
resources for power generation and transport fuels. Table 1 below lists key demographic and
energy sector characteristics for the Caribbean OAS Member States.
Table 1. Overview of the Energy Statistics of Caribbean Basin OAS Member States [4][5]

In the Caribbean region it is important to differentiate between small island states comprising
most Eastern Caribbean islands, large island states (e.g, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic,
Trinidad & Tobago, etc.), and low-lying coastal states (e.g, Belize, Guyana, Suriname, etc). This
simplistic categorization is based on population size, surface area and geographic location. Each
state has its own challenges and capacities to tackle energy and waste issues.
It should be noted that while each country has a unique set of economic and energy sector
conditions, they share several common characteristics that are critical to the design of a waste-toenergy system as part of an integrated waste management strategy. These include:

Small population size (population size range 45,000-300,000) for Small Island
Developing States (SIDS);

Medium population size (300,000-8,500,000) for the larger Antilles;

Low to moderate income levels;

In most cases a single monopoly electric utility (whether state or privately owned);

Small overall electricity generation capacity (installed capacity ranges 22-240 MW) in
SIDS;

Medium size generation capacities (240-1,400 MW) for larger islands;

Petroleum as the fuel of choice for power generation (only Belize, Dominica, Jamaica,
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Suriname, and St. Vincent & the Grenadines have gridinstalled renewables and small to large hydro facilities);

Lastly, they all share high average retail electricity rates (0.14-0.45 US$/kWh) for the
wider Caribbean.

An interesting development affecting energy generation and transport in the Caribbean has been
the increase in the price of crude oil. Beginning February 2008, the price of crude oil in
international markets passed the US$100 per barrel mark, and has since then followed the
upward trend and continued to increase. In July 2008, crude oil prices peaked at US$ 147 per
barrel. Estimates indicate that crude oil prices will not retract to the 20 to 40 US dollars price
range at which they had remained for over two decades until July 2004. Thus there is a need for
added urgency to develop new energy alternatives based on indigenous renewable resources to
cushion the impact of costly imported fossil fuels. Waste materials contain a considerable amount
of energy and should therefore be considered as a source for energy generation and savings.

Waste impacts in the Caribbean

During the 2008 International Coastal Cleanup Conference held in Montego Bay, Jamaica, it was
published that a total of 6,781,537 garbage items were collected from shoreline and underwater

sites in the wider Caribbean region. Almost 90 percent of this amount comprised debris from
land based sources (UNDP, 2004). This case exemplifies the magnitude of waste related issues in
the Caribbean which, in many cases, range from deficient waste collection and disposal methods
to the lack of information about how to properly dispose of waste in tandem with the lack of
monitoring of the quantity of waste generated and its composition.
Tourism
Tourism is one of the most important economic activities in the Caribbean, contributing one third
to half of the GDP in most countries. With 22,281,000 stay-over visitors and 18,883,400 cruise
passengers per year (2005)[6], the Caribbean region is four times more dependent on tourism
than any other region in the world (Dixon et al, 2001). Visitor expenditure sums to a total of US$
21.5 billion, of which 90 percent is spent by visitors arriving to the region by air. In this context,
sustainable tourism becomes a key development priority and is also considered a major challenge
in terms of implementing an adequate integrated waste management system that satisfies the
sector"s needs.
Tourism generates substantial amounts of solid waste. In the Caribbean, it has been estimated
that tourists generate twice as much solid waste per capita as local residents. Cruise ship
passengers are estimated to produce as much as four times the amount of garbage per day
compared to local populations (Dixon et al, 2001). They also generate substantial amounts of
liquid waste, much of which goes untreated. In Trinidad and Tobago for example, some 150
small sewage treatment systems have been installed in hotels and housing developments. Many
of these systems are poorly maintained and provide limited benefits.
In the Caribbean, the tourism cruise industry typically operates cruise ships that carry large
numbers of passengers and visit island nations for a few hours. In some cases waste is offloaded
and disposed of in the islands landfill sites. An average cruise vessel usually accommodates
2,400 passengers and a crew of 600. Because of their capacity, cruise ships can generate a
tremendous amount of waste. This can be a considerable portion of the total daily waste
generation of a small island. Depending on the number and frequency of cruise ships visiting an
island, and whether waste is being disposed on the island, to monitor and operate a treatment
system or landfill facility can become a challenge. Table 2 provides an overview of estimates of
waste generation per 3,000 passenger cruise ship over a week time.
Table 2: Estimates of waste generation per passenger in cruise ships

Waste generation (3,000 passenger

ship) 1)

Gray water

Amount of Waste

1 million gallons per week

Sewage water

210,000 gallons per week

Oily bilge water

25,000 gallons per week

Hazardous / toxic waste

100 gallons per week

Solid waste

50 tons per week

Gas emissions (diesel engines)

1) Source: Cruise Ship Pollution, available at http://www.surfrider.org/az/cruise.asp

In addition, these ships take in large quantities of ballast water, which is seawater pumped into
the hulls of ships to ensure their stability at sea. This water is typically taken in at one port and
then discharged at the ship's destination, which can introduce invasive species and serious
diseases into Caribbean waters. A typical release of ballast water amounts to 1,000 metric tons.
Under this panorama, a considerable amount of the water pollution in the Caribbean stems from
ship-generated waste (including unprocessed waste and plastic products) which is in some cases
illegally discharged into the ocean. Although most ships are registered in countries which are
signatory to international environmental protocols and subject to standards for waste treatment,
storage and disposal, there is increased evidence that cruise ship waste is reaching the shore of
many Caribbean islands.
Figure 2. Example of waste reaching coastal shores

Source: National Marine Debris Monitoring Program

Urban and Coastal Zone Development
Coastal areas are the areas where most or all human activities take place, from business,
residential and recreation means to transport facilities, industry, and other infrastructures. Coastal
areas also comprise major habitats for marine growth and animals living in mangroves, estuaries
and coral reefs. The actual interaction between urban coastal areas and the sea is essential. Some
coastal cities of the Caribbean are densely populated; often the buildings are not connected to
centralized sewage collection systems, and adequate waste collection facilities are not available.
In some cases, because of least-cost considerations and the lack of adequate legal frameworks,
waste water is discharged untreated in the sea and landfills are established too close to
ecologically sensitive areas where leachate (waste water) can cause high levels of contamination.
This triggers a variety of problems ranging from odor emissions to very serious impacts on
coastal and marine ecosystems.
Septic tanks are the most common decentralized wastewater treatment systems. Regularly a
sewage truck collects wastewater and transports it to septic and sludge facilities. For example,
hotels are either connected to a sewage system or have simplified waste water treatment plants.
Their water output is generally used for irrigation and sludge brought to landfills.
Figure 3.
Waste accumulation at coastal areas in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic

Source: http://www.callipygia600.com/allpictures/logpix/images/trash.jpg - September, 2002

Improper Waste Management
In many Caribbean islands, medical and industrial waste is not separated from domestic waste
(with the exception of radioactive materials), thus exposing waste handlers to a wide array of
health risks. In these cases, there is a high risk of disease from contact with human faecal matter;
paper saturated with toxic substances; bottles containing chemical residues; metal containers of
pesticides and solvents; medical waste such as needles or bandages; and batteries containing
heavy metals. Emanations from waste collection trucks travelling to and from disposal sites, dust
from disposal operations, and the open burning of waste contribute to health problems, especially
when these occur near residential areas. Other health risks are associated with the incidence of
pulmonary diseases linked to exposure to biologically active agents (e.g., microorganisms and
their metabolites and toxins), bio-aerosols, volatile compounds, or mold spores.
Many dumpsites or landfills have limited or no cover material. Therefore, precipitation
percolates through the waste. Once in contact with decomposing solid waste, the percolating
water becomes contaminated and flows out of the waste material becoming a contaminated
liquid called leachate. As the waste decomposes through aerobic and anaerobic microbial action,
increasing volumes of leachate are formed and permeate into the soil. Leachate can reach high
organic concentrations, with high levels of dissolved solids, ammonia, nitrate, phosphate,
chloride, potassium, as well as numerous heavy metals and refractory organic trace constituents
(commonly including byproducts of decomposing solvents, pesticides, and polychlorinated
biphenols) (Slack, Gronowb & Voulvoulisa, 2005). In addition, high numbers of fecal bacteria
are typical, while viruses seldom survive in leachate because of their sensitivity to the low pH
values common to leachate (Cointreau-Levine, n.d.). In cases where sanitary landfills do not
comply with basic design requirements, waters infiltrating the soil contaminate the subterranean
waters, which in many cases are the main source for fresh water in the Caribbean islands. This
generates a cycle of bacterial contamination that directly affects the poorest populations and
damages the ecosystem.
The Caribbean region is prone to weather related natural disasters such as flooding in low lying
coastal zones in Guyana and Suriname, and increasingly intense and frequent hurricanes in the

northern Antilles and the eastern Caribbean islands. These events also lead to a large amount of
waste water and solid waste generation. When urban areas are flooded, water comes in contact
with garbage, septic tanks or sewage systems carrying human waste. Pathogens and other
dissolved toxic chemicals are disseminated and brought in direct contact with people, thus
creating high public health risks. After a hurricane, large volumes of debris and construction
waste are created that need proper collection, treatment and disposal. An integrated waste
management strategy should be designed with these events in mind.

Waste management practices in the Caribbean

Waste Management Systems
There are several commonalities in current Caribbean waste management systems. Waste
materials are blended or contaminated with toxic components, due to limited know-how on
separate collection alternatives and the perception that such waste collection processes are
complex and expensive. Municipal solid waste is usually collected through labor-intensive
systems, in most cases by manually unloading containers off the collection truck. The mixing of
waste limits re-use, recycling and conversion alternatives. This practice also increases the costs
and lowers the performance of existing waste treatment technologies. As the report of the
Caribbean Regional Preparatory Meeting to review the Programme of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States[7]expressed, it is difficult to promote recycling
initiatives due to inefficiency, financial constraints and limited scope of economies of scale.
Additionally, the overall cost of waste disposal becomes higher, which explains the use of leastcost options such as dumpsites or landfills in most Caribbean nations. Figure 5 below shows the
general waste treatment and disposal hierarchy within a waste management scheme (based on
Schnning, 2006).

In some cases, agricultural equipment (trucks and tractors) is used to transport, deposit and
compact waste in landfills. Waste is sometimes burned in the open to increase space volume.
Other events or risks related to current landfill operation practices are:

Scavenging and pests distribution;

Spontaneous fires in dry conditions;

Limited or no collection and treatment of leachate water;

Lack of proper sorting and depositing; and

Complexities with transporting, locating and compacting waste in wet conditions.

Hazardous materials and medical waste are not separated or handled in compliance with
international safety standards because regulatory frameworks and enforcement agencies to
monitor such waste treatment are either lacking or ineffective.
Waste Management Statistics
Table 3 shows the percentage of the population served by a MSW collection system and the
amount of waste generated by households, and industrial and commercial activities, in Caribbean
OAS member states. Solid waste generation in the Caribbean ranges from about 27,000 to
945,000 metric tons per year. It should be noted that publicly available information is either
limited or outdated.
Table 3. Waste Generation (weight or volume)

Waste statistics are limited, unreliable and not regularly updated or made public. Without this
crucial information it is difficult to enable policy makers, international organizations, the private
sector, NGOs or other stakeholders to draft legislation, concept notes or action plans that are
responsive to the region"s waste management challenges. A comprehensive waste management
program should comprise the compilation of relevant information on waste (i.e., amount of
waste, waste composition, and potential uses of collected waste).
Waste composition is an important issue which should not be overlooked. Readily available
information about the type of waste being generated is important to enable the drafting of an
integrated waste management strategy. Major changes from organic to non-organic waste,
constitute an additional challenge to the implementation of solid waste treatment technologies.
Table 4 shows the municipal solid waste composition of two Caribbean nations.
Table 4: Municipal Solid Waste composition in the Caribbean (by % of total)

Component

St. Kitts

Trinidad and Tobago

Organics

27.2

26.7

Paper

20.5

19.7

Glass

8.1

10.5

Metals

8.8

10.4

Plastics

23.2

19.9

Textiles

7.4

7.3

Others

4.8

5.3

Organic fraction

47.7

46.4

Source: Garraway, 2002.

The example above shows that organic municipal solid waste represents 40 to 50 percent[8]of
the total volume of waste generated in St. Kitts and Trinidad and Tobago. This is an important
piece of information to be taken into account if a country is considering bio-waste to energy
options.
Regulatory framework and investments
Other important issues in waste management activities in the region are the definition and
implementation of legal frameworks and regulations; investment needs and opportunities; and
public education and participation. Some Caribbean nations such as Barbados, the Bahamas, St
Kitts and Nevis, and Dominica have started regulating waste management practices as part of
environmental protection measures. With regard to funding needs and opportunities, most
countries have made important investments mainly in waste collection processes. Barbados,
Belize, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago resorted to external sources of funding to upgrade
their waste management infrastructures. The waste management authorities of many Caribbean
countries initiated public education programs geared toward encouraging public participation in
solid waste management, including waste reduction, prevention of littering, and elimination of
illegal dumpsites, among others.
Among the external funds or technical assistance provided to the Caribbean nations for
improving their waste management in the last decades are:

In 1993 a Solid Waste Management Program was commenced in Barbados, which

entered into an agreement with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and was
integrated into the National Health Sector Development Plan (1993-2000).

In 1995 the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), including Antigua and
Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the
Grenadines, initiated the OECS Solid and Ship-Generated Waste Management Project
with a duration of 8 years with financial resources in the form of grants, credits and loans
from multiple development banks such as the World Bank.

In 1998 the IDB provided a loan to the Government of the Bahamas for the creation of a
Solid Waste Management Program.

In Jamaica the National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA) (McHargh,

2004) was established in conjunction with the National Solid Waste Management
Programme through the enactment of the 2001 National Solid Waste Management Act.
Through this Act, the NSWMA is responsible for regulating the processing and disposal
of household and municipal solid waste. It also aims at regulating the recycling, storage,
transportation, treatment and disposal of household waste island wide.

As the Experts Workshop on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Integrated Waste

Management for Caribbean SIDS highlighted in December 2003, other initiatives in the
Caribbean include:

Support for Bahamas and Montserrat in landfill management;

Support for Dominica in sanitary landfill monitoring;

Support for Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and Guyana in analyzing the
solid waste sector;

Support for evaluation of solid waste management services in the OECS and French
Caribbean territories;

Development of solid waste indicators for the OECS; and

Assumption of responsibility for the Wider Caribbean Solid Waste and Recycling
Alliance (known as RECARIBE)

In the international arena, several Caribbean nations have ratified conventions on the
environment, such as the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(MARPOL), the Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-based Sources and Activities in the
Wider Caribbean Region (LBS) and the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (BASEL). Table 5 shows the multilateral
environmental agreements ratified by Caribbean OAS member states.
Table 5: Multilateral Agreements impacting Waste Management in the wider Caribbean

Caribbean OAS
Member States

MARPOL[9] LBS[10]

BASEL[11]

Antigua and
Barbuda

AN5

CP

Bahamas

AN4

CP

Barbados

AN4

CP

Belize

AN5

CP

Dominica

Dominican
Republic

CP

AN5

Grenada

Guyana

AN5

Haiti

Jamaica

AN5

Saint Kitts and

Nevis

AN5

Saint Lucia

CP

Saint Vincent and

the Grenadines

AN5

Suriname

AN5

Trinidad and
Tobago

CP

CP

CP

Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Caribbean

Environment Programme (2008). Retrieved from :

http://www.cep.unep.org/law/cartstatus.html#cartagena

Performance and recent developments

Over the last decade, the Caribbean has experienced significant improvements in waste
management. These include more efficient collection systems and the implementation of
recycling programs (e.g., glass in Trinidad; plastic, aluminum, and glass in the French West
Indies and Barbados; and the use of used oils for electricity generation, heat, and land-farming
applications in Antigua). Specialized environmental units have been established to facilitate the
regulation and monitoring of waste disposal sites in Barbados, where 60% of the waste generated
is recycled. In the Bahamas, hazardous waste is sorted by type and new facilities were built with
a storage capacity of 2 years. Additionally, tipping fees based on waste volume and type were
implemented, environmental conservation levies on imported goods were introduced, and public
awareness and education campaigns on adequate waste disposal were organized.
However, health, environment, social, economic and financial challenges associated with waste
management remain unsolved. Comprehensive waste-to-energy management practices can
become an effective response to such challenges as they also have the potential to address energy
generation needs in many Caribbean nations. The following sections describe the opportunities
and challenges related to waste-to-energy alternatives.

Why focus on waste-to-energy?

Waste-to-Energy offers a creative and effective response to two major concerns of Caribbean
nations: waste management and energy generation. Typically, a ton of MSW contains about onethird of the heating value of coal (8-12 MJ/kg received as MSW and 25-30 MJ/kg for coal)
(International Energy Agency (IEA) Bioenergy, 2003). Municipal solid waste has a higher energy
content if compared to sugarcane bagasse[12]which is widely used for bio-ethanol production.
On the other hand, many Caribbean landfills are reaching their maximum capacity and are
occupying valuable lands that could be used for other more financially or socially beneficial
purposes. Ever increasing electricity costs driven by a high dependency on imported fossil fuels
are stalling the economic development of many Caribbean nations. Higher fuel prices also
increase the costs for collection and transportation of waste to landfills. In this context, waste-toenergy alternatives are extremely attractive.
When considering the conventional waste management hierarchy, which aims to Re-duce, Reuse, Re-cycle, Re-cover and finally Dispose of waste, the quantity and quality of municipal solid
waste should be taken into consideration along with the projected generation and the financial,
regulatory, and technical capacity. It should be noted that application of the conventional waste
management hierarchy is challenging in the Caribbean region for reasons such as:

There is no clear idea of how much waste is available and of what quality (long-term
strategy);

Awareness on product re-use is limited and there are very few to no regulations to
promote product re-use (limits re-use potential);

Awareness and incentives to enable adequate collection systems is most often limited to
non-existent (limits recycling potential);

There is limited economies of scale for recycling activities at the national level (limits in
recycling potential particularly in SIDS);

Waste comprises materials that are not recyclable, therefore it takes more energy to
recycle them than it does to simply dispose of them;

Landfills are quickly reaching their maximum capacity, thus there is a need to divert
waste from landfills.

Although recycling activities seem limited in the Caribbean context, and they may be perceived
as competing with other options in the waste management hierarchy, recycling and waste-toenergy go hand in hand. By improving recycling efficiencies for glass, plastic or metals, a
cleaner or higher concentrated residual waste stream (e.g. organic waste stream) can be created
that makes the application of waste-to-energy systems easier. In the next figure, one can see the
current difference in waste treatment methods in the Caribbean compared to Sweden, a country
that has managed to diversify its waste management system by incorporating waste-to-energy
systems while maintaining high rates of recycling.
Figure 6. Difference in share of waste treatment methods between the Caribbean region
and Sweden

Source: Elaborated with data from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the UNEP
The Caribbean approach to waste management is focused almost exclusively on the use of
landfills given the low price of land disposal and the low tipping fees. However, high fossil fuel
prices are beginning to shift this paradigm and are becoming a great incentive to improve wasteto-energy solutions as a means to reduce energy costs and ameliorate energy security. Sweden is
a good example of this, where only about 5% of the waste generated is dumped into landfills.
The Swedish approach illustrates how recycling efforts go hand in hand with waste-to-energy
alternatives.

Challenges to waste-to-energy in the Caribbean

The set up of an integrated waste management strategy requires the balancing of optimized waste
reduction practices, recycling, recovery, and land filling of non-biodegradable waste. Waste-toenergy alternatives are just one segment of these complex interrelated waste treatment systems.
Therefore a country or municipality should have a clear long term view and strategy in place
with clear and practical objectives defined to assess and find the optimal balance to implement
waste collection and treatment options.
When delving into the Waste-to-energy alternatives a holistic approach must be adopted. This
requires a complete assessment of the sources of waste, the types and quantities of waste
produced, the waste-to-energy conversion routes, and the possible energy carriers or byproducts.
Figure 7 highlights some of these aspects.
Figure 7. Example of a National Waste Stream Scheme

The opportunities for fostering efficient waste management towards energy savings or
production in the Caribbean are fraught with major barriers. These barriers include:

Lack of reliable information on waste management practices;

Lack of basic waste generation and composition data;

Regulatory frameworks to improve waste management performance are either ineffective

or lacking;

Lack of policy and legal frameworks linking waste management with environment and
energy issues;

Planning capacity in waste-to-energy systems is either poor or lacking;

High degree of resistance toward waste-to-energy systems, partly because they are
perceived as environmentally detrimental;

No fiscal incentives to facilitate energy generation and energy efficiency from waste
management;

Centralization and decentralization of waste management responsibilities;

Insufficient funding to finance the creation of waste-to-energy systems and the

implementation of modern waste management strategies;

Need to develop and define sustainability criteria for waste-to-energy alternatives.

Deficient, ineffective or out-of-date regulatory and institutional frameworks can become barriers
to integrated waste management. For instance, the Bahamas must deal with more than 16

landfills located on several islands. This creates complex relationships among local governments
with regard to the management, finance, and supervision of waste management activities. In
some Caribbean countries, specific activities such as sewage collection and treatment, and
disposal of urban and commercial waste all fall under the responsibility of different government
agencies and private firms. It therefore becomes difficult to apply consistent and effective waste
management standards.

Response by the energy and climate change division (oas/dsd)

The Department of Sustainable Development at the OAS, via its Energy and Climate Change
Division is implementing several feasibility studies in the Americas with the particular focus on
Waste-to-Energy development. In Belize, considerable potential for a cellulosic ethanol market is
envisioned, but critical assessment is essential to confirm this potential. The OAS has recently
executed an in-country assessment to identify waste streams within the forestry, agricultural and
waste management sectors that may have the potential to serve as feedstock for cellulosic ethanol
production (a waste-to-energy technology). In Chile, the OAS has developed a waste-to-energy
initiative to assess the volume of municipal solid waste generated by the city of Santiago and to
determine its composition. Based on this information, practical and commercially viable
technologies and schemes for the conversion of municipal solid waste to energy will be
identified. These are two examples of ongoing activities within the DSD to contribute to climate
change mitigation, improvement of waste management, and provision of reliable and affordable
energy services.

Conclusions
As long as there is human presence and therefore socio-economic activities and no major shifts
occur in the way products are manufactured and consumed, waste will continue to be generated.
Waste-to-energy systems are dependant upon the continuous supply of an indigenous energy
source, "waste" to increase the energy security of a nation and bring about socio-economic
benefits while protecting the environment.
In order to enable Caribbean nations to implement efficient and sustainable waste management
technologies the following must be addressed:

A considerable focus is needed on the collection, monitoring and publication of basic

waste generation and composition data;

A clear overview of energy sector challenges per-country is needed;

A description of current implemented waste management strategies and their performance

is needed to identify appropriate systems for small island states and other Caribbean
nations;

A country-by-country macro-economic interdependency mapping has to be developed to

identify the greatest contributors to waste generation, the linkages among several sectors
of the economy and the long term development projections;

The is need for improved inter-departmental communication and share of responsibilities

and physical and land use planning;
Partes: 1, 2

Leer ms: http://www.monografias.com/trabajos93/limits-and-potential-for-wastemanagement/limits-and-potential-for-waste-management.shtml#ixzz43B7Tzpxu

It will be important to create awareness and develop an educational program for schools that
teach children the concept of recycling and reusing from an early age (long term)
Use of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and other Carbon Credit mechanisms under
the Kyoto Protocol or Voluntary Carbon Trading systems.
It should be noted that Waste-to-Energy systems represent a part of an integrated waste
management strategy and are not in all cases the most sustainable solution.

References
Barbados Solid Waste Management Program. Retrieved: June 15, 2008 from
http://www.solid.gov.bb/
Caribbean Environmental Health Institute & United Nations Environment Program. (2003).
Workshop Report: Experts meeting on environmentally sound technologies for waste
management in Caribbean SIDS [PDF document]. Available at:
http://www.unep.org/depi/PDF/Experts%20Meeting%20-%20final%20report.doc
Caribbean Environmental and Health Institute (CEHI). Retrieved: June 15, 2008 from;
http://www.cehi.org.lc/cef3/Presentations/Energy/ChristophMenkeInvestmentinRenewableEnerg
yandEnergyEfficiency%20Doesitpayback.pdf
Cointreau-Levine, S. (n.d.). Occupational and environmental health issues of solid waste
Management [PDF document]. Retrieved June 15, 2008, from
http://www.ilsr.org/recycling/other/dctransfer/ochealth.pdf
Dixon, J. , Hamilton, K., Pagiola, S., & Segnestam, L. (2001). Tourism and the Environment in

the Caribbean An Economic framework. Environmental Department paper no. 80. Retrieved
June 7, 2008, from: http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/09/28/000094946_0109
1904003762/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf
Garraway, E. (2002). Saint Kitts solid waste characterization study. Saint Lucia, OECS, Natural
Resource Management Unit.
IEA Bioenergy (2003). Municipal Solid Waste and its role in sustainability, A position paper
prepared by IEA Bioenergy . Retrieved June 10, 2008, from:
http://www.ieabioenergy.com/media/40_IEAPositionPaperMSW.pdf
International Monetary Fund. (2008). World Economic Outlook Database. Retrieved June 7,
2008, from:
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?
sy=2006&ey=2013&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=311%2C336%2C263%2C3
13%2C316%2C343%2C339%2C361%2C321%2C362%2C243%2C364%2C366%2C369%2C32
8&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=46&pr1.y=11
Lambrides, M. et al., (2006). Increasing the sustainability of the energy sector in the Caribbean
through improved governance and management. Project Document. USA: Energy and Climate
Change Division, Department of Sustainable Development of the Organization of American
States (OAS).
McHargh, M. (2004). Solid waste management initiatives in Jamaica. Retrieved May 7, 2008,
from http://www.eclipsbiz.com/JIEP/M_Mchargh_solid_waste.pdf
Report of the Caribbean Regional Preparatory Meeting to review the programme of action for the
sustainable development of Small Island Developing States. (n.d.). Available at:
http://www.sidsnet.org/docshare/other/20031104134625_Final_Report_of_the_Caribbean_Regio
nal_Meeting_on_SIDS.doc
Schnning, M. (2006). Swedish waste management charting an energy from waste future:
Producing clean power from municipal biomass [PowerPoint slides]. Presented at the Canadian
Urban Institute, Toronto. Retrieved from:
http://www.canurb.com/media/Presentations/UL_19/MSchonning140606.pdf
Slacka, R., Gronowb, J., & Voulvoulisa, N. (2005). Household hazardous waste in municipal

landfills: contaminants in leachate. Science of the Total Environment, 337, 119 137. Retrieved
June 10, 2008, from http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsacd/cd43/gron.pdf
Sugar Engineers Library. (2008). Bagasse Calorific Value. Retrieved May 31, 2008, from
http://www.sugartech.co.za/extraction/bagasseCV/index.php
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: www.naturvardsverket.se/ and
http://www.naturvardsverket.se/en/In-English/Menu/Products-and-waste/Waste/Waste-statistics
The Bahamas Environmental Science and Technology (BEST) Agency. (2007).
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Documents. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from
http://www.best.bs/documents.html
Gas and Oil Connections website:
,http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/company/cnl60460.htm,
Grenada:
http://www.grenadaworld.com/InvestorsGuide/Infrastructure/Electricity/tabid/493/Default.aspx,
Barbados:
http://www.barbadosenergy.com/ to convert:
http://www.rigcooling.com/conversion_calculators/energy.htm (visited May, 2008) and
http://www.blpc.com.bb/faqs/faqs.cfm?cat=Fuel_Adjustment
Belize: 2005. http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?
country=bz&product=hydro&graph=production
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=DR and
http://www.bel.com.bz/about_rates.asp
Suriname: 2005. http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?
country=sr&product=hydro&graph=production
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=NS :
Haiti: 2005.
http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?country=ht&product=hydro&graph=production
Jamaica: 2005.

http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?country=jm&product=hydro&graph=production
St. Kitts & Nevis: 2005.
http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?country=kn&product=hydro&graph=production
Dominican Republic: 2005.
http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?country=do&product=hydro&graph=production
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_the_Dominican_Republic
Trinidad & Tobago: 2005.
http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?country=tt&product=hydro&graph=production and
http://www.ttec.co.tt/announcements/revised_tarriff_structure/default.htm
Guyana: 2005.
http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?country=gy&product=hydro&graph=production

Autor:
De Cuba, K.,
Burgos, F.,
Contreras-Lisperguer, R.
Penny, R.
Sustainable Energy and Climate Change Division
Department for Sustainable Development (DSD)
General Secretariat of the Organization of American States (OAS)
[1] MSW is in general waste that is produced by the household, but can also include commercial
and industrial waste that is similar in nature to household waste.
[2] Definition created by the authors as a way to change the classic point of view currently used
to define waste.

[3] Definition extracted and adapted from: Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make
Things by William McDonough (Author), Michael Braungart (Author). North Point Press, First
Edition 2002.
[4] See Annex A for a complete overview of the sources for this table.
[5] *Measured in Millions of kWh Grand Bahama Island only ^Antigua Island only
[6] Include a general statement about the sources for statistics, such as (local Utility/electricity
Companies) also include Year.
[7] Source: CARICOM presentation about Intra-Caribbean air transportation, the CSME
bridge, 2005, see:
www.caricom.org/jsp/single_market/caribbean_connect/intra_carib_air_transportation_holder.pp
t
[8] The Caribbean Regional Preparatory Meeting to Review the Barbados Programme of Action
for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (BPOA) was held in Port of
Spain, Trinidad and Tobago during October 610, 2003 see: http://www.un.org/specialrep/ohrlls/sid/Final_Report_of_the_Caribbean_Regional_Meeting_on_SIDS.pdf
[9] The organic fraction is considered the sum of the categories organics and paper.
[10] The original International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(MARPOL) Convention was signed on 17 February 1973, but did not come into force. The
current Convention is a combination of 1973 Convention and the 1978 Protocol. It entered into
force on 2 October 1983. As at 31 December 2005, 136 countries, representing 98% of the
world's shipping tonnage, were parties to the Convention. AN is the number of Annexes
accepted by the State.
[11] The LBS Protocol is the Protocol concerning the Pollution from Land-Based Sources and
Activities (adopted in Aruba, 1999) as part of the Cartagena Convention (1983), which is the
only wider Caribbean binding regional environmental treaty which most Caribbean OAS
Member States, with exception of the Bahamas, Guyana, Haiti, St. Kitts and Nevis and Suriname
have ratified.
[12] The Basel Convention is the Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Waste and their Disposal. The CP means Contracting Party and S means Signature.
Leer ms: http://www.monografias.com/trabajos93/limits-and-potential-for-wastemanagement/limits-and-potential-for-waste-management2.shtml#ixzz43B7f4YcH