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Topics dealt:
Physical process determining the speed of em waves; extent to which attenuation may
occur.
Wave polarization.
Point form
Integral form
Differential form
Macroscopic form
Microscopic form
D
H J
t
B
E
t
D v
B 0
s J s t ds
L E dL s t ds
D
dS enc v d v
H
dL
B dS 0
vol
E
0
t
H
E 0
t
D 0
E
B 0
J 0
s
ds ( I )
s
t
L
d
L
s
( II )
L
s 0 t
d
S
E
d
0 ( III )
d
L
d S
S
d
S
0 ( IV )
d S 0 c o n tin u ity e q u . (V )
S
D 0 E ___________________(VI )
B 0 H ___________________(VII )
J E
Concept of wave motion:
Eqn (1) states that if the electric field E changes with time, at some point, this change produces
a rotating curling magnetic field at that point; H varying spatially in a direction normal to its
orientation. Further, if E changes with time, in general, so does H although not necessarily in
Next, from eqn. (2), we note that a time varying H generates a rotating E , ( curl E ), and this
E varies spatially in a direction normal to its orientation. Because H varies with time, so does
E but need not be in the same way therefore we once again have a time changing electric field
( our original hypothesis from (1) ), but this field is present a small distance away from the point
of original disturbance. The velocity with which the effect moves away from the original point is
the velocity of light as we are going to see later.
Let us rewrite the point form of Maxwells equations in ( source free ) free space
J 0 :
D
H D
________(1)
t
B
E B
______(2)
t
D 0 _______(3)
B 0 _______(4)
Taking curl on both sides of equation ( 1 ), we get
t
t
H
E
t
E ;
H ;
B
E B
______(2)
t
Next we take curl on both sides of eqn (2) and get
E
H
t
t
But
D
E
H
_ _ _ _ _ _ (1 )
t
t
2E
E
t2
But
E E 2E
2E
2
E E
t2
But
E 0
we
get
E
2E
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (6 )
t2
Equations (5) and (6) are known as Wave Equations.
The first condition on either E or H is that it must satisfy the wave equation ( Although E & H
Wave Propagation:
Consider the special case where E and H are independent of two dimensions, say x and y.
Then we get
2
2
2
2
E
E
E
E
2E
x 2
y 2
z 2
x 2
E
2E
z 2
This is a set of 3 scalar equations, one for each of the scalar components of E .
Let us consider one of them, the Ey component for which the wave equation (6) is :
2Ey
z 2
2Ey
t 2
__________ 7 ( a )
E y f 1 Z 0 t f 2 Z 0 t _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (8)
Here
;
0
c eh x 0t
x 0 t
etc.,
The functions f1 x 0t and f2 x 0t describe such a wave mathematically. Here the wave
varies in space as a function of only one dimension.
f1 x 0t1
t = t1
f1 x 0 t 2
t = t2
v0 (t2 t1 )
x 0t
and t2 .
1 becomes a
f1 z 0t1 . At another time t ( t > t ) we get another function of z namely f1 z 0t2 . This is
2
2
2
nothing but time shifted version of f1 z 0t1 , shifted along + z axis by a distance z
= 0 t2 t1 .
This means that the function f1 x 0t has traveled along + z axis with a velocity 0 . This is
called a traveling wave.
On the other hand f 2 z 0t represents a wave traveling along z axis with a velocity 0 and
is called a reflected wave, as we shall further seen in the next semester, in the topic transmission
line.
6
This shows that the wave equation has two solutions ( as expected, since the wave eqn. is a
second order PDE ) a traveling wave ( or forward wave ) along + z direction represented by
f1 z 0t and the other a reverse traveling wave ( reflected wave ) along z axis. If there is no
reflecting surface, the second term of eqn. (8) is zero, resulting is
E = f1 z 0t _________(9)
Remember that eqn. (9) is a solution of the wave equation and is only for the particular case
where the electric field E is independent of x and y directions; and is a function of z and t only.
Such a wave is called also the equation does not indicate the specific shape of the wave
(amplitude variation) and hence is applicable to any arbitrary waveform.
D 0 E E
0 or
D 0 ________ (1)
The wave equation for electric field, in free-space is,
E
2 E 2 ________ (2)
t
The wave equation (2) is a composition of these equations, one each component wise,
ie,
2Ex
2Ey
_______(2) a
x 2
t 2
2Ey
2Ey
_______(2) b
y 2
t 2
2Ez
2Ez
_______(2) c
z 2
t 2
Further, eqn. (1) may be written as
Ex Ey Ez
0 ________ (1) a
x
y
z
For the UPW, E is independent of two coordinate axes; x and y axes, as we have assumed.
E z
0 _ _ _ _ _ _ (3 )
z
ie., there is no variation of Ez in the z direction.
E z
t 2
= 0 ____(4)
Zero
(ii)
Constant in time or
8
(iii)
A field satisfying the last two of the above three conditions cannot be a part of wave motion.
Therefore Ez can be put equal to zero, (the first condition).
Ez = 0
The uniform plane wave (traveling in z direction) does not have any field components of E & H
Therefore the UPWs are transverse., having field components (of E & H ) only in directions
perpendicular to the direction of propagation does not have any field component only the
direction of travel.
We have, from our previous discussions that, for a UPW traveling in z direction, both E & H
are independent of x and y; and E & H have no z component. For such a UPW, we have,
j
i
k
E y E x
E
( 0)
( 0)
i
j
_ _ _ _ _ (5)
x
y
z
z
z
Ex
Ey Ez ( 0)
j
i
k
H y H x
H
( 0)
( 0)
i
j
_ _ _ _ _ (6 )
x
y
z
z
z
Hx
H y H z ( 0)
Then Maxwells curl equations (1) and (2), using (5) and (6), (2) becomes,
E
Ex
Ey Hy Hx
H
i
j i
j
______ (7)
t
t
t
z
z
and
H
Hx
Hy Ey Ex
E
i
j i
j
______ (8)
t
t
t
H y H x
i
j
z
z
E y E x
i
j
z
z
E y
E x
i
j _ _ _ _ _ _ (7 )
t
t
H y
H x
i
j _ _ _ _ _ _ (8 )
t
t
H y
E x
z
t
H x
E y
z
t
E y
H x
i
z
t
and
E x
H y
z
t
L et
E y
f1
0 t
______ 9 (a )
_ _ _ _ _ _ 9 (b )
_ _ _ _ _ _ 9 (c )
______ 9 (d )
1
.
E
E y
f1 z 0 t 0 .
t
F ro m e q n . 9 (c ), w e g e t,
0
H x
t
H x
'
T hen,
f1 .
'
1
f1' d z c .
10
N o w
f1'
f1'
z 0t
z
f1
f1'
N ow
f1'
f1'
z
Hx
0t
f1'
z
f1
dz c
z
f1 c
Ey c
The constant C indicates that a field independent of Z could be present. Evidently this is not a
part of the wave motion and hence is reflected.
Thus the relation between HX and EY becomes,
Ey
H
Ey
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1 0 )
Ex
H y
_____________ (11)
11
In our UPW, E Ex i E y j
E
2E E
t
t
E
2 E
2 _______ ( xi )
t
t
But
E
0
12
E
H J
E
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (i)
t
t
B
H
E
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( ii )
t
t
D E E 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( iii )
B
H H 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( iv )
T a k in g c u r l o n b o th s id e s o f e q u a tio n ( i ), w e g e t
E
H E
E
E ________ (v )
t
s u b s titu tin g e q n . ( ii ) in e q n . ( v ), w e g e t
H
2H
H
_________ (vi)
2
But
H
H 2 H _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( v ii )
eq n. (vi) b eco m es
H
H 2H
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( v ii i )
t
t 2
B
1
1
But
H
B
0 0
e q n . ( v iii ) b e c o m e s ,
H
2H
0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( ix )
t
t 2
13
This is the wave equation for the magnetic field H in a conducting medium.
H
E
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( ii )
t
H
E
t
t
But E
E 2E ;
________ ( x)
E
E 2E
E
t
t
E
2E
_______ ( xi)
t
t 2
But
E
0
(Point form of Gauss law) However, in a conductor, = 0, since there is no net charge within a
conductor,
Therefore we get
E 0
E
E
2E
t
t 2
____________ (xii)
14
E
H J
_________ (1)
t
H
E
__________ (2)
t
J E
: C onductivity ( / m )
= conduction current density.
E
H E
_________ (3)
t
H
t
2E
E
________ (4)
t2
t
But
E (v e c to r id e n tity )
u s in g th is e q n . ( 4 ) b e c o m e s v e c to r id e n tity ,
E
2E
2
E E
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ (5 )
t
t2
B u t D
1
is c o n s ta n t ,
E
D
Since there is no net charge within a conductor the charge density is zero ( there can be charge
on the surface ), we get.
1
E
D 0
15
we get
E
2 E
2 0 ________(6)
t
t
This is the wave eqn. For the electric field E in a conducting medium.
This is the wave eqn. for E . The wave eqn. for H is obtained in a similar manner.
E
H
E _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (7 )
t
H
But E
________ (2)
t
(1) b e c o m e s ,
2H
H
H
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (8 )
t 2
t
As before, we make use of the vector identity.
H
H 2 H
2 ________ (9)
t
t
But
1
B 1
H B
0
0
eqn.(9)becomes
H
2
H
2 ________ (10)
t
t
term. Representing sinusoidal variation. For example, the electric field E can be represented as
x,
y, z,t as
i e ., E r , t ; r x , y , z
quantity E (r) as
E r , t Re E r e j t ________ (11)
The symbol tilda placed above the E vector represents that E is time varying quantity.
E x r , t R e E x r e
j t
________
(1 2 )
17
E x Re Ex e j e j t ________ (13)
Ex cos( t ) ________ (14)
D
H J
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1 5 )
t
using phasor notation, this eqn. becomes,
Re He j t Re De j t Re Je j t ________ (16)
t
Re H e
j t
j t
Re
De
R e J e j t
t
R e j D e j t R e J e j t
R e H j D J e
j t
H J j D _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1 7 )
This phasor form can be obtained from time-varying form by replacing each time derivative by
jw ie .,
is to b e rep la ced b y
t
For the sinusoidal time variations, the Maxwells equation may be expressed in phasor form as:
(1 7 )
H J j D
d
L
(1 8)
E j B
d
l
B
ds
(1 9 )
ds
(20)
B 0
ds 0
j D
ds
dV
J j
ds
S
j d v _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2 1)
vo l
18
D E
B H
J E
____ (22)
E 2 E
2
H 2 H
2
_________ (23)
2 E 2 j E 0
2 H 2 j H 0
________ (24)
2E
2
2
E
Ey
2
2 E y _______ (25)
x
;
2
2E
E y C 1 e j x C 2 e j x _______ (26)
C1 & C2 are arbitrary constants.
The corresponding time varying field is
E y x , t R e E y x e j t
R e C 1 e j t z C 2 e j t z ______ (27 )
C 1 cos t z C 2 cos t z ______ (28)
When C1 and C2 are real.
Therefore we note that, in a homogeneous, lossless medium, the assumption of sinusoidal time
variations results in a space variation which is also sinusoidal.
Eqn. (27) and (28) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2 , the two traveling waves combine to form a simple standing wave which does not
progress.
If we rewrite eqn. (28) with Ey as a fn of (x-t),
we get =
19
Let us identify some point in the waveform and observe its velocity; this point is
t x a constant
Then
' a ' t
dx
dt
This velocity is called phase velocity, the velocity of a phase point in the wave.
is called the phase shift constant of the wave.
Wavelength: These distance over which the sinusoidal waveform passes through a full cycle of
2 radians
ie.,
2
2
B u t
o r
f ;
:
o r
f
1
in H
20
We have,
Where
2
2
E 0
2 E
2E
2
x
One possible solution is
E x E0 e x
Therefore in time varying form, we get
E x, t Re E e x e j t
e x Re E0 e jwt
This eqn. shown that a up wave traveling in the +x direction and attenuated by a factor e x .
The phase shift factor
and velocity f
= Real part of = RP
j j t
2
1 2 2 1
2
1 2 2 1
21
H E j E J c J disp
J cond
J disp
1 is conductor.
1 is dielectric.
dissipation factor D
22
a) Express
t 0.5 z 30 0
E s 1 0 0 3 0 0 a x 2 0 5 0 0 a y 4 0 2 1 0 0 a z , V / m
Let us rewrite Es as
0
0
0
E s 1 0 0 e j 3 0 a x 2 0 e j 5 0 a y 4 0 e j 2 1 0 a z . V / m
E R e E s e j t
j t 3 0 0
j t 5 0 0
j t 2 1 0 0
R e 1 0 0 e
20e
40e
V /m
E 1 0 0 co s t 3 0 0 2 0 co s t 5 0 0 4 0 co s t 2 1 0 0 V / m
None of the amplitudes or phase angles in this are expressed as a function of x,y or z.
Even if so, the procedure is still effective.
c) Consider
0 .1 j 2 0 z
H s 20e
a x A / m
0 .1 j 2 0 z
H t Re 20e
a x e j t
2 0 e 0 .1 z c o s t 2 0 z a x A / m
E x E x x, y, z
N o te :
c o n s id e r
E x
R e E x x , y , z
t
t
R e j E x e j t
j t
Therefore taking the partial derivative of any field quantity wrt time is equivalent to multiplying
the corresponding phasor by j .
23
2E
E
t2
k02
k
2
2
E
s
s
2
2
2
E s
E s
E s
2
k
E
0
s
x 2
y 2
z 2
fo r E x c o m p o n e n t ,
E sx
2 E sx
2 E sx
k
x 2
y 2
z 2
2
0
xs
2 E sx
k02E
2
x
xs
One solution:
xs
x 0
jk 0 z
E x z,t
E x z,t
E
E
x 0
x 0
co s t k 0 z
co s t k 0 z
These two are called the real instantaneous forms of the electric field.
0 0
1
3 108
1
0 0
3 108 c
e
E x z , t E x 0 c o s t z / c
k0 0
z
E x z , 0 E x 0 cos
E x 0 cos z E x 0 cos k 0 z
e
This is a simple periodic fn that repeats every incremental distance , known as wavelength. The
requirement is that k0 = 2
2
c
3 108
in f ree sp a ce
ie., x
k0
f
f
24
Given
E 0 s 5 0 0 4 0 0 a y 2 0 0 j 6 0 0 a z e j 0 .4 x V / m
F in d a
b E a t 2, 3,1 a t t 0
c
E
a t 2, 3,1 a t t 1 0 n s .
d E a t 3, 4, 2 a t t 2 0 n s .
a) From given data,
0 .4
0 0
0 .4 3 1 0 8
4 1 0 7
10
3 6
120 106
f 1 9 .1 1 0 6 H z
b) Given,
200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x
Es 500 400 ay
632.456e j 71.565 e j 0.4 x az
500e j 40 e j 0.4 x ay
0
500e
j 0.4 x 400
j 0.4 x 71.565
ay
632.456e
az
0
j 0.4 x 400
j 0.4 x 71.5650
632.456 e j t e
E t 500 Re e j t e
ay
az
E at t 10 ns at 2, 3,1
417.473 az
V /m
477.823 ay
25
d)
at t = 20 ns,
E at 2, 3,1
631.644 az
V /m
438.736 ay
D 11.2:
320 ay
e j 0.07 z
Given H s 2 400 ax
(a)
(e j z term)
0.07
0.07
0.07 3 10 8 21.0 10 6 rad / sec
0
0
3 e j 20 e j 0.07 z ay
e j t
H t Re 2 e j 40 e j 0.07 z ax
3 cos t 0.07 z 20 0 ay
2 cos t 0.07 z 40 0 ax
H x (t ) 2 cos t 0.07 z 40 0
H x (t ) at p 1, 2, 3
A/m
(c)
3 cos 0.3 ay
H t 2 cos 0.7 ax
2.82 ay
1.53 ax
3.20666
A/m
26
In free space,
z,t
fin d
w e have
H
1 2 0 s in
z,t
E
t z
a y
1 2 0
120
s in
1 2 0
1 2 0
1
s in t z
1
H z,t
s in t z
V / m
t z
a y
a x
Problem 3. J&B
Non uniform plans waves also can exist under special conditions. Show that the function
F e z sin
x t
1 2 F
satisfies the wave equation F 2 2
c t
2
2c 2
e 1
Ans:
From the given eqn. for F, we note that F is a function of x and z,
2F
2F
F
x 2
y 2
F
e z
cos
x t
x
2F
2 e z
z
e
F
x t
s in
x 2
2
F
e z s in
x t
z
2F
2 z
e
s
in
x t 2F
2
z
27
2
F 2
dF
e z
dt
2
cos
d 2F
z
e
dt 2
2 F
x t
s in x t
1 2F
c2 t2
2
1
2
F
2
c2
2
2
2
2
c2
2
2
2
c2
2
2
2
2
2
c2
2c 2
2
2c 2 2
F
2
c2
2c
1
2
or
1
2c
2
The electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air has a magnitude of 754 V/m and is
in the z direction. If the wave has a wave length = 2m and propagating in the y direction.
Find
(i)
(ii)
c 3 108 m / sec
28
(i)
e
3 108
f
m / s e c 1 .5 1 0 8 H z 1 5 0 M H z
2m
2
2
3 .1 4 r a d / m
2m
E z 7 5 4 c o s 2 1 5 0 1 0 6 t y
(ii)
For a wave propagating in the +y direction,
E
H
z
z
E
H
x
z
E z 754 V / m ;
Ex 0
754
754
H x 754
A/m
120
377
H 2 cos 2 150 10 6 t y ax
A/m
1
f
1
1
1
1
7
7
4 10
5.8 10
f
1
1
2
4 5.8 f
1
66 10 3
23.2 2 f
f
66 10 3
(i )
9.3459 10 3 m
50
66 10 3
( ii )
3.8105 10 5 m
6
3 10
66 10 3
( iii )
3.8105 10 7 m
3 10 6
29
2E
2
E
Z 2
2E
2
E
________ ( i )
Z 2
0r
2E y
Z
2E y
E y z , t Re E y z
Re C1
e j t
e j z C2
e j z e j t _______ (3)
If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (5 )
In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing its
velocity may obtain the same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction, this point is
given by t z a constant.
30
dz
, as in eqn. (5)
dt
This velocity of some point on the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase velocity. is
called the phase-shift constant and is a measure of phase shift in radians per unit length.
Wavelength: Wavelength is defined as that distance over which the sinusoidal waveform
passes through a full cycle of 2 radius.
ie.,
2
2
2
2 f f
f ,
f in Hz
1
________(7)
________(8)
For the value of given in eqn. (1), the phase velocity is,
0 C
1
0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (9 )
C 3 1 0 8 m / sec
2 E 2 E 0 _______(10)
w here
2 j j j _______(11)
We have, for the uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field E must
satisfy
2E
2 E _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1 3)
2
Z
This equation has a possible solution
E Z E0 e Z _______(14)
E z , t Re E 0
= e
Re E0
e Z
e j t _______(15)
e j t z ________(16)
31
This is the equation of a wave traveling in the +Z direction and attenuated by a factor e Z .
The phase shift factor and the wavelength phase, velocity, as in the lossless case, are given
by
We have,
j j ________(11)
2 j 2 2 j 2 j 2 ________(17)
2
2 2 2 ; 2 2 2 ________(18)
________(19)
2
Therefore (19) in (18) gives:
4
4 4 4 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
4
2 2
2 4 2
2
2 2
2 2
2
1
2
2
1
2 2
2 2
2
1 2 2 1 _________(20)
and
2
1
1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( 2 1)
2
2
32
We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The value of
the wave ie., the cosine is an integer multiple of 2 at erest.
k0 z 2m
at mth erest.
Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time variation at this
position, nothing that the entire cosine argument is the same multiple of 2 for all time in
order to keep track of the point.
t k0 0 z 2m t z / c
ie.,
Thus at t increases, position z must also increase to satisfy eqn. ( ). Thus the wave erest (and
the entire wave moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by the above eqn.
Similarly, eqn. ( ) having a cosine argument t 0 z describes a wave that moves in the
negative direction (as + increases z must decrease to keep the argument constant). These two
waves are called the traveling waves.
Let us further consider only +ve z traveling wave:
We have
0
x
Ex
0
y
Ey
z
0
E s j H s
E y
E x
i
j
k 0 j iH 0 x j b y
E xs
j H 0 y
z
H
oy
z,t
Ex
H y
1
j
jk 0 z
E x0
0
0
j 0 z
0
co s t 0 z
0
E x0
z0
0 3 7 7 1 2 0
33
Ey and Hx are in phase in time and space. The UPW is called so because is uniform thought
any plane Z = constant.
Energy flow is in +Z direction.
E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that is
transverse to the direction of propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.
and
direction is 250 V/m. If E = Ex ax
11.1. The electric field amplitude of a UPW in the az
2 f
106
f
1 5 9 .1 5 5 K H z
2
2
2
C
1 .8 8 4 9 5 k m
f
1
p e r io d
6 .2 8 3 s
f
Ex
a m p litu d e o f H y
1 2 0
Hy
H
Ex
250
0 .6 6 3 1 A / m
1 2 0
1 2 0
3200 ay
e j 0.07 z A / m for a certain UPW traveling in free
11.2. Given H s 2 400 ax
space.
34
2Es k
k
k0
r r 0
r r
For Ex component
We have
d 2 E xs
k 2 E xs
2
dz
jk j
E
xs
x0
e z e
j z
E xs E x 0 e z co s t z
This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase constant but losing its amplitude
with increasing Z e z . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k is to yield a traveling
wave that changes its amplitude with distance.
If is +ve
If is -ve
= gain coefficient
wave grows
is measured in repers per meter
2
E E
2
In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:
2 E 2 j E 0
35
Problem:
Using Maxwells eqn. (1) show that
.D 0 in a conductor
if ohms law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohms law and sinusoidal time
variations are assumed, the first Maxwells curl equation is
H E j E
Taking divergence on both sides, we get,
H
E j E 0
E j 0
or
D j 0
, & are
D0
36
E
H 0
H _________(1)
t
H
E
_________(2)
t
D 0 _________(3)
B 0 _________(4)
Note that wave motion can be inferred from the above equation.
How? Let us see,
Eqn. (1) states that if electric field E is changing with time at some, point then magnetic field
H has a curl at that point; thus H varies spatially in a direction normal to its orientation
direction. Further, if E varies with time, then H will, in general, also change with time;
From (2) we note that a time varying H generates E ; this electric field, having a curl,
Uniform plane wave is defined as a wave in which (1) both fields E and H lie in the
transverse plane. Ie., the plane whose normal is the direction of propagation; and (2) both E
Therefore we call such a wave as transverse electro magnetic wave or TEM wave.
The spatial variation of both E and H fields in the direction normal to their orientation (travel)
ie., in the direction normal to the transverse plane.
37
2Ex
Hy
2H
0
________(9)
0
Z 2
Z t
t Z
2Ex
2H
0
_________(10)
tZ
t 2
Therefore substituting (10) into (9) gives,
2Ex
2Ex
0 0
_________(11)
t 2
t 2
This eqn.(11) is the wave equation for the x-polarized TEM electric field in free space.
The constant
1
is the velocity of the wave in free space, denoted c and has a value
0 0
4 1 0
H / m and 0
1 0 9 .
3 6
Differentiating (10) with respect to Z and differentiating (9) with respect to t and following the
similar procedure as above, we get
2H y
Z 2
0 0
2H y
t 2
_________(13)
eqn. (11 and (13) are the second order partial differential eqn. and have solution of the form, for
instance,
Ex Z , t f1 t Z / f 2 t Z / ________(14)
(ie., the electric field is polarized (!) in the x- direction !) traveling along Z
Let E Ex ax
a x
a y
E
0
0
x
y
Ex
0
a z
z
0
Ex
H
H
j 0
0
j _________(5)
z
t
t
Note that the direction of the electric field E determines the direction of H , we is now along the
y direction.
38
Therefore in a UPW, E and H are mutually orthogonal. (ie., perpendicular to each other). This
in a UPW .
H y
E x
E
H
a x 0
t0
a x
Z
t
t
H y
E x
0
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (7 )
Z
t
H y
E x
0
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (8 )
Z
t
f1 and f2 can be any functions who se argument is of the form t Z / .
The first term on RHS represents a forward propagating wave ie., a wave traveling along positive
Z direction.
The second term on RHS represents a reverse propagating wave ie., a wave traveling along
negative Z direction.
(Real instantaneous form and phaser forms).
The expression for Ex (z,t) can be of the form
E x z , t E x z , t E 1x z , t
E x 0 cos t Z / p 1 E 1 x 0 cos t Z / p 2
rad/m _________(16)
eqn. (15) is the real instantaneous forms of the electric (field) wave. ( experimentally
measurable)
0t and k0z have the units of angle usually in radians.
: radian time frequency, phase shift per unit time in rad/sec.
k0 : spatial frequency, phase shift per unit distance in rad/m.
k0 is the phase constant for lossless propagation.
39
Wavelength in free space is the distance over which the spatial phase shifts by 2 radians, (time
fixed)
ie.,
k 0 z k 0 2
or
2
k0
Let us consider some point, for instance, the crest or trough or zero crossing (either ve to +ve or
+ve to ve). Having chosen such a reference, say the crest, on the forward-propagating cosine
function, ie., the function cos t k0 z 1 . For a erest to occur, the argument of the cosine
must be an integer multiple of 2. Consider the mth erest of the wave from our reference point,
the condition becomes,
K0z = 2m, m an integer.
This point on the cosine wave we have chosen, let us see what happens as time increases.
The entire cosine argument must have the same multiple of 2 for all times, in order to keep
track of the chosen point.
Therefore we get,
t k0 z t Z / 2m _______(18)
As time increases, the position Z must also increase to satisfy (18). The wave erest, and the entire
wave, moves in the positive Z-direction with a phase velocity C (in free space).
Using the same reasoning, the second term on the RHS of eqn. (15) having the cosine argument
t k0 z
40
POLARISATION:
It shows the time varying behavior of the electric field strength vector at some point in space.
Consider of a UPW traveling along Z direction with E and H vectors lying in the x-y plane.
= 0 and only Ey
is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the y-direction.
If Ex
and Ey
are present and are in phase, then the resultant electric field E has a
If both Ex
and Ey
.
direction that depends on the relative magnitudes of Ex
The angle which this resultant direction makes with the x axis is tan-1
Ey
; and this angle will be
Ex
the direction of the resultant electric vector will vary with time. In this case it can be shown that
the locus of the end point of the resultant E will be an ellipse and the wave is said to be
elliptically polarized.
and Ey
have equal magnitudes and a 900 phase difference, the
In the particular case where Ex
Linear Polarisation:
Consider the phasor form of the electric field of a UPW traveling in the Z-direction:
E 0e
j z
Z ,t
Re
j z
j t
Therefore Ez lies in the x-y plane. In general, E0 is a complex vector ie., a vector whose
components are complex numbers.
E 0 E r jE 0 i
41
Where E0 and E0i are real vectors having, in general, different directions.
At some point in space, (say z = 0) the resultant time varying electric field is
E 0 , t R e E 0 r j E 0 i e j t
E 0 r c o s t E 0 i s in t
Therefore E not only changes its magnitude but also changes its direction as time varies.
Circular Polarisation:
Here the x and y components of the electric field vector are equal in magnitude.
If Ey leads Ex by 900 and Ex and Ey have the same amplitudes,
j ay
E0
Ie., Ex E y , we have, E ax
The corresponding time varying version is,
cos t ay
sin t E 0
E 0, t ax
E x E 0 cos t
and E y E 0 sin t
E x2 E y2 E 02
Which shows that the end point of E0 0, t traces a circle of radius E0 as time progresses.
Therefore the wave is said to the circularly polarized. Further we see that the sense or direction
of rotation is that of a left handed screw advancing in the Z-direction ( ie., in the direction of
propagation). Then this wave is said to be left circularly polarized.
Similar remarks hold for a right-circularly polarized wave represented by the complex vector,
j ay
E0
E ax
It is apparent that a reversal of the sense of rotation may be obtained by a 1800 phase shift
applied either to the x component of the electric field.
Elliptical Polarisation:
A j ay
B
E0 ax
Where A and B are +ve real constants.
42
cos t ayB
sin t
E 0, t axA
E A cos t
x
E y B sin t
E x 2
A2
E y 2
B2
Thus the end point of the E 0, t vector traces out an ellipse and the wave is elliptically
polarized; the sense of polarization is left-handed.
Elliptical polarization is a more general form of polarization. The polarization is completely
specified by the orientation and axial ratio of the polarization ellipse and by the sense in which
the end point of the electric field moves around the ellipse.
43
When a plane wave in air is incident normally on the surface of a perfect conductor the wave is
for fields that vary with time, neither E nor H can exist within a conductor., therefore no
energy of the incident wave is transmitted.
As there can be no loss within a perfect conductor; therefore none of the energy is obsorbed.
Therefore, the amplitudes of E and H in the reflected wave are the same as in the incident
wave; the only difference is in the direction of power flow.
Let Ei e j x ________(1) be the incident wave.
Let the boundary, the surface of the perfect conductor be at x = 0.
The reflected wave is Er e j x __________(2)
Er must be determined from the boundary conditions.
With respect to,
(i)
(ii)
Therefore at the boundary, ie., at x = 0, the electric field is zero. This requires that, the sum of the
electric field strengths in the initial and reflected waves add to give zero resultant field strength
in the plane x = 0.
Er Ei _______(3)
The amplitude of the reflected electric field strength is equal to that of the incident electric field
strength but its phase has been reversed on reflection.
The resultant electric field strength at any point at any point a distance x from the x = 0 plane is
the sum of the field strengths of the incident and reflected wave at that point, given by
ET x Ei e j x Er e j x
2 jEi e j x e j x
44
ET x , t Re 2 jE i sin x e j t
2 E i sin x sin t , if E i real _______ 5
1. Eqn. (3) shows that (1) the incident and reflected waves combine to produce a standing
wave, which does not progress.
2. The magnitude of the electric field varies sinusoidally with distance from the reflecting
plane.
3. It is zero at the surface and at multiples of half wave lengths from the surface.
4. It has a maximum value of twice the electric field strength of the incident wave at
distances from the surface that are odd multiples of a quarter wavelength.
In as much as the BCs require that the electric field is reversed in phase on reflection to produce
zero resultant field at the boundary surface.
Therefore if follows that H must be reflected without phase reversal. (otherwise if both are
reversed, on reversal of direction of energy propagation), which is required in this case).
Therefore the phase of the mag field strength is the same as that of the incident mag field
strength Hi at the surface of reflection.
H T x H ie j x H r e j x
2 H i e j x e j x
2 H i cos x _______ 6
Hi is real since it is in phase with Ei
Further,
H T x , t Re H T x e j t
The resultant magnetic field strength H also has a standing was distribution. This SWD has
maximum value at the surface of the conductor and at multiples of a half from the surface,
where as the zero points occur at odd multiples of a quarter wavelength from the surface. From
the boundary conditions for H its follows that there must be a surface current of Js amperes per
such that JS = HT (at x = 0).
Since Ei and Hi were in phase in the incident plane wave, eqns. (6) and (7) show that ET and HT
are 90 0out of time phase because of the factor j in eqn. (4).
This is as it should be, for it indicates no average flow of power. This is the case when the energy
transmitted in the forward direction is equaled by that reflected back.
45
Eqns. (8) and (9) show that ET and HT differ in time phase by 900.
j y y
_______ 10
46
j y y
_______ 10
Where,
2
2
z
from the reflecting surface.
2
z
from the surface.
4
The whole standing wave distribution of electric field strength is seen from eqn. (10) above to be
traveling in the y direction with a velocity,
y sin sin
This is the velocity with which a erest of the incident wave moves along the y axis. The
wavelength in this direction is,
sin
The magnetic field strength vector H will be reflected without phase reversal.
Ei
E
r
Hi Hr
For the incident wave, the wave expression for the magnetic field strength would be
H 2 H i cos z z e
j y y
where
z cos
and
y sin
The magnetic field strength has a standing wave distribution in the Z-direction with the planes of
z
from the surface. The
2
z
from the surface.
4
Ei Hi , Ez sin Hi ; Ey cos Hi
For the reflected wave,
Hr Hi , Ez sin Hr ; Ey cos Hr
The total z component of the electric field strength is,
E x 2 s i n
H i cos z z e
E y 2 j c o s
H i s in z z e
Both Ey and Ez have a standing wave distribution above the reflecting surface. However, for the
plane, whereas for the component E parallel to the reflecting surface the minima occur at the
Ei 1H
We have,
E r 1 H
Et 2H t
ie.,
Hi Hr Hz
Ei Er Et
Hi Hr
1
1
Ei Er H z Ei Er
1
2
2 E i E r 1 E i E r
E i 2 1 E r 2 1
E r 2 1
E i 2 1
Also ,
Et
E Er
E
2 1
i
1 r
c
Ei
E i 1 2
Further ,
Hr
E
2
r 1
Ht
E
1 2
H t 1 E t
2 1
H i 2 E i 1 2
49
The permeabilities of all known insulators do not differ appreciably from that of free space, so
that,
1 2
Er
Ei
Et
Ei
Hr
Hi
Ht
Hi
0 / 2
0 / 1
0 / 2
0 / 1
2 1
1
2 2
1
AD 2
sin 1 1
sin 2 2
2 2
1 1
2
1
In addition,
AE = CB
sin1 = sin3
or 1= 3
E2
The power transmitted =
50
1
E 12 c o s 1
1
1
E 22 c o s 1
2
1
E t2 c o s 2 .
2
1 2
1 2
1
E t co s 1
E t co s 1
E t2 co s 2
1
1
2
E t2 co s 2
E i2 co s 1
E r2
1
E t2
2
1
E t2 co s 2
E i2 co s 1
Case 1:
Perpendicular polarization (HP):
Ei Er Et
Et
E
1 r
Ei
Ei
But we have,
E r2
1
E i2
2 E t2 cos 2
2
1 E i cos 1
E r2
1
E i2
2
1
E
1 r
Ei
cos 2
cos 1
2
E r2
1 2
Ei
2
1
E
1 r
Ei
Er
Ei
2
1
E cos 2
1 r
E i cos 1
Er
Ei
1 cos 1
2 cos 2
1 cos 1
2 cos 2
cos 2
cos 1
51
But we have,
sin 1
sin 2
2
1
1 cos 1 2 1 sin 2 1
1 cos 1 2 1 sin 2 1
cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
This equation gives the ratio of the reflected to incident electric field strength for the case of a
perpendicular polarized wave.
.
Case II:
Parallel Polarisation:
E i E r cos 1 E t cos 2
Et
E cos 1
1 r
Ei
E i cos 2
52
2 E t2 cos 2
2
1 E i cos 1
E r2
1
E i2
E r2
2 1
Ei
2
E r2 cos 2 2 cos 2
1 2
E i cos 2 1 cos 1
1
E r2
1 2
Ei
2
E 2 cos 1
1 r2
E i cos 2
1
Er
Ei
2
E cos 1
1 r
E i cos 2
1
Er
Ei
Er
Ei
2 cos 1
1 cos 2
2 cos 1
1
1 cos 2
2 cos 1 1 cos 2
2 cos 1 1 cos 2
1 sin
2 cos 1 1 1 sin 2 2
2 cos 1 1
sin 2 2 1 / 2 sin 2 1
Therefore we get
Er
Ei
/ 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
/ 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
This equation gives the reflection coefficient for parallel or vertical polarization, ie., the ratio of
reflected to incident electric field strength when E is parallel to the plane of incidence.
53
BRESNSTER ANGLE:
We have
Er
Ei
/ 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
/ 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
When Nr = 0, Er = 0.
Therefore no reflection at all.
Therefore for zero reflection condition, we have,
2
cos 1
1
2
sin 2 1
1
22
cos 2 1 2 sin 2 1
2
1
1
22 22
2 sin 2 1 2 sin 2 1
2
1
1 1
22 22 sin 2 1 1 2 12 sin 2 1
2
1
22 sin 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 2 sin 2 1 2 1 2
sin 2 1
2
1 2
cos 2 1
1
1 2
tan 1
2
1
At this angle, which is called the Bresoster angle, there is no reflected wave when the incident
wave is parallel (or vertically) polarized. If the incident wave is not entirely parallel polarized,
there will he some reflection, but the reflected wave is entirely of perpendicular (or horizontal)
polarization.
54
Note:1
For perpendicular paolarisation, we have
E
Ei
cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
putting
N r 0 , we get
cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
cos 2 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
or
2 1
Note 2:
For parallel polarization,
We can show that
Er
tan 1 2
Ei
tan 1 2
and for perpendicular polarization, we can show that,
Er
sin 2 1
Ei
sin 2 1
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:
If 1 2 , then, both the reflection coefficients given by equations,
Er
Ei
cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
2
cos 1
sin 2 1
1
( perpendicular polarization )
and
Er
Ei
2 / 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
( parallel polarization )
2
2 / 1 cos 1
sin 2 1
1
2
1
55
a jb
and thus have a unit magnitude. In other words, the
Both coefficients take the form
a jb
reflection is total provided that 1 is great enough and also provided that medium (1) is denser
than medium. (2) but total reflection does not imply that there is no field in medium (2). In
medium (2), the fields have the form,
Snells law gives the y variation as, e
e j 2 y sin 2 Z cos 2
j
1 / 2
e j 2 Z cos 2 e
1 sin
j 2 Z
e
e
j 2 Z j
2Z
sin 2 1 1
sin 2 1 1
In the above expression, the lower sign must be chosen such that the fields decrease
exponentially as Z becomes increasingly negative.
ie.,
cos 2 j 1
2
sin 2 1 1
j 1
2
sin 2 1
2
2
Therefore under the condition of TIR, a field does exist in the rarer medium. However, this field
has a phase progression along the boundary and decreases exponentially away from it. If is thus
the example of a non-uniform plane wave.
The phase velocity along the interface is given by ,
1
sin 1
2
Which, under the conditions of TIR is less than the phase velocity
Consequently, the non-uniform plane wave in medium (2) is a slow wave. Also, since some kind
of a surface between two media is necessary to support this wave, it is called a surface wave.
56
57