University of Surrey

Department of Civil Engineering

Collapse analysis of externally

prestressed structures
Jens Tandler

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the Degree of Master
of Science in Structural Engineering

August 2001

Abstract
The use of external prestressing is becoming more popular throughout
Europe due to their expected higher durability and the possibility of active
maintenance of the prestressing cables. Questions have been raised about the
behaviour of these structures beyond service loads.
A comprehensive numerical analysis has been carried out comparing the
behaviour of three different types of externally prestressed bridges to a
conventionally internally prestressed bridge. The external types are a
monolithically built bridge with external tendons, a monolithically built bridge
with external tendons and blocked deviators, and a precast segmental bridge
with external tendons. The internally prestressed bridge is monolithic. The
primary objectives are to determine whether or not ductile failure occurs, i.e. the
load-deflection response, and the tendon stress increase at ultimate stage.
The results show that the monolithically built bridges have a considerable
higher ultimate moment capacity as well as deflection. This shows the
advantage

of

using

continuous

ordinary

reinforcement.

All

externally

prestressed types did not reach the capacities of the internally prestressed
bridge. It was found that ductility depends mostly on the reinforcement within
the cross-section. Externally prestressed girders have no prestressing cables in
the cross-section and need sufficient ordinary reinforcement in order to deform
ductile. Although the tendon stress increase up to failure in the actual analysis
is remarkable, the discussion shows that the magnitude varies greatly
depending on the layout of the whole structure.

KEYWORDS: EXTERNAL PRESTRESS, DUCTILITY, TENDON STRESS

INCREASE, FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

 Jens Tandler 2001

TO ALL MY SUPPORTERS,
ESPECIALLY TO KRISTIN

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

Contents at a Glance

Introduction ........................................................................................ 1

Behaviour of externally prestressed structures............................ 10

Collapse analysis ............................................................................. 23

Results .............................................................................................. 73

Discussion of the results................................................................. 85

Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................... 98

Jens Tandler 2001

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

Contents

Acknowledgements.......................................................................................VIII
Notation............................................................................................................IX
1

Introduction ........................................................................................ 1
1.1

Definitions ..................................................................................... 1

1.2

Significance of this study............................................................... 3

1.3

Scope of the project ...................................................................... 5

1.4

Historical overview and typical characteristics of external

prestressing .................................................................................. 6

1.5
2

Further structural applications of external prestressing................. 9

Behaviour of externally prestressed structures............................ 10

2.1

Tendon layout considerations ..................................................... 10

2.2

Behaviour at serviceability stage................................................. 12

2.3

Fatigue problems ........................................................................ 14

2.4

Behaviour at ultimate limit stage ................................................. 14

2.4.1

Influence of tendon slip on the ultimate limit state............................ 18

2.4.2

Influence of the arrangement of the deviators on the behaviour at

ultimate limit state............................................................................ 19

2.4.3

Influence of simply support and continuous support on the ultimate

limit state......................................................................................... 20

2.4.4

Precast segmental and monolithic bridges ...................................... 21

Collapse analysis ............................................................................. 23

3.1

Investigated bridge types and their differences........................... 23

3.2

Original bridge data..................................................................... 28

3.3

Simplified bridge data as basis for the calculations..................... 30

3.4

FE Calculation............................................................................. 32
3.4.1

Technical aspects............................................................................ 33

3.4.2

General approach............................................................................ 34

3.4.3

Geometric model ............................................................................. 39

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Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

3.4.4

Element specifications..................................................................... 40

3.4.5

Constitutive models ......................................................................... 45

3.4.6

Ordinary reinforcement.................................................................... 59

3.4.7

Prestress ......................................................................................... 60

3.4.8

Material and geometric non-linearity................................................ 63

3.4.9

Kinematic constraints ...................................................................... 66

3.4.10

Discrete crack propagation analysis of the precast segmental type

with gap elements ........................................................................... 68

3.4.11

Summary of the dividing features of the different structure types for

the FE analysis................................................................................ 72

Results .............................................................................................. 73
4.1

Load deflection behaviour ........................................................... 73

4.2

Tendon stress increase up to failure ........................................... 76

4.3

Other results ............................................................................... 78

Discussion of the results................................................................. 85

5.1

Interpretation of the results ......................................................... 85

5.2

Discussion of the exactness of the FE calculations by comparing

to the full scale test ..................................................................... 89

5.3
6

Comparison to other FE calculations and test results ................. 93

Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................... 98

6.1

Concluding remarks .................................................................... 98

6.2

Recommendations ...................................................................... 99

References .................................................................................................... 100

Codes of practice ......................................................................................... 105
Appendix A: Derivation of the simplified tendon layout

107

Appendix B: Calculation of the minimum reinforcement

115

Appendix C: ABAQUS Input file for the precast segmental externally

prestressed box girder

Jens Tandler 2001

120

VII

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Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the people, who helped me to do this MSc dissertation. In
particular, I would like to thank Tony Thorne, who set up the ABAQUS machine,
assisted me with UNIX, and tried to solve patiently all the bugs related with the
Pre-processing software, and also Jonathan Hulatt for his useful hints for
ABAQUS. Jonathan had also a look at my English writing despite his own workload. I am grateful to Nigel Hewson, who originally inspired me to the actual
topic of this dissertation and gave me some ideas to start with. Mike Ryall and
Paul Mullord helped me through useful discussion about prestressing and Finite
Element theory.
Jens Tandler

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Notation
Symbols
Subscripts
b

Biaxial

Concrete

Mean, hydrostatic

Prestressing steel

Ultimate

x,y,z

x,y,z directions

Main symbols

Strain

Normal stress

Shear stress

1, 2, 3

Principal stresses

bp

Stress at bottom fibre of section caused by prestress

Part of a term describing pure shear strength

Hardening parameter from the concrete compression yield surface

cb

Negative principal stress

ce

Concrete stress at level of tendon from applied moment

pb

Bending initiated strain

pb

Bending initiated stress

pe

Direct strain from prestress in tendon

pe

Direct stress from prestress in tendon

Stress in ordinary reinforcement

Percentage ordinary reinforcement

Hardening parameter of the crack detection surface

tbu

Biaxial tensile strength of the concrete

te

Applied tensile stress

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Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

tp

Stress at top fibre of section caused by prestress

xx

Deflection angle of the tendon

Uniaxial yield strength

ao

Constant

bo

Constant

DL

Dead load

Youngs modulus

Tendon eccentricity before application of load

Tendon eccentricity after load application

eb

Distance from tendon to the bottom of the section

Force

fc

Compression yield function of the concrete

fctm

Concrete tensile strength

fcu

Uniaxial concrete compression strength

fpu

Ultimate strength of the tendon

ft

Crack detection surface function of the concrete

Gf

Concrete fracture constant

hx

Coefficient EC2 DD ENV 1992-2:2001

Second moment of area

Coefficient EC2 DD ENV 1992-2:2001

k1

Coefficient EC2 DD ENV 1992-2:2001

kc

Coefficient EC2 DD ENV 1992-2:2001

Moment

Mapplied

Applied moment

Mcrbf, Mcrtf

Cracking moment bottom flange/ top flange

Me

Moment introduced form tendons into the end diaphragm

Nsd

Axial force on part of the section from the quasi permanent load
and prestress

Hydrostatic pressure

Distorsional stress

rbc

Ratio of the maximum biaxial compression strength to the

maximum uniaxial compression strength of the concrete

Jens Tandler 2001

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

MSc Dissertation UniS

rt

Ratio of the negative uniaxial tensile strength to uniaxial

compression strength of the concrete

Txx

Deflection force from the tendon

Crack width

Lever arm

Zb, Zt

Section modulus bottom fibre and top fibre

Sign convention
All compressive actions are indicated with a minus sign and the tensile actions
are shown with a positive sign or no sign respectively. There is one exception:
p, the hydrostatic pressure, is negative in tension and positive in compression.

Units
SI units are generally used. However, some values in graphs are given in
imperial units.
1 in

25.4 mm

1 ft

0.305 m

1 kip force =

4448 N

1 psi

1/145 N/mm

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Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

1 Introduction
This dissertation is an investigation into the behaviour of externally
prestressed structures, focusing on bridge box girders, at the ultimate limit
state. The main objective is the ductility and the tendon stress increase up to
failure of externally prestressed structures. Their behaviour will be compared to
internally prestressed structures. The dissertation may have valuable
information for the first stages of the design process for medium span bridges
as the study is concerned about the overall safety and efficiency of prestressed
concrete bridges by the means of ductility. The aim is also to provide
information about the tendon stress at failure, which is required for the detailed
design.

1.1 Definitions
External prestressing is a special technique of post-tensioning. Posttensioning is used to apply prestress forces to the concrete after hardening.
(Hewson, 2000a). External tendons are placed outside of the section being
stressed. The forces are only transferred at the anchorage blocks or deviators
(Hewson, 2000b).

Figure 1-1: Typical view in box girder bridge with externally deflected tendons
(modified from Krautwald, 1998)

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Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

MSc Dissertation UniS

Internal prestressing is defined in this dissertation, if tendons lie within the

cross-section of the structure. Internal prestressing can be carried out using
bond between the structure and the prestressing steel (grouted ducts). The
other possibility is internal post-tensioning without bond between the duct and
the tendon. The prestressing force is again only transferred through the
anchorages and contact pressure against the surface of the duct. Throughout
the dissertation only internal post-tensioning with bond and external
prestressing is investigated. The figure below outlines the prestressing methods
of interest for this dissertation.

Figure 1-2: Prestressing techniques

The figure shows the pure types. There are more techniques possible, which
are the hybrid systems. Hybrid systems are combinations between different
pure types. External prestressing in combination with internal post-tensioning is
recommended in Germany for launched box girders, although it is not widely
used. Pretensioning with internal post-tensioning has been used because of
limited stressing capacity for the pretension. All these hybrid systems are only
cost-effective in certain situations.
The difference between a monolithic constructions and a precast segmental
constructions is that the precast segmental constructions have no ordinary
reinforcement crossing the joints of the segments whereas monolithic bridge
constructions have normal reinforcement along the whole bridge. Precast
segmental bridges can be erected by lifting match cast segments into place by
the means of different crane types. The segment is then stressed against the

Jens Tandler 2001

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

rest of the structure or held in place before stressing all segments together. A
monolithically cast concrete bridge can be lifted as a whole into place, launched
from the abutments, or constructed by balanced cantilever construction with slip
form.

1.2 Significance of this study

Recent Problems on external prestressed structures show that there are
still problems in the understanding of these structures. Accidents took place in
South Africa in 1998 and in Guam in 1996. In the first case a box girder with
external straight tendons collapsed during the launching process. The bridge
dropped workers and a party of visitors 30m to the ground. 14 people were left
dead, including the bridge designer, and 13 were seriously injured (NCE, 1998).

Figure 1-3: Collapse Injaka Bridge in South Africa (NCE, 1998)

Another example was the catastrophic collapse of what was once the
longest post-tensioned balanced cantilever bridge of the world with a span of
241m. The bridge in Guam suffered the destruction after an attempt to
strengthen the bridge with external tendons. The project was supervised by an

Jens Tandler 2001

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

American structural engineer carried out largely by a well-established posttensioning contractor (NCE, 1996).
A considerable number of scientific papers have been published during the
last two decades dealing with ductility and tendon stress increase in externally
prestressed bridges. There are differences between the findings. Fundamental
research and work in this field was done by B.G. Rabbat and K. Slowat (1987),
J. Muller and Y. Gauthier (1989) and MacGregor R.J.G. et al. (1989). Many
codes of practice are based on this American research, e.g. the BD 58/94
Design of concrete highway bridges and structures with external unbonded
tendons for the UK. The connection to the above mentioned research work can
be found in Development of BA and BD 58/94 by Jackson P.A. (1995).
There have always been concerns about brittle failure of externally
prestressed bridges (Hollingshurst, 1995), because there is only a small
increase of the tension in the steel tendons until failure. Another concern was
coming from the behaviour of external prestressed segmental structures with no
passive reinforcement between the segments (Bruggeling, 1989).

Figure 1-4: Segmental box girder bridge with deflected external tendons and dry
joints under extensive loading in first span (Muller and Gauthier, 1989)

It is possible that there will be a growing demand for externally prestressed

structures in Europe because of their likely higher durability, which is obviously
attractive to the authorities. An indication of this new demand might be the New
Medway Bridge for widening of the M2 in Kent (WS Atkins, 2001). This bridge
will be a balanced cantilever prestressed concrete construction with external
tendons.
For this reason it is thought to be necessary to make new considerations
about the behaviour of these bridges at ultimate limit state with the background

Jens Tandler 2001

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

of the concerns, the failures, and the latest research. Also the ultimate limit
state might govern the check for such structures, because of the low increase of
strain up to failure in the tendon. This is in contrast to bonded internally
prestressed concrete structures, where the check at service governs the
amount of prestressing steel. There might also be important implications
regarding the cost efficiency of externally prestressed structures.

1.3 Scope of the project

Three externally prestressed bridge types will be studied; these include an
externally prestressed bridge monolithically built, an externally prestressed
concrete bridge monolithically built with blocked deviators, and a precast
segmental bridge with external tendons. A conventional internally prestressed
bridge with bonded tendons monolithically built will also be analysed as a
reference. All bridges are box girders. They are simply supported and have a
span of 43.25m. The basic bridge data is taken from the Bangkok Second
Stage Expressway. As part of this major project a full-scale destructive test was
conducted by Takebayashi et al., (1994). The bridge was a precast segmental
box girder with external tendons and dry joints. The data collected from this test
will also be used to verify the results.
The objectives of this investigation are to determine whether or not
externally prestressed bridges fail ductile and the amount of increase in tendon
stress up to failure. The analysis will be done by numerical methods using
ABAQUS.
Kong 1996 defines ductile failure as followed. The failure of an underreinforced beam is characterised by large steel strains, and hence extensive
cracking of the concrete and substantial deflection. The ductility of such a beam
provides ample warning of impending failure. On the other hand brittle failure
occurs (Hurst, 1998), if the steel in the tension zone has not reached the yield
strain. In this case the concrete crushes suddenly without showing big cracks in
the tension zone. Such a section is also described as over-reinforced.

Jens Tandler 2001

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

After the introduction, a outline of the recent research will be given

explaining the key aspects of the structures concerned. The next section deals
with the analysis. This includes the simplification of the original bridge data and
statements of all the assumptions made. The explicit explanation of the
differences of each of the analysed bridge types are also shown in this section.
Thereafter, theoretical background regarding the Finite Element analysis is
given together with a description of the actual analysis undertaken. Chapter 4
illustrates the results of the study, which are discussed in Chapter 5. The study
will then conclude with the summary of the findings.

1.4 Historical overview and typical characteristics of external

prestressing
Looking back to the early days, it is surprising to recognise that the first
prestressed concrete bridge was externally post-tensioned. This bridge was
built from 1935 to 1937 in Aue, Germany, by Franz Dischinger. Steel with a
tensile strength of about 500 N/mm was used at the time. Considerable losses
in the prestressing force have occurred due to the low tensile steel and the
bridge was restressed twice in 1962 and 1980 (Virlogeux, 1989). The bridge
was demolished in 1994 (Landschaftverband Westfalen-Lippe, 2001).

Figure 1-5: Elevation and cross-section of the Station Bridge Aue/ Germany with external
tendons (Schnberg and Fichtner, 1939)

Although the prestressing bars were not performing so well, the drawback of the
low tensile steel has been overcome by the advantage of external prestressing.

Jens Tandler 2001

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

This construction type allows restressing and replacing of the prestressing

strands. The replacement of the strands is even possible without full closure for
the traffic crossing over the bridge. Such a replacement under traffic was done
at the Braidley Road Bridge in the UK in 1980 (Clark, 1998).The replacement of
the tendons was necessary because of corrosion problems. Most of the early
externally prestressed bridges suffered from this problem. Corrosion was the
main reason for caution to this technique and lead to preference of internal
prestressing. In the meantime, reliable corrosion systems have been developed.
The strands are commonly encased in high-density polyethylene ducts (HDPE)
and the ducts are filled with grease or cement grout. The strand can also be
separately encased again in the pipes.
These days external prestressing is mostly used in France and in the USA.
The reasons are significantly different. In the USA, external prestressing is used
because of its cost-effectiveness, especially if it is used in combination with
segmental construction. Major bridges were built with this technique, e.g. the
Long key bridge with 101 spans with spans of 36m and an overall length of
3701m (Gallaway, 1980). The believed higher durability of certain types of
externally prestressed bridges lead to a massive recovery of this construction
technique in France. The French authorities believe, if the corroded tendons
can be changed, the bridge will have a longer lifespan. And the possibility of
inspection of the tendons should make such bridges more predictable and
therefore safer. Virlogeux (1989) states, we can master the technique, it is
no longer experimental for us, but the normal way of building large concrete
bridges. Although this is quite enthusiastic, it shows that external prestressing
might have an important place in bridge construction of the future. The
characteristics of this type of bridge construction seems to make them very
cost-competitive for very long viaducts, e.g. the Second Severn Approach
spans in the UK with about 4km length (NCE, 1994) and the Bangkok Second
Stage Expressway with over 60km deck length (Hewson, 1993).

Jens Tandler 2001

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

Figure 1-6: Sunshine Skyway (Florida) span by span precast segmental, externally
post tensioned approach spans (courtesy of Figg and Muller Engineers Inc.)

Jens Tandler 2001

MSc Dissertation UniS

Collapse analysis of externally prestressed structures

1.5 Further structural applications of external prestressing

External prestressing is not only used for bridge construction. It is also used
for building constructions. There are reports about the strengthening of silos
(Schallwig, 1998 and Hegger, 1998). In both cases cylindrical silos had
unacceptable wide vertical cracks due to overloading in their outer vertical
concrete walls. This was overcome by the use of external peripheral tendons.

Figure 1-7: Silo strengthened by external tendons (Schallwig, 1998)

Jens Tandler 2001