CeTAmb Manual

URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
(SUDP)
University of
Brescia
DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROPRIATE STRATEGY FOR THE SANITATION SECTOR:

THE CASE OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
Elements for an appropriate MSW management in
Somaliland and Puntland
Prepared by
MENTORE VACCARI, DANIELA GIARDINA
CeTAmb, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture, Land and
Environment, University of Brescia, Italy
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1 EVALUATION OF THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE
1.1 An overview of municipal solid waste
1.2 Typical sources of waste
1.3 How to evaluate the waste production
1.4 How to evaluate the waste density
1.5 How to evaluate the waste composition
I-1
I-2
I-2
I-3
I-4
2 SIZING OF DIFFERENT ALTERNATIVES FOR SOLID WASTE COLLECTION

2.1 Alternative 1
2.2 Alternative 2
2.3 Alternative 3
2.4 Alternative 4
II-1
II-6
II-10
II-13
3 SIZING OF THE MSW COLLECTION SYSTEM IN THE VISITED CITIES

3.1 Somaliland
3.1.1 Berbera
3.1.2 Boroma
3.1.3 Burao
3.1.4 Gabiley
3.1.5 Hargeisa
3.1.6 Sheik
3.2 Puntland
3.2.1 Bossaso
3.2.2 Galkayo
3.2.3 Gardo
3.2.4 Garowe
III-1
III-1
III-5
III-10
III-15
III-21
III-25
III-30
III-30
III-36
III-41
III-46
4 OPTIONS FOR WASTE RECYCLING

4.1 How to recycle organic matter
4.2 How to recycle paper
4.1 How to recycle plastic
IV-1
IV-3
IV-4
5 DESIGN AND TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT OF LANDFILLS

5.1 Types of landfills
5.2 Location of landfill sites
5.3 Landfills emissions
5.4 Semi-aerobic landfills
5.5 Wastes placing inside the landfill
5.6 Final capping of landfills
5.7 Burning of waste
V-1
V-2
V-2
V-3
V-4
V-5
V-5
6 SIZING OF A LANDFILL
REFERENCES
Introduction
The Urban Development Programme for Somali regions (SUDP) is an umbrella framework
programme led by UN-Habitat and aiming to support the development of urban areas through
strengthening urban institutions. With funding from the European Commission and UNDP,
activities are implemented in collaboration with UNICEF, ILO, UNA Consortium and NOVIB.
Within the SUDP, UNA takes the lead in the Urban Services component and supports the
Programme with expertises drawn from three Italian University. CeTAmb (University of Brescia) is
involved in the Solid Waste Management sector with experts having competence in addressing the
technical aspects relating to solid waste appropriate equipments and recycling/reuse aspects.
In the period 27th March - 16 May 2006 CeTAmb/UNA carried out a second mission (the first one
was hold from 13th November to 7th December 2005) in Somaliland and Puntland, which
represented the follow up of the previous implemented ILO activities focused on institutional
arrangements, community involvement, employment creation and social protection aspects with
further technical seminars and practical exercises on technical and equipment related aspects.
The first part of the mission comprised two days technical seminars with the technicians, local
actors and representatives of Municipalities and from private companies working in the solid waste
sector. The seminars, that were hold in Garowe, Hargeisa and Burao, were focused on the following
topics:
1. Main characteristics and hazardousness of municipal solid waste (MSW)
2. Definition of production and composition of MSW
3. Technical-economical criteria for selection of appropriate MSW collection, treatment and
disposal systems
4. Sizing and technical management of different MSW collection systems
5. Analysis of alternatives for recovery and recycling of materials from MSW
6. Sizing and technical management of composting plants
7. Sizing and technical management of sanitary landfills
A copy of the presentations prepared for the seminars (opportunely translated in Somali language)
were distributed either during the seminars or later by e-mail.
In the second part of the mission all the cities involved in the programme (except Erigavo) were
visited in order to:
- collect further data concerning the characteristics of the municipal solid waste and verify how
they are managed;
- define the actions to be started to improve the current MSW management;
- choose and size together with the local authorities an appropriate collection system of the
municipal solid waste.
The present manual, that resumes briefly the main aspects touched in the technical seminars and
reports the exercises conducted with the visited authorities, has been prepared to give to involved
actors and specially to technicians of Municipalities in Puntland (Bosaso, Gardo, Garowe and
Galkayo) and Somaliland (Hargeisa, Boroma, Gebiley, Berbera, Burao, Sheikh, Erigavo) specific
and tailored technical information in order to enable a proper understanding of the whole solid
waste management topic and to identify the actions that could be realised in order to improve the
current solid waste management in the cities touched by the Programme.
1
The document is articulated in 6 chapters:

- chapter 1 presents a brief overview of the MSW management main topics and describes how to
define the principal characteristics of wastes;
- chapter 2 contains an exercise explaining how to size four different alternatives of solid waste
collection;
- chapter 3 includes the preliminary sizing of the wastes collection system of each city visited
during the mission;
- chapter 4 deals with different options for waste recycling;
- chapter 5 describes synthetically how to realize and manage a landfill;
- chapter 6 shows how to design a landfill receiving the municipal solid waste produced in a city of
50,000 inhabitants.
1. Evaluation of the main characteristics of solid waste

1.1 An overview of municipal solid waste management
The principles of sustainable solid waste management are the following:
- minimization of waste generation and hazardousness;
- maximization of waste reuse and recycling;
- safe and environmentally correct collection and disposal of waste.
However, ensuring public health and safety is the prime reason for the existence of municipal solid
waste management. In particular, the specific goals of a solid waste management are:
- to protect environmental health;
- to promote the quality of the urban environment;
- to support the efficiency and productivity of the economy;
- to generate employment and income.
At the moment, in most African Countries the solid waste management is insufficient due to several
reasons, such as absence/lack of either means (skips, trucks) to collect and transport the waste, or
appropriate landfills, or conveniently trained personnel, or environmental education, or Authorities
control. This situation causes a lot of negative effects not only to the environment but also to human
beings, that can be subjected to various types of diseases (typhoid fever, malaria, diarrhea, etc.).
It has to be kept in mind that waste disposal problems already start at home, in fact:
people generally dump the refuse outside their house in a private or public area with no idea of
how it will be removed;
many people dump refuse into drains, in the hope they will be washed away, but eventually the
refuse blocks the drains;
irregular waste collection encourages household to dump refuse wherever they can find space,
resulting in serious long-term pollution problems.
The solid waste management can be seen as articulated in three steps:
1. Collection of waste
2. Treatment/recycle/reuse of waste
3. Disposal of waste
The most appropriate alternative for the collection, treatment and disposal of waste can be chosen
only if the main characteristics of the waste (production, composition, density) are known. The
following Table presents the average data for low income Countries.
At collection point
Waste generated
Value
0.4 0.6 kg/cap. & day
Waste density
Water content
Composition:
- Organic
- Paper, Cardboard
- Glass & ceramics
- Metal
- Plastics
- Dust & ash
250 500 kg / m3
40 80 %
40-85 %
1-10 %
1-10 %
1-5 %
1-5 %
1-40 %
I-1
The above data are just a generic reference, but it is necessary to define the specific characteristics
of the waste that has to be managed.
The following paragraphs illustrates synthetically which are the typical sources of waste in urban
areas and how the main characteristics of MSW can be evaluated
1.1 Typical sources of waste

Household garbage
This category comprises wastes that are the consequence of household activities. They proceed
from food preparation, sweeping, cleaning, gardening wastes, old clothing, old furnishings,
packaging and reading matter, faecal material (where bucket latrines are used).
Usually, the production of residential refuse varies from 0.3 to 0.6 kg/inh*day
Street sweepings
This category of waste always includes dirt and litter. However it may also contain appreciable
amounts of household refuse, drain cleanings, human faecal matter and animal manure.
Usually, the production of street sweepings varies from 0.05 to 0.2 kg/inh*day
Construction and demolition debris
Construction and demolition (C&D) debris consists of the materials generated during the
construction, renovation, and demolition of buildings, roads, and bridges. C&D debris often
contains bulky, heavy materials that include: concrete, wood, asphalt, gypsum, metals, bricks, glass,
plastics, salvaged building components (doors, windows, etc.), trees, earth, rock, etc. from clearing
sites.
The production and composition of this type of waste is site-specific.
Sanitation residues
Where sewerage is not the major mean of managing human excreta and sludge, there are sanitation
residues from latrines.
Industrial wastes.
Industrial wastes come from processing and non-processing industries, as well as utilities:
packaging materials, food wastes, spoiled metal, plastic and textiles, fuel burning residuals, and
spent processing chemicals are among the wastes within this category.
The production and composition is site-specific, and depends on either the industrial processes, or
natural resources or markets.
1.2 How to evaluate the waste production

Which is the waste daily production per person?
For determining the quantity of waste that requires collection and disposal, you have to select a
sample area and measure the waste generated at household level.
Material needed:
- sample containers (eg, plastic bags),
- weighing scales,
- buckets,
- gloves,
- data sheets, marker pens.
I-2
Procedure
1.Collect the waste generated in the selected areas from houses once a day at a fixed time for 7
successive days to evaluate variation in waste generation in a week. The number of households to
be selected depends on the size of the town.
2. Weigh the production of each household and record the weight in the data sheets according to the
numbers of inhabitants per household. (kg/ house/day)
3. Finally remember to dispose all the waste properly and clean the equipment used.
4. Repeat 1. to 3. everyday for the duration of the study.
Days
Households Number of
inhabitants
Sat Sun
per household
1
Total (kg)
Mon Tue
Wed
Thur
Fri
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total
(A)
(B)
Computation:
Daily generation rate = (B)/(A)/7 (kg/person/day)
1.3 How to evaluate the waste density

Waste density information when coupled with waste generation rates expressed by weight, allow
the payload capacity of the collection equipment to be estimated.
How is the weight of 1 m3 of waste?
1. Select a container whose volume is known
2. Weight the empty container (kg)
3. Fill up the container with waste.
4. Weight the full container (kg)
5. Weight of the waste = Weight of the full container Weight of the empty container
6. Waste density (kg/m3) = Weight of the waste Volume of the container
I-3
This kind of evaluation has to be carried out in numerous different points of the town, because there
could be a variation of the weight, depending on the type of waste collected.
1.4 How to evaluate the waste composition

Material needed:
- a plastic sheet to spread waste over it for sorting
- gloves (for workers handling the waste)
- buckets whose weight is known
- weighing scale to weigh the waste with an accuracy of 100 grams
Procedure
1. Collect samples of waste of about 50 kg from households, offices and markets according to the
different parts of the city. You can collect several plastic bags from all over the town in order to mix
the waste and have a good sample.
2. When you get 50 kg of waste, go to the dumpsite.
3. Spread the sample over the plastic sheet.
4. Separate the waste on the plastic sheet into different types (e.g. vegetables/putrescible
matter, paper, textiles, plastics, grass/leaves/wood, leather/rubber, metals,
glass/ceramic, miscellaneous). Put then the separated waste into different buckets for
weight measurement.
5. Measure the weight of each type of waste and record it in the data sheet.
6. Repeat steps 3. , 4. , 5. for each sample.
7. Dump all the waste properly and clean the equipment used.
8. Repeat steps 1. to 7. everyday for the duration of the study.
Type of waste
Weight for each day (kg) Total weight (kg)
Percentage (%)
Vegetable/
putrescibile matter
(a)
(a)/(A) x 100
Paper
(b)
(b)/(A) x 100
Textiles
(c)
(c)/(A) x 100
Plastics
(d)
(d)/(A) x 100
Grass/leaves/wood
(e)
(e)/(A) x 100
Leather/rubber
(f)
(f)/(A) x 100
Metals
(g)
(g)/(A) x 100
Glass/ceramic
(h)
(h)/(A) x 100
Miscellaneous
(i)
(i)/(A) x 100
Total
(A)
100
I-4
The weights of waste in each category to put in the table are the samples of every day collection for
a week at least (kg )
The computation formula for the percent composition of each category is shown in the last column
of the table.
Total weight in each category, such as (a), (b), etc., is addition of all entries across the row.
Grand total weight = (a) + (b) + ... (i) = (A)
I-5
2. Sizing of different alternatives for solid waste collection

This chapter presents an exercise regarding the sizing of four different alternatives for the solid
waste collection:
Alternative 1
Primary door-to-door collection is carried out by workers with wheelbarrows that carry the waste
into skips. Then a truck with crane collects the skips and carries them to the disposal site.
Alternative 2
Also in this case workers with wheelbarrows collect waste doorto-door but depose it into fixed
collection points. Then the waste is carried onto a tipper truck that transports it to the disposal site.
Alternative 3
The waste collection is carried out by a truck passing along the streets horning at its passage to
receive garbage from the households. When the trucks is full, it directly transports the waste to the
disposal site.
Alternative 4
A compactor truck collects the waste present in numerous street containers placed in the city and
transports it to the landfill.
Equipment, personnel, capital and operation costs are defined for each collection alternative.
2.1 Alternative 1
The collection of waste in households is carried out by workers provided with wheelbarrows. The
collected waste is then carried to skips placed inside the town. A truck with crane passes and loads
the skip full of garbage and transports it to the disposal site.
Attention: when the truck comes to carry the skip full of garbage, it should place an empty skip
before carrying the skip full of garbage.
A wheelbarrow
A truck carrying a skip
The first step is to quantify how many skips one truck can transport to the landfill in one day.
This quantification needs a few data:
- Time to go from the town to the landfill and to come back
- Time to place an empty skip and to load the full skip on the truck
- Time to discharge the full skip in the landfill
II- 1
In this exercise, we suppose that:

- Time to go to the landfill and to come back = 100 min1
- Time to place an empty skip and to load the full skip on the truck = 10 min
- Time to discharge the skip in the landfill = 10 min
Then time necessary for the truck to place an empty skip, to load one full skip, go to the landfill,
discharge the skip and come back at the town is:
Time for one skip = 100 + 10 + 10 = 120 min = 2 hours
Another important datum is:
- the workshift of the truck (i.e. how many hours does the truck work per day?)
In this exercise we suppose that the workshift of the truck is equal to 12 hours per day.
Moreover, we assume that two teams of employers work for the truck 6 hour a day. Each team is
composed by one driver plus two helpers.
Now it is possible to quantify how many skips one truck can transport and discharge into the
landfill in one day:
h
12
d = 6 skip
Number _ of _ skips =
h
d
2
skip
The truck goes to the landfill and comes back six times per day, then in one year it covers the
following distance:
km
skips
d
km
Dis tan ce = 20
6
365 = 43800
trip
d
y
y
Now we need another datum:
- the volume of each skip
We assume that the volume of one skip is 3 m3
Consequently the volume of garbage that one truck can transport to the landfill is:
skip 3m 3
m3
Volumeday = 6
= 18
d
skip
d
Now we have to define the number of inhabitants served by the truck. We need another datum:
- the volume of waste produced by each inhabitant per day
If this datum is not known, it can be calculated with other data:
- the amount of waste produced by one inhabitant per day
- the density of waste
1
If this time is not known, you have to suppose:

1. the distance between the city and the landfill
2. the velocity of the truck
If we assume that the distance is 10 km and the velocity is 12 km/h, the time necessary to go to the landfill is:
dis tan ce
10km
=
= 0.83h , that means:
velocity 12km / h
T = 0.83h 60 min/ h = 50 min
T=
Since the truck has to go and to come back from the landfill, it needs 50 min x 2 times = 100 minutes
II- 2
We suppose:
-
waste production = 0.4
kg
inh d
kg
m3
Then the volume produced by one inhabitant in one day is:
kg
0 .4
3
inh d = 0.0013 m
V=
kg
inh d
300 3
m
Consequently, the population served by one truck is:
m3
18
d
P=
= 13846inh
m3
0.0013
inh d
Each truck serves 13846 inhabitants and discharge 6 skip a day in the landfill, so the number of
inhabitants served by each skip is:
13846inh
inh
Pskip =
= 2308
6skip
skip
waste density = 300
Now we have to quantify the number of workers provided with wheel-barrows necessary to collect
waste from households and discharge it in the skip.
We need another datum:
- Number of inhabitants per hectare
In this exercise we suppose that this datum is 100 inh/ha:
inh
2308
ha
skip
Area skip =
= 23.08
inh
skip
100
ha
It means that the area served is a square with a side of 480 meters.
Furthermore, we need to know:
- Volume of waste carried in one wheelbarrow
- Number of inhabitants per household
In this exercise we assume that the volume of one wheelbarrow is 0.15 m3 and one household is
composed by 6 inhabitants.
Consequently, one household produces:
inh
m3
m3
V =6
0.0013
= 0.0078
hh
inh
hh
and one wheelbarrow can receive the waste produced by 19 household; in fact:
m3
wb = 19 hh
=
wb
m3
0.0078
hh
0.15
N hh
II- 3
Now we have to quantify how many hours the workers need to collect the garbage and fill the
wheelbarrow. We need another datum:
- Number of households per km of street
We assume that the number of household per km is 30 (it means 180 inhabitants per km of street).
The distance that the worker has to cover for 19 households is:
hh
19
km
D = wb = 0.63
hh
wb
30
km
Furthermore we assume that the velocity of the worker with wheelbarrow is 2 km/h and that it stops
3 minutes in each household.
Consequently, the time the worker spends in the 19 households is equal to:
min
hh
min
t =3
19
= 57
hh
wb
wb
and the time he needs to cover the street is:
km
0.63
wb = 0.315 h = 19 min
t=
km
wb
wb
2
h
It means that, as a whole, the worker needs 19 + 19 + 57 = 95 minutes = 1.58 hours to discharge
one wheelbarrow in the skip.
Now we have to decide how long the workshift for the worker with wheelbarrow is.
We assume that he works 8 hours per day. Consequently, in one day he can discharge 5
wheelbarrows into the skip (= 8 h / 1.58 h/load).
hh
wb
It means that the worker serves 95 households per day ( = 19
5
), i.e. 570 inhabitants
wb
d
hh
inh
( = 95 6
).
d
hh
Each skip serves 2308 inhabitants, then for each skip 4 workers are necessary to carry the waste
from the households to the skip. In fact:
inh
2308
wor ker
skip
N wor ker s =
=4
inh
skip
570
wor ker
One truck serves six skips and each skip is served by four workers, then for one truck are necessary
24 workers with wheelbarrows.
Finally we can state that, in this case, the equipment and the workers necessary to serve a
population of 13846 inhabitants are:
- 1 truck with a crane for the transport of skips working 12 h/d
- 2 teams (one driver + 2 helpers) working 6 h/d
- 7 skips (volume = 3 m3 )
- 24 workers with wheelbarrow working 8 h/d
II- 4
In order to quantify the capital and management costs for the proposed alternative, we need a few
data:
- cost of the truck with crane
- cost of skips (volume = 3 m3)
- cost of wheelbarrows
- annual wage of drivers
- annual wage of helpers for the drivers
- annual wage of the workers with wheelbarrows
- cost of fuel
- number of km covered by the truck with one liter of fuel
In this exercise, we assume that:
- cost of the truck with crane = 8000 USD
- cost of skips (volume = 3 m3) = 500 USD
- cost of wheelbarrows = 30 USD
- annual wage of drivers = 1200 USD/y
- annual wage of helpers (for the trucks) = 800 USD/y
- annual wage of the workers with wheelbarrows = 1000 USD/y
- cost of fuel = 0.65 USD/liter
- number of km covered by the truck with one liter of fuel = 4 km/liter
The cost per km covered by the truck is:
USD
0.65
L = 0.1625 USD
Cost km =
km
km
4
L
Now we can quantify the costs.
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Truck
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Total
Unit
1
7
24
Cost per unit

8000 USD
500 USD
30 USD
Total
8000 USD
3500 USD
720 USD
12220 USD
It means that the capital cost per each served inhabitant is:
Capital cost = 12220 USD/13846 inh = 0.88 USD/inh
Furthermore, the depreciation rate of the equipments has to be taken into consideration. It can be
calculated by the following equation:
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
r = depreciation rate
i = interest rate (assumed = 10%)
n = years of life of the equipment
II- 5
The depreciation costs can be calculated as follows:

Voices of cost
Capital
cost
Truck
8000 USD
Skips
3500 USD
Wheelbarrows
720 USD
Total
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Equipment depreciation
Drivers
Helpers
Workers
Fuel
Subtotal
Maintenance + Administration + Accidents +
Protective Clothes + etc.
Total
5y
3y
1y
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.26
0.40
1.1
Unit
Depreciation
cost
2080 USD/y
1400 USD/y
792 USD/y
4272 USD/y
Cost per unit
2
4
24
43800 km
Total
4272 USD/y
1200 USD/y
2400 USD/y
800 USD/y
3200 USD/y
1000 USD/y
24000 USD/y
0.1625 USD/km 7118 USD/y
40990 USD/y
20% of Subtotal 8198 USD/y
49188 USD/y
It means that the operation cost per each served inhabitant is:
Operation cost = 49188 USD/13846inh = 3.55 USD/inh/y
Finally, it has to be considered that the above mentioned equipment is the minimum necessary
equipment, but it would be better to have a bit higher number of means, as:
- 1 more truck every 4 trucks in order to allow the programmed maintenance of each truck
and avoid that the collection system collapses if a truck breaks down
- 1 more skip every 5 skips in order to have a bit more reserve volume for the collection of
waste
For instance, a town of 50.000 inhabitants should need:
- 5 trucks: 4 trucks to serve the city and 1 more truck as a reserve
- 34 skips: 28 as the minimum number of skips to serve the city and 6 more skips
2.2 Alternative 2
The collection of waste in households is carried out by workers provided with wheelbarrows. The
collected waste is then carried to transfer areas placed inside the town. A tipper truck passes and
loads the garbage placed inside the transfer areas and transports it to the disposal site.
Attention: the pavements of the transfer areas have to be banked with respect to the level of the
street in order to facilitate the transfer of waste into the truck.
A transfer area
A tipper truck
II- 6
The first step is to fix the volume of the tipper truck.

In this exercise we assume that volume is 10 m3.
Then we have to quantify how many loads the truck can carry to the landfill in one day.
- Time to haul the solid waste from the transfer area into the truck
- Time to discharge the garbage in the landfill
For this exercise, we assume that:
- Time to go to the landfill and come back to the city = 100 min
- Time to haul the waste from the transfer area into the truck = 90 min
- Time to discharge the waste in the landfill = 10 min
We have to quantify the number of workers necessary to carry the waste into the truck. Each worker
is supposed to transfer 2 m3 in 90 minutes2. Consequently 5 workers are necessary to load the
garbage into the truck.
As a whole, the time necessary for the truck to get full of garbage, go to the landfill, discharge the
waste and come back to the town is:
Time for 1 load = 100 + 90 + 10 = 200 min = 3.33 h
We suppose that the truck works 10 h/d, so it can transport 3 loads per day to the landfill, i.e. 30
m3/d.
The truck goes to the landfill and comes back three times per day, then in one year it covers the
following distance:
km
skips
d
km
Dis tan ce = 20
3
365 = 21900
trip
d
y
y
Now we have to define the number of inhabitants served by the truck. Assuming the hypothesis of
Alternative 1 (daily waste production per person = 0.0013 m3), the number of inhabitants served by
one truck is:
m3
30
d
P=
= 23077inh
m3
0.0013
inh d
We suppose to place in the city transfer areas whose volume is 6 m3. One truck can consequently
serve 5 transfer areas. In fact:
m3
30
areas
N areas = truck
=5
3
truck
m
6
area
It means that the worker can transfer 400 kg/h. This leads to 600 kg in 1.5 h (= 90 min) and, assuming the density of
waste equal to 300 kg/m3, to 2 m3 in 1.5 h.
II- 7
The number of inhabitants served by each transfer area is:

inh
23077
truck = 4615 inh
Parea =
area
area
5
truck
Assuming the same hypotheses of the previous Alternative 1 (i.e. density of inhabitants = 100
inh/ha), the area served by one transfer area is:
inh
4615
ha
skip
Aarea =
= 46.15
inh
skip
100
ha
The primary collection is done by workers with wheel-barrows. Assuming the same hypotheses of
the Alternative 1, each worker can collect in one day the garbage produced by 570 inhabitants.
Each transfer area serves 4615 inhabitants, then for each skip 8 workers are necessary to carry the
waste from the households to the skip; in fact:
inh
4615
area = 8 wor ker
N wor ker s =
inh
area
570
wor ker
One truck serves five transfer areas and each transfer area is served by 8 workers, then for one truck
are necessary 40 workers with wheelbarrows.
- 1 tipper truck whose volume is 10 m3 working 10 h/d
- 5 transfer areas (volume = 6 m3 )
- 40 workers with wheelbarrow working 8 h/d
data:
- cost of the tipper truck (volume = 10 m3)
- cost of transfers areas (volume = 6 m3)
- cost of wheelbarrows
- annual wage of drivers (working 5 h/d)
- annual wage of helpers for the drivers (working 5 h/d)
- annual wage of the workers with wheelbarrows (working 8 h/d)
- cost of fuel
- number of km covered by the truck with one liter of fuel
II- 8

- cost of the tipper truck = 10000 USD
- cost of transfers areas = 1500 USD
USD
L = 0.1625 USD
km
km
4
L
0.65
Cost km =

Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Tipper truck
Transfer areas
Wheelbarrows
Total
Unit
1
5
40
Cost per unit

10000 USD
1500 USD
30 USD
Total
10000 USD
7500 USD
1200 USD
18700 USD
Capital cost = 18700/23077 = 0.81 USD/inh
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:

Voices of cost
Tipper truck
Transfer areas
Wheelbarrows
Total
Capital
cost
10000 USD
7500 USD
1200 USD
II- 9
5y
3y
1y
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.26
0.40
1.1
Depreciation
cost
2600 USD/y
3000 USD/y
1320 USD/y
6920 USD/y
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers for truck
Workers with wheelbarrows
Fuel
Subtotal
Total
Unit
2
10
40
21900 km
Cost per unit
Total
6920 USD/y
1000 USD/y
2000 USD/y
670 USD/y
6700 USD/y
1000 USD/y
40000 USD/y
0.1625 USD/km 3559 USD/y
59179 USD/y
71015 USD/y
Operation cost = 71015/ 23077 = 3.08 USD/inh/y
- 1 more transfer area every 3 transfer areas in order to have a bit more reserve volume for the
collection of waste
- 15 transfer areas: 11 as the minimum number of areas to serve the city and 5 more transfer
areas
2.3 Alternative 3
In this case the waste collection is carried out by one truck that passes through the main ways of the
city and stops every 100 meters. During its trip the truck horns to get the attention of inhabitants
that carry their own garbage to the truck.
In every stop, the truck can collect the waste from an area:
100m x 100m = 10000 m2 = 1 ha
The number of inhabitants served in each stop can be quantified by knowing:
- Number of inhabitants per hectare
In this exercise we assume that the number of inhabitants per hectare is 100 inh/ha.
Moreover, we assume that the time necessary for the truck to move between two collection points
and to wait for the inhabitants coming with their own waste is 15 minutes.
So, in one hour the truck stops 4 times and, consequently, serves 400 inhabitants.
II- 10
Now we have to quantify the volume of the truck. We need a few data:
-
Time to go from the town to the landfill and to come back

Time to discharge the waste in the landfill
workshift of the truck
We suppose that:
- the round trip to the landfill is 100 minutes
- the time to discharge the waste in the landfill is 10 minutes
- the truck works 12 hours per day
So time necessary for the truck to go to the landfill, discharge the waste and come back to the town
is:
Time for one load = 100 min + 10 min = 110 min = 1.8 hours
The time remaining to collect waste is: 12 h 1.8 h = 10.2 h
As stated before, the truck can serve 400 inh/h, so in 10.2 hours it can serve:
inh
h
inh
P = 400
10.2 = 4080
h
d
d
Assuming the hypothesis of Alternative 1 (daily waste production per person = 0.0013 m3), the
volume of waste collected by the truck is:
m3
inh
m3
Vwaste = 0.0013
4080
= 5.3
inh
d
d
So we need a truck with a volume of at least 5.5 m3 to collect the garbage of 4080 inhabitants for
one day.
The truck works 12 hours per day, so it needs two team (composed by one driver plus three helpers)
working 6 hours per day each.
The truck goes to the landfill and comes back once per day (it means 20 km/d); moreover, the truck
h
stops
stops
stops 41 times a day ( = 10.2 4
= 41
). It means that it cover a distance equal to:
d
h
d
stops
m
d = 41
100
= 4100m = 4.1km
d
stop
So, in one day the truck cover 24.1 km (4.1 km for the waste collection + 20 km to go and come
back from the landfill). Then in one year it covers the following distance:
km
d
km
Dis tan ce = 24.1 365 = 8797
d
y
y
- 1 tipper truck with a volume of at least 5.5 m3 working 12 h/d
II- 11
In order to quantify the capital and operation costs for the proposed alternative, we need a few data:
- cost of the tipper truck (volume = 5.5 m3)
- number of km covered by the truck with one litre of fuel
- cost of the tipper truck = 8000 USD
- cost of fuel = 0.65 USD/litre
- number of km covered by the truck with one litre of fuel = 4 km/litre
USD
0.65
L = 0.1625 USD
Cost km =
km
km
4
L
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Truck
Total
Unit
1
Cost per unit

8000 USD
Total
8000 USD
8000 USD
Capital cost = 8000/4080= 1.96 USD/inh
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
Voices of cost
Capital
n
cost
Truck
8000 USD
5y
Total
II- 12
0.1
0.26
Depreciation
cost
2080 USD/y
2080 USD/y
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers
Fuel
Subtotal
Protective Cloths + etc.
Total
Unit
Cost per unit
2
6
8797 km
Total
2080 USD/y
1200 USD/y
2400 USD/y
800 USD/y
4800 USD/y
0.1625 USD/km 1430 USD/y
10710 USD/y
12852 USD/y
Operation cost = 1285/4080= 3.15 USD/inh/y
The above mentioned equipment is the minimum necessary equipment, but it would be better to
have a bit higher number of means, as:
2.4 Alternative 4
In this case, we suppose to use a compactor truck with a capacity of 24 m3 that collects the waste
from street containers (volume = 1.1 m3) placed all around the city.
A street container (V = 1.1 m3)
A compactor truck
The compactor truck has a machine that cut the waste charged into the truck in order to compact it.
The waste density after the compaction is about 600 kg /m3, so the waste that can be collected by
the compactor truck per each load is:
m3
kg
kg
Weight _ of _ waste = 24
600 3 = 14400
load
load
m
II- 13
We need a datum:
- the daily waste production per person.
Supposing, as in Alternative 1, that the daily waste production per person is 0.4 kg/inh/d, we can
evaluate the number of inhabitants served by this type of truck per each load:
kg
14400
load = 36000 inh
Pop =
kg
load
0.4
inh
Now we have to quantify the number of street containers served by the truck. We need another
datum:
- the density of the waste in the street container
In this exercise we suppose that the density is 300 kg/m3 (remember that the waste inside the street
containers has not been compacted, yet).
The waste collected by the compactor truck is 14400 kg, so we can estimate the total volume of
street containers that can be collect by the truck.
Volume _ Containers =
14400kg
= 48m 3
kg
300 3
m
We know that the volume of each street container is equal to 1.1 m3, so dividing the total volume
into the volume of one street container, we can obtain the number of street containers that are
necessary:
48m 3
N _ containers =
= 44containers
m3
1 .1
container
Now we have to calculate how many people are served by each container. It can be calculated as
follows:
36000inh
inh
Inhabeach _ container =
= 818
44container
container
Assuming, as in Alternative 1, that the population density is 100 inh/ha, we can determine the area
served by each container as follows:
inh
stcont = 8.18ha
=
inh
100
ha
818
Areaeach _ container
It means that the area served is a square with each side of 286 m.
In this alternative people have to carry their own garbage into the street containers, so these
containers do not have to be too far from households. We assume that two containers are placed in
8.18 hectares (consequently, 88 containers are needed to serve 36000 inhabitants) .
II- 14
Now we have to quantify the time the truck needs to collect the waste, go to the landfill, discharge it
and come back to the city.
- Time to discharge the garbage in the landfill
- Velocity of the truck in the city
- Time to unload into the truck the garbage contained in one street container
- Time to go to the landfill and come back to the city = 100 min
- Time to discharge the waste in the landfill = 10 min
- Velocity of the truck = 15 km/h
- Time to unload one street container = 3 min
The route that the truck has to cover to collect all the street containers can be calculated as follows:
Dis tan ce = 286
m
containers
m
km
44
= 12584
= 12.6
containers
load
load
load
and the time to cover this distance is:

km
12.6
load = 0.84 h = 50 min
Time =
km
load
load
15
h
The time necessary to unload all the 44 street containers into the truck is:
min
containers
min ute
Time = 3
44
= 132
container
load
load
As a whole, the time the truck needs to load all the garbage, go to the landfill, unload the waste and
come back is:
Time = 132 + 50 + 100 + 10 = 292 min 5 hours
If the truck works 10 hours per day, it can discharge 2 loads per day in the landfill, that means 88
containers and a population of 72000 inhabitants.
In terms of distance, it covers 20 + 12.6 = 32.6 km per load, that means 65.2 km per day and 23798
km per year.
- 1 compactor truck with a volume of 24 m3 working 12 h/d
- 88 street containers (volume = 1.1 m3)
In order to quantify the capital and operation costs for the proposed alternative, we need a few data:
- cost of the compactor truck
- cost of the street containers
- number of km covered by the truck with one litre of fuel
II- 15

- cost of the compactor truck = 70000 USD
- cost of the street containers = 350 USD
- annual wage of helpers = 600 USD/y
USD
0.65
L = 0.1625 USD
Cost km =
km
km
4
L
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Compactor truck
Street containers
Total
Unit
1
176
Cost per unit

70000 USD
350 USD
Total
70000 USD
61600 USD
131600 USD
Capital cost = 121600/72000 = 1.82 USD/inh
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
Voices of cost
Capital
n
cost
Compactor truck
70000 USD 5 y
Street containers
61600 USD 2 y
Total
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers for truck
Fuel
Subtotal
Total
Unit
2
4
23798 km
II- 16
0.1
0.1
0.26
0.58
Depreciation
cost
18200 USD/y
35728 USD/y
53928 USD/y
Cost per unit
Total
53928 USD/y
1000 USD/y
2000 USD/y
670 USD/y
2680 USD/y
0.1625 USD/km 3867 USD/y
62475 USD/y
74970 USD/y
It means that the costs per each served inhabitant are:

Operation cost = 74970/72000 = 1.04 USD/inh/y
The above mentioned equipment is the minimum necessary equipment, but it would be better to
have a bit higher number of means, as:
- 1 street container every 2.5 hectare. In fact, in this case people have to carry their own
wastes into the containers, then these containers have not to be too far from households.
- 4 trucks: about 3 trucks to serve the city and 1 more truck as a reserve
800 street containers (under the hypothesis that the population density is 100 inh/ha)
II- 17
3. Sizing of the MSW collection system in the visited cities

All the cities involved in the programme (except Erigavo) were visited in order to:
- collect further data concerning the characteristics and the management system of the municipal
solid waste (MSW).
- choose and size together with the local authorities an appropriate collection system of the
municipal waste.
The following paragraphs contain the results of those exercises. It has to be underlined that the data
necessary for the exercises were given by the Municipalitys members or defined through available
documentation or estimated by means of direct observations.
In general, not all the data can be considered reliable, thus the results of the exercises are just a
rough estimation of the minimum equipments and personnel needed by each Municipality for the
MSW collection. A more precise quantification could be obtained by using experimental data that
each Municipality should collect through specific analyses (see chapter 1).
3.1 Somaliland
3.1.1 Berbera
Berbera is a town of 55385 inhabitants.
The Municipality manages MSW collection of the town. Garbage is collected door-to-door by
collectors/employees who bring garbage to the collection points with wheelbarrows. In the city
there are 26 collection points consisting in a small wall in three sides. The most garbage in the
landfill is derived from wet sugar imported in the port. The landfill is located 5 Km NE far from the
town and it has been working for three years. The Municipality has a bulldozer for compacting the
garbage after burning. There is a pilot project consisting in the recycling of plastic bags that are
used to produce pillows and cushions. The collection of the garbage in the port is carried out by one
truck that is used only for the port (two loads per day). The Nicola fishing facility is under
rehabilitation, and its going to start the freezing of the fish to export it to international market.
Main remarks
- Population covered by the garbage collection is about 70%.
- Lack of services in IDPs settlements: dumpsite too near the houses.
- Big quantity of garbage is abandoned on the beach, mainly in the northern part of the town.
- There are collection points along the beach not protected where animals can scavenge.
Although there is a project to collect plastic bags and re-use them, there are a lot of plastic
bags stored after a cleaning campaign and waiting for reuse.
Municipality of Berbera
Waste Density
Waste Daily Production per person
Waste Daily Production of the town
Inhabitants
Population of the Municipality
Density of inhabitants
Number of inhabitants per household
Number of households per km of street
III-1
Unit
kg/ m3
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
Value
300
0.0013
72
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
hh/km
55385
82
6
60
According to the data collected, and to the cost evaluated, the best alternative proposed to the town
is to clean up the collection point and serve them with skips where animals cant scavenge.
This alternative considers the use of trucks provided with cranes that are able to transport one skip
for each load. The first step is to quantify how many loads one truck can transport in one day.
The distance to the municipal landfill is 5 km, so:
dis tan ce
5km
=
= 0.71h = 42 min
velocity 7km / h
- Time round trip to the landfill = 84 min
- Time to load the skip on the truck and to unload the skip = 30 min
Then time necessary for the truck to place an empty skip, to load the skip, go to the landfill,
T=
Time for one skip = 84 + 30 = 114 min = 2 hours

The work-shift of the truck is equal to 6 hours per day, due to the hot temperature in the town, so it
can do 3 load/d.
The truck goes to the landfill and comes back 3 times per day, then in one year it covers the
following distance:
km
load
d
km
Dis tan ce = 15
3
365 = 16425
trip
d
y
y
3
The volume of each skip is 3 m , consequently the volume of garbage that one truck can transport to
the landfill is:
load 3m 3
m3
Volume day = 3
=9
d
skip
d
The number of inhabitants served by the truck is:
m3
9
d
P=
= 6923inh
m3
0.0013
inh d
Each truck serves 6923 inhabitants and discharges 3 skip a day in the landfill, so the number of
6923inh
inh
Pskip =
= 2308
3skip
skip
The number of inhabitants per hectare is evaluated considering the area of the town 675 ha (using
the map provided by UN-Habitat ):
inh
hh
55385inh
d pop =
= 82
= 11.7
ha
ha
675ha
The area served by one skip is:
inh
2308
skip
ha
Area skip =
= 24.8
inh
skip
82
ha
The number of workers provided with wheelbarrows necessary to collect waste from households
and discharge it in the skip has to be calculated.
III-2
One wheelbarrow can receive the waste produced by 19 household; in fact:

m3
0.15
inh
hh
wb
= 115
= 19
Inh _ WB =
3
load _ wb
load _ wb
m
0.0013
inh d
How many hours the workers need to collect the garbage and fill the wheelbarrow? The number of
households per km is about 60 (it means 360 inhabitants per km of street). The distance that the
worker has to cover for 19 households is:
hh
19
km
D _ wb = wb = 0.316
hh
wb
60
km
It is assumed that the velocity of the worker with wheelbarrow is 2.5 km/h and he stops 3 minutes
in each household. Consequently, the time that one worker spends in the 19 households is equal to:
min
hh
min
Time _ load _ from _ households = 3
19
= 57
hh
load _ wb
load _ wb
km
0.316
h
min
load _ wb
Time _ to _ cov er _ the _ street =
= 0.126
= 7.5
km
load _ wb
load _ wb
2.5
h
It means that, as a whole, the worker needs 7.5 + 57 = 64.5 minutes.
In one day, working 6 h, a wheelbarrow can discharge 5 loads into the skip (= 6 h / 1.07 h/load).
hh
wb
5
), 570 inhabitants
wb
d
hh
inh
( = 95 6
).
d
hh
from the households to the skip.
In fact:
inh
2308
skip
wb
=4
N wb =
inh
skip
570
wb
One truck serves 3 skips and four workers fill each skip, so there are 12 workers with wheelbarrows
for each truck .
Finally its possible to state that, in this case, the equipments and the workers necessary to serve a
m3
d
Number _ of _ trucks _ with _ crane =
= 8trucks
m3
9
truck d
72
III-3
skips
= 24skips
day truck
wb
Number _ of _ wb = 24skips 4
= 96wb
skip
Number _ of _ skips = 8trucks 3
8 trucks with a crane for the transport of skips working 6 h/d

one driver + 4 helpers working 6 h/d for each truck
24 skips (volume = 3 m3)
96 workers with wheelbarrows working 6 h/d
In order to quantify the capital and management costs for the proposed alternative for Berbera, it
has to be considered that:
USD
0.65
L = 0.13 USD
Cost km =
km
km
5
L
The following tables quantify the costs.
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Trucks with crane
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Existing
equipments
0
0
30
Total
Units to
purchased
8
24
66
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Unit
Drivers
8
Helpers
32
Collectors with wheelbarrows
96
Fuel for the trucks with crane
16425 km/truck* y
Subtotal
Maintenance+Administration+Accidents
+ Protective Clothes + etc.
Total
III-4
be Cost
per
unit
15000 USD
600 USD
30 USD
Cost per unit

1800 USD/y
960 USD/y
600 USD/y
0.13 USD/ km
30% of
Subtotal
Total
120000 USD
14400 USD
1980 USD
136380 USD
Total
14400 USD/y
30720 USD/y
57600 USD/y
17082 USD/y
119802 USD/y
35940 USD/y
155742 USD/y

Operation cost = 155742 USD/ 55385 inh = 2.81 USD/inh/y
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
Voices of cost
Capital
cost
Truck with crane
12000USD
Skips
14400 USD
Wheelbarrows
1980 USD
Total
5y
5y
0.5 y
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.23
0.23
2
Depreciation
cost
27600 USD/y
3312 USD/y
3960 USD/y
34872 USD/y
Paying 0.62 USD/inh/y more, that is 3.43 USD/inh/y (20.58 USD/hh/y), its possible to accumulate
money to purchase new equipments when necessary.
Finally, it has to be considered that the above mentioned equipments are the minimum necessary
but it would be better to have a bit higher number of means, also considering the rate of growth of
the town, that means an increase of waste to be disposed, as:
waste
3.1.2 Boroma
The Municipality is responsible for the waste collection in the town, but the members are thinking
about the implementation of a PPP system after the successful existing one for the water
distribution (SAHBA Co.).
Main remarks:
- At the present the population served is about the 50% of the total inhabitants of the
town
- They have skips provided by UNICEF that are not used because of the lack of
equipments; in fact the existing tipper trucks are not useful for the available skips.
- There isnt a primary collection: the truck passes and collects the garbage in sacks
placed along the streets.
- The garbage disposed in the street is often burnt
- Other garbage is left on the ground around the skips
- There is a taxation system but not for the MSW
III-5
Municipality of Boroma
Waste
Waste Density
Inhabitants
Unit
Value
kg/ m3
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
300
0.001
120
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
hh/km
120000
200
5
133
Considering the existing situation in Boroma, with the availability of 35 yellow skips donated by
UNICEF, the proposal is to establish a collection following the first alternative proposed during the
seminars where workers provided with wheelbarrows carry out the collection of waste in
households. The collected waste is then carried to the skips placed inside the town. A truck with
crane passes and loads the skip full of garbage and transports it to the disposal site.
According to the area of the town and the density of inhabitants, it has to be established the best
position for the skips in order to serve the highest number of people and the street with enough
space for the passage of the trucks.
Primary collection is needed only to serve the skips and for the remaining waste produced in the
city, the 3 tipper trucks available in the town can continue collecting the sacks along the streets or
horning at their passage to invite the people to give their garbage at a fixed time.
The distance to the municipal landfill is 3 km, so:
dis tan ce
3km
=
= 0.25h = 15 min
velocity 12km / h
- Time to go to the landfill and to come back = 30 min
- Time to load two full skips on the truck = 15 min
- Time to discharge the skips in the landfill = 15 min
T=
Then time necessary for the truck to place an empty skip, to load two full skips, go to the landfill,
discharge the skips and come back at the town is:
Time for one skip = 30 + 15 + 15 = 60 min = 1 hours
The work-shift of the truck is equal to 5 hours per day, so it can transport 5 load/d. Now it is
possible to quantify how many skips one truck can transport and discharge into the landfill in one
day:
load
skips
skip
Number _ of _ skips = 5
2
= 10
d
load
d
following distance:
III-6
Dis tan ce = 6
km
load
d
km
5
365 = 10950
load
d
y
y
The volume of each skip donated by Unicef is 3 m3, consequently the volume of garbage that one
truck can transport to the landfill is:
skip 3m 3
m3
Volume day = 10
= 30
d
skip
d
The number of inhabitants served by the truck is:
m3
30
d
P=
= 30000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
inh
30000inh
Pskip =
= 3000
skip
10skip
The number of inhabitants per hectare is evaluated considering the area of the town 6 km2 = 600 ha
inh
hh
120000inh
d pop =
= 200
= 40
ha
ha
600ha
inh
3000
ha
skip
Area skip =
= 15
inh
skip
200
ha
For primary collection, wheelbarrows are considered only to fill the skips, and not for the waste
collected by the existing tipper trucks.
One wheelbarrow can receive the waste produced by 30 household; in fact:
m3
0.15
hh
wb = 150 inh
Inh _ WB =
= 30
3
load _ wb
load _ wb
m
0.001
inh d
How many hours the workers need to collect the garbage and fill the wheelbarrow?
The number of household per km is about 133 (it means 665 inhabitants per km of street). The
distance that the worker has to cover for 30 households is:
hh
30
wb = 0.225 km
D _ wb =
hh
wb
133
km
It is supposed that the velocity of the worker with wheelbarrow is 2 km/h and it stops 3 minutes in
each household.
III-7
min
hh
min
30
= 90
hh
load _ wb
load _ wb
km
0.225
min
h
load _ wb
= 0.09
= 5.5
km
load _ wb
load _ wb
2,5
h
It means that, as a whole, the worker needs 5.5 + 90 = 95.5 minutes = 1.59 hours to discharge one
wheelbarrow in the skip.
hh
wb
5
), that means 750
wb
d
hh
inh
).
inhabitants ( = 150 5
d
hh
In fact:
inh
3000
wor ker
skip
N wor ker s =
=4
inh
skip
750
wor ker
One truck serves ten skips and four workers fill each skip, then for one truck are necessary 40
workers with wheelbarrows.
Finally its possible to state that, in this case, the equipments and the workers necessary to serve the
whole population are:
m3
d
= 4trucks
m3
30
truck d
skips
= 40skips
day truck
wb
= 160wb
skip
- 4 trucks with a crane working 5 h/d
- one driver + 2 helpers working 8 h/d for each truck
- 40 skips (volume =3 m3)
- 160 wheelbarrows and one worker each
In order to quantify the capital and management costs for the proposed alternative for Borama, it
120
III-8

USD
0.57
L = 0.114 USD
Cost km =
km
km
5
L
The following tables quantify costs.
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Trucks with crane
Tipper trucks
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Existing
equipments
0
2
35
-Total
Unit to be
purchased
4
0
5
160
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Unit
Drivers
7
Helpers
14
160
10950 km/truck/ y
Subtotal
Maintenance + Administration +
Accidents + Protective Clothes etc.
Total
Cost per unit
8000 USD
7500 USD
500 USD
30 USD
Cost per unit

1440 USD/y
720 USD/y
360 USD/y
0.114 USD/ km
20% of Subtotal
Total
32000 USD
-2500 USD
4800 USD
39300 USD
Total
10080 USD/y
10080 USD/y
43200 USD/y
4993 USD/y
68353 USD/y
13670 USD/y
82023 USD/y

Operation cost = 82023 USD/ 120000inh = 0.68 USD/inh/y
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
III-9

Voices of cost
Capital
cost
Truck with crane
32000 USD
Skips
2500 USD
Wheelbarrows
4800 USD
Total
6y
3y
0.5 y
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.19
0.37
2
Depreciation
cost
6080USD/y
925 USD/y
9600 USD/y
16605 USD/y
Paying 0.13 USD/inh/y more (16605 USD/120000 inh), that means a cost of 0.81 USD/inh/y, its
possible to accumulate money for the purchasing of new equipments when necessary.
waste.
3.1.3 Burao
Main remarks:
- Scarcity of skips and equipments for moving wastes.
- Wastes are abandoned in draining channels and near the river.
- Insufficient capacity in solid waste collection.
- IDPs live in illegal plots without any service.
- Hazardous waste from hospital needs appropriate management.
Privates (including IDPs and refugees) collect the waste produced in households and place them in
the 19 collection points placed inside the town.
The collection points are provided with 2 m3 skips; they have some skips.
The Municipality uses two trucks to transport the skips full of garbage to the two landfills placed
outside the city. The employees involved in SWM are altogether 45.
III-10
Municipality of Burao
Waste
Waste Density
Waste Daily Production
Inhabitants
Population
Unit
Value
kg/ m3
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
300
0.001
120
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
hh/km
120000
167
6
107
The presented data are a rough estimation according to the information provided during the meeting
with the Municipality and using the map provided by UN-Habitat.
In the current situation the garbage collection is carried out by door-to-door collection by three
tipper trucks that pass through the streets and collect sacks of garbage, and in the collection points.
There are also two trucks with crane, that can collect skips.
Existing equipments Unit
Tipper Trucks
m3
Truck with crane
m3
Value
4
6
Number / Type
3 tipper trucks
2 truck with crane
The volume of the tipper truck is 4 m3.

How many loads the truck can carry to the landfill in one day?
- Time to go from the town to the landfill and to come back = 60 min
- Time to load the solid waste from the collection point into the truck = 80 min
- Time to discharge the garbage in the landfill= 10 min
As a whole, the time necessary for the truck to be loaded of garbage, go to the landfill, discharge the
The truck works 8 h/d, so it can transport 3 loads per day to the landfill and dispose 12 m3/d.
The number of inhabitants served by one tipper truck is:
m3
12
d
P=
= 12000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
But they currently dispose of three tipper trucks, so they can serve 36000 inhabitants per day and
transport to the landfill 36 m3/d.
following distance:
km
load
d
km
Dis tan ce = 6
3
365 = 6750
load
d
y
y
III-11
The volume of each truck with crane is 6 m3.

To quantify how many skips the truck can carry to the landfill in one day, we consider:
- Time to load the solid waste from the collection point into the truck= 15 min
Each truck works 8 h/d, so it can transport 5 loads per day to the landfill. For each load it can
transport 3 skips 2m3 each.
It is possible to quantify how many skips one truck can transport and discharge into the landfill in
one day:
skips
skip
load
3
= 15
d
load
d
Consequently the volume of garbage that one truck with crane can transport to the landfill is:
skip 2m 3
m3
= 30
Volume day = 15
d
skip
d
There are dispose of two trucks with crane, so 60 m3of waste are daily disposed.
The number of inhabitants served by the two available tipper trucks, considering that the
Daily waste production per person = 0.001m3, is:
m3
d
P=
= 60000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
60
inh
30000inh
Pskip =
= 2000
skip
15skip
The number of inhabitants per hectare is evaluated considering the area of the town 7.2 km2 = 720
ha
inh
hh
120000inh
d pop =
= 167
= 28
ha
ha
720ha
inh
2000
ha
skip
= 11.9
Areaskip =
inh
skip
167
ha
The truck with crane goes to the landfill and comes back 5 times per day, then in one year it covers
the following distance:
km
load
d
km
Dis tan ce = 6
5
365 = 10950
load
d
y
y
Primary collection is carried out by workers with wheelbarrows.
III-12
One wheelbarrow can receive the waste produced by 25 households; in fact:

m3
0.15
hh
wb = 150 inh
= 25
Inh _ WB =
3
m
load _ wb
load _ wb
0.001
inh d
The number of households per km is about 107 (it means 642 inhabitants per km of street). The
hh
25
wb = 0.23 km
D _ wb =
hh
wb
107
km
It is assumed that the velocity of the worker with wheelbarrow is 2.5 km/h and it stops 3 minutes in
each household.
min
hh
min
25
= 75
hh
load _ wb
load _ wb
km
0.23
h
min
load _ wb
= 0.092
= 5.5
km
load _ wb
load _ wb
2.5
h
It means that, as a whole, the worker needs 75 + 5.5 = 80.5 minutes = 1.3 hours to discharge one
hh
wb
6
), that is 900 inhabitants
wb
d
hh
inh
).
per day ( = 150 6
d
hh
In fact:
inh
2000
wor ker
skip
=3
N wor ker s =
inh
skip
900
wor ker
One truck serves fifteen skips and three workers fill each skip, then for one truck are necessary 45
workers with wheelbarrows.
The existing equipments can dispose 96 m3/d, so another truck with crane is necessary to dispose
the remaining 24 m3/d.
Finally its possible to state that, in this case, the equipments and the workers necessary to serve the
whole population are:
III-13
skips
= 45skips
truck
wb
= 135wb
skip
3 tipper trucks (12m3/d)

3 trucks with a crane for the transport of skips working 8 h/d (30m3/d)
one driver + one helper working 8 h/d per truck
45 skips (volume = 3 m3)
135 workers with wheelbarrows working 8 h/d
The capital and management costs for the proposed alternative for Burao consider that:
USD
0 .8
L = 0.2 USD
Cost km =
km
km
4
L
The following tables quantify costs.
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Existing
Unit to be Cost per unit
Total
equipments
purchased
Trucks with crane
2
1
15000 USD
15000 USD
Skips
15
30
500 USD
15000 USD
Wheelbarrows
-135
30 USD
4050 USD
Total
34050 USD
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers
Fuel for the trucks
Unit
6
6
135
6750 km/tipper truck/ y
10950 km/truck with crane/y
Subtotal
Maintenance + Administration
+ Accidents + Protective
Clothes + etc.
Total
Cost per unit

1440 USD/y
720 USD/y
600 USD/y
0.2 USD/ km
20% of
Subtotal
Total
8640 USD/y
4320 USD/y
81000 USD/y
4050 USD/y
6570 USD/y
104580 USD/y
20916 USD/y
125496 USD/y
III-14

(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
Voices of cost
Trucks with crane

Skips
Wheelbarrows
Total
Capital
Cost
15000 USD
15000USD
4050 USD
n (years)
10 y
3y
0.5 y
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.13
0.37
2
Depreciation cost
1950 USD/y
5550 USD/y
8100 USD/y
15600 USD/y
money to purchase new equipments when necessary.
waste.
3.1.4 Gabiley
Workers provided with wheelbarrows and donkey carts carry out the door-to-door collection. Two
tipper trucks with a capacity of 4m3 each go trough the main roads, load the garbage placed in the
collection points and along the streets, and then transport it to the disposal site.
Despite the fact that Municipality carries out the door-to-door collection, there are other subjets
who collect and dispose the waste in illegal dumpsites.
About 10% of the budget from the tax collection is allocated on the solid waste management but
this fund is insufficient to cover its total cost. There is no private participation.
III-15
Main remarks:
- At the moment the population served is about the 45% of the total inhabitants of the town
- The existing trucks are not sufficient for the whole collection
- For the primary collection there isnt a sufficient number of wheelbarrows and donkey
carts
- The collected waste is deposited in unfenced sites near inhabited quarters without
environmental protection
- The waste is either burnt directly at the source or disposed in illegal dumpsites
The use of fixed SWTS seems to be the most suitable alternative for a proper collection of MSW in
Gabiley.
There are several collection areas in the town -although not served- where people leave garbage, so
its possible upgrading these collection points in a proper numbers of SWTS.
It is not easy to change people habits, however it could be started an awareness campaign to invite
them not to dispose their waste in places other than SWTS.
It is supposed building SWTS with a volume of 3.5 m3 each, to realise with appropriate materials
(like concrete or other available resistant materials).
Municipality of Gabiley
Unit
Waste
Waste Density
kg/ m3
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
Inhabitants
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
hh/km
Value
300
0.00096
53
55000
152
5
83
The volume of each tipper truck is 4 m3.

- Time to load the solid waste from the collection point into the truck= 90 min
The estimated numbers of workers necessary to load the waste on the truck is estimate equal to 6
workers, based on the current experience.
Each truck works 10 h/d, so it can transport 3 loads per day to the landfill and dispose 12 m3/d.
The number of inhabitants served by the two available tipper trucks is:
III-16
P=
24
m3
d
= 25000inh
m3
0.00096
inh d
The volume of each SWTS that can be placed in town is supposed to be 3.5 m3. One truck can
consequently serve 3 transfer areas. In fact:
m3
12
truck = 3 SWTS
N areas =
m3
truck
3.5
SWTS
The number of inhabitants served by each SWTS is:
inh
12500
truck = 4167 inh
Parea =
SWTS
SWTS
3
truck
The towns area - evaluated using the map provided by UN-Habitat- is about 360 ha. It is useful to
evaluate the density of population:
55000inh
inh
density _ of _ inh =
= 152
360ha
ha
The area served by one SWTS is:
inh
4167
SWTS = 27.41 ha
Aarea =
inh
SWTS
152
ha
The truck goes to the landfill and comes back three times per day: the distance to the landfill is 5.5
km. Considering that the distance between each SWTS is 523 m, the truck covers a distance of
about 2 km to reach the SWTS and to fill it.
Then in one year it covers the following distance:
km
loads
d
km
Dis tan ce _ total = 13
3
365 = 14235
trip
d
y
y
Primary collection is done by workers with wheelbarrows and by donkey carts.
One wheelbarrow has a volume of 0.11 m3 so the population served by a wheelbarrow is:
inh
0.11m3
Inh _ WB =
= 114
m3
load _ WB
0.00096
inh d
That means 23 households each load (each household has 5 inhabitants).
It has to be considered also the number of inhabitants per km of street, to estimate the distance that
a wheelbarrow or a donkey cart has to do to cover.
Looking at the map of Gabiley, there are 83 households each km of street.
So the distance that the worker has to cover for 23 households is:
III-17
hh
wb = 0.277 km
D _ wb =
hh
wb
83
km
The velocity of a worker with wheelbarrow is supposed to be 2 km/h.
km
0.277
load = 0.14 h
km
load
2
h
min
hh
h
23
= 69 min = 1.15
hh
load
load
23
So time for one load is 1.15 + 0.14= 1.29 h/load

The work shift of a wheelbarrow is 8h/d, and each wheelbarrow can carry 6 loads per day.
hh
wb
6
wb
d
hh
inh
).
( = 138 5
d
hh
Each worker with wheelbarrow can collect in one day the garbage produced by 690 inhabitants.
Each transfer area serves 4167 inhabitants, 6 workers are necessary to carry the waste from the
households to the SWTS; in fact:
inh
4167
SWTS = 6 wor ker
N wor ker s =
inh
SWTS
690
wor ker
A donkey cart has a volume of 0.55 m3 so it can serve a population of:
Inh _ DC =
0.55m3
inh
= 573
m3
load _ DC
0.00096
inh d
It means 114 households per load.

Then, considering the number of households that it serves:
hh
dc = 1.37 km
D _ dc =
hh
dc
83
km
The velocity of a donkey is supposed to be 3.5 km/h.
km
1.37
load = 0.4 h
km
load
3 .5
h
114
III-18
min
hh
h
114
= 342 min = 5.7
hh
load
load
So time for one load is 0.4 + 5.7= 6.1 h/load
The work shift of a donkey cart is 12 h/d, so each donkey cart can do about 2 loads per day.
hh
dc
It means that the worker with donkey cart serves 228 households per day ( = 114 2 ), 1140
dc
d
hh
inh
).
inhabitants ( = 228 5
d
hh
Each worker with donkey cart can collect in one day the garbage produced by 1140 inhabitants.
Each transfer area serves 4167 inhabitants, then for each SWTS, 4 workers are necessary to carry
the waste from the households to the SWTS; in fact:
inh
4167
area = 4 wor ker
N wor ker s =
inh
area
1140
wor ker
One truck serves three SWTS and 4 workers serve each SWTS, then 12 workers with donkey carts
are necessary for one truck.
Finally, in this case, the equipments and the workers necessary to serve a population of 55000
inhabitants are:
m3
53
d
= 5trucks
m3
12
truck d
Number _ of _ SWTS = 5trucks 3
SWTS
= 15SWTS
day truck
Imposing that wheelbarrows serve 10 SWTS and the donkey carts serve the remaining 5 SWTS, it
follows that:
wb
Number _ of _ wb = 10 SWTS 6
= 60wb
SWTS
Number _ of _ donkey _ carts = 5SWTS 4
dc
= 20donkeycarts
SWTS
Gabiley needs:
- 5 tipper trucks (4 m3),
- 1 driver + 6 helpers each truck
- 60 collectors with wheelbarrows working 8h/d
- 40 collectors with 20 donkey carts working 12h/d
- 15 SWTS of 3.5m3
In order to quantify the capital and management costs for the proposed alternative for Gabilay, it
- Cost of the tipper truck (4 m3) = 7500 USD
- Cost of SWTS = 1500 USD
- Cost of wheelbarrow = 30 USD
III-19
Cost of donkey + cart= 250 USD

Annual drivers wage = 1440 USD/y
Annual helpers wage (for the trucks) = 960 USD/y
Annual collectors wage with wheelbarrows = 660 USD/y
Annual collectors wage with donkey carts = 660 USD/y
Cost of fuel = 0.70 USD/litre
Cost of feeding for the donkeys=15 USD/month/donkey
Number of km covered by the truck with one litre of fuel = 5 km/l

USD
0.70
L = 0.14 USD
Cost km =
km
km
5
L
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Tipper truck
Transfer areas
Wheelbarrows
Donkey carts
Total
Existing
equipment
2
0
15
6
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers for truck
Workers with wheelbarrows
Workers with donkey carts
Feeding for donkeys
Fuel
Subtotal
Accidents + Clothes + etc.
Total
Unit to be purchased
3
15
45
14
Cost per unit
7500 USD
1500 USD
30 USD
250 USD
Number
5
30
60
40
20
14235 km/y /truck
Cost per unit

1440 USD/y
960 USD/y
660 USD/y
660 USD/y
180 USD/y
0.14 USD/km
20% of Subtotal
Total
22500 USD
22500 USD
1350 USD
3500 USD
49850 USD
Total
7200 USD/y
28800 USD/y
39600 USD/y
26400 USD/y
3600 USD/y
9965 USD/y
115565 USD/y
23113 USD/y
138678 USD/y

Capital cost = 49850 / 55000 = 0.9 USD/inh
Operation cost = 138678 / 55000 = 2.5 USD/inh/y
Each household, according to this proposal should pay 4.5 USD for the purchase of the equipments,
and 12.5 for the operation costs every year.
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
III-20

Voices of cost
Capital
cost
Tipper truck
22500USD
Transfer areas
22500 USD
Wheelbarrows
1350 USD
Donkey carts
3500 USD
Total
6y
10 y
0.5 y
3y
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.19
0.18
2
0.37
Depreciation
cost
4275 USD/y
2925USD/y
2700 USD/y
1295 USD/y
11195 USD/y
money for the purchase of new equipments when they are necessary.
- 1 more SWTS every 7 SWTS in order to have a bit more reserve volume for the collection
of waste.
3.1.5 Hargeisa
Hargeisa is the capital of Somaliland and its population is about 500000 inhabitants.
The town is divided into five districts: Kood-Buur, 26 June, Gaan Libaah, Ahmed Dhegeh, and
Mohamoud Haybe, and each district has its own way of garbage collection.
The Municipality owns 7 tipper trucks, 3 second-hand compactors trucks bought in Dubai (cost =
15000 US$ each) and one truck which can transport skips.
Furthermore, the Municipality hires for the secondary collection 6 more trucks at the cost of 500
US$/month.
There are 26 collection points in the city, mainly open spaces; there are also twenty 3 m3-skips
provided by the Woman Umbrella Organization for a cost of 270 US$ each and seventy street
containers.
In the district of Gaan Libaah, where internal streets are too narrow for trucks, workers with
wheelbarrows conduct door-to-door collection.
In the district 26 June, there are one 4 m3 compactor truck and two tipper trucks, that collect
garbage either door-to-door or in collection points with about twentyfive Municipalitys employees.
In the district Ahmed Dhegeh solid waste is collected door to door by two tipper trucks passing
along the roads and horning at their passage to receive the garbage from households.
In the remaining parts of the city, poor people such as IDPs and refugees to earn some money
usually carry out primary collection of solid waste. They carry waste from households to collection
points or wherever (in drainage channel, etc.) by using wheelbarrows or sometimes using naked
hands.
There are two working landfills open-air (not visited), one in the north and one in the south, that are
10 km and 7 km far from the town, respectively.
III-21
Main remarks:
- At the moment the inhabitants served in Hargeisa are 50 % of the total population.
- The existing equipments are not sufficient for the whole collection.
- IDPs and refugees carry out informal collection of garbage and they do not dispose it
properly.
- Garbage is often abandoned in open spaces, draining channels and in the bed of rivers.
- Wastes are often burnt inside the collection points.
- Plastic bags are everywhere, due to the wind action.
- Skips are too high (about 1.5 m) for children, who are often in charge of carrying wastes from
households, so they deposit the waste on the ground around the skips.
- Employers involved in solid waste collection do not wear proper protective cloths.
- The old landfill needs to be reclaimed.
- Each district needs one landfill.
- The separation and recovery of metals is partially carried out by Municipality (in the district
26 June) during the waste collection phase.
Due to the complex situation, the following exercise regards only the waste collection sizing of the
central district 26 June, that is the most productive district and needs an improvement in waste
collection.
Municipality of Hargeisa ( 26 JUNE district)

Waste
Waste Density
Waste Daily Production of the 26June
Inhabitants
Area of the district
Population of the district 26 June
Unit
Value
kg/ m3
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
300
0.001
65
ha
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
hh/km
3.47
65000
187
8
75
These data are a rough estimation according to the information provided during the meeting with
the Municipality and using the map provided by UN-Habitat.
In the current situation the garbage collection is carried out by tipper and compactor trucks that pass
along the streets and collect sacks of garbage from households and also from the 15 collection
points of the district.
Existing equipments Unit
Tipper Trucks
m3
Compactor Truck m3
Value
4
4
Number / Type
2 tipper trucks
1 compactor
The volume of the compactor truck is 4 m3.

III-22
To quantify how many loads the truck can carry to the landfill in one day, its necessary to know:
- Time to load the solid waste from the district into the truck = 60 min
As a whole, the time necessary for the truck to be loaded with garbage, go to the landfill, discharge
the waste and come back to the town is:
The truck works 8 h/d, so it can transport about 4 loads per day to the landfill and dispose 16 m3/d.
The number of inhabitants served by the compactor truck is:
m3
16
d
P=
= 16000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
The volume of each tipper truck is 4 m3.
- Time to load the solid waste into the truck = 75 min
- Time to discharge the garbage in the landfill = 10 min
Time for 1 load = 36 + 75 + 10 = 121 min = 2 h
Each truck works 8 h/d, so it can transport 4 loads per day to the landfill and dispose 16 m3/d.
But we have 2 tipper trucks, so they can dispose 32 m3 per day.
The number of inhabitants served by the two available tipper trucks is:
m3
d
P=
= 32000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
32
The inhabitants served by the existing equipments are about 74% of the total population of the
district.
Finally in this case, the equipment and the workers necessary to serve a population of 65000
inhabitants are:
- 3 tipper trucks whose volume is 4 m3 , working 8 h/d
- 2 compactor trucks
- 1 driver each truck
- 25 collectors filling the trucks working 8 h/d
In order to quantify the capital and management costs for the proposed alternative, the charges are:
- Cost of the tipper truck (4 m3) = 10000 USD
- Cost of compactor truck (4 m3) = 24000 USD
III-23
Annual drivers wage = 1200 USD/y

Annual collectors wage to load the trucks = 600 USD/y
Cost of fuel = 0.57 USD/litre
Number of km covered by the truck with one litre of fuel = 3 km/l

USD
0.57
L = 0.19 USD
Cost km =
km
km
3
L
The truck goes to the landfill and comes back 4 times per day, and it goes around the district for 7
km/d then in one year it covers the following distance:
km
km
d
km
365 = 9855
+7
Dis tan ce = 20
d
y
y
trip
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Tipper truck
Compactor truck
Total
Existing
equipment
2
1
Unit to be purchased
Cost per unit
1
1
10000 USD
24000 USD
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Number
Drivers
5
Helpers for truck
25
Fuel
9855 km/y /truck
Subtotal
Accidents + Protective Clothes +
etc.
Total
Cost per unit

1200 USD/y
600 USD/y
0.19USD/km
25% of Subtotal
Total
10000 USD
24000 USD
34000 USD
Total
6000 USD/y
15000 USD/y
9363 USD/y
30363 USD/y
7590 USD/y
37953 USD/y

Capital cost = 34000 / 65000 = 0.52 USD/inh
Operation cost = 37953 / 65000 = 0.58 USD/inh/y
In the district of 26 June there are about 8 inh/household, then according to this proposal each
household have to pay 4.16 USD for the purchase of the equipments, and 4.64 USD for the
operation costs every year.
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
III-24
where:
Voices of cost
Capital Cost
Tipper truck
10000 USD
Compactor truck 24000 USD
Total
n (years)
10 y
8y
0.05
0.05
0.13
0.15
Depreciation
cost
1300 USD/y
3600 USD/y
4900 USD/y
Paying 0.07 USD/inh/y more, that is 0.65 USD/inh/y, its possible to accumulate money for the
purchase of new equipments when they are necessary.
Needed equipments Unit
Compactor truck
m3
Tipper truck
m3
Value
4
4
Number / Type
2 compactor trucks
2 tipper trucks
the town, that means an increase of waste to be disposed; for example 1 more truck every 4 trucks
in order to allow the programmed maintenance of each truck and avoid that the collection system
collapses if a truck breaks down.
3.1.6 Sheik
Sheik is a rural town with about 6000 inhabitants.

Wastes are collected and disposed by volunteers, and sometimes by LNGO.
There are not industries in the town. There is an hospital built by Russian Government but it is
abandoned.
Just outside of the city there is a Secondary school, built in the 60 by Enghlish Government, and
rehabilitated in the 2003 by SOS German NGO.
Main remarks:
- There is not an organized waste collection and disposal
- Wastes are abandoned along the draining channels and near the slaughter house
- There arent any landfills
- Financial aids are necessary
- Waste contains a high percentage of organic matter and manure
This is a very small city, so a small number of skips is sufficient to organize a proper collection
system.
III-25
Municipality of Sheik
Waste
Waste Density
Inhabitants
Unit
Value
kg/ m3
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
300
0.0013
8
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
hh/km
6000
40
5
50
The total production of waste that has to be disposed in one day is 8m3, and the volume of each skip
is 2 m3.
One truck with crane can transport two skips per load to the landfill.
Sheik doesnt have a landfill but the Municipality has identified a possible site, about 10 km far
away from town, so:
dis tan ce
10km
=
= 1h = 60 min
velocity 10km / h
- Time to load two full skips on the truck = 15 min
- Time to discharge the skips in the landfill = 15 min
T=
Then time necessary for the truck to place an empty skip, to load two full skips, go to the landfill,
discharge the skips and come back at the town is:
Time for one skip = 120 + 15 + 15 = 150 min = 2.5 hours
The work-shift of the truck is equal to 8 hours per day, so it can transport about 3 load/d, that is
more than the effective production by households.
It sufficient that the truck goes to the landfill and comes back 2 times per day, in fact the volume of
each skip is 2 m3, consequently the volume of garbage that one truck can transport to the landfill is:
skip 2m 3
m3
=8
Volume day = 4
d
skip
d
One truck can serve all the population of Sheik.
In one year the truck covers the following distance:
skips
km
d
km
Dis tan ce = 10
4
365 = 14600
trip
d
y
y
It has to be quantified the number of workers provided with wheelbarrows necessary to collect
III-26
The area of the town is 1.5 km2 = 150 ha, so the number of inhabitants per hectare is:
inh
6000inh
d pop =
= 40
ha
150ha
inh
1500
skip
ha
= 37.5
Area skip =
inh
skip
40
ha
Workers with wheelbarrows can carry out primary collection. One wheelbarrow can receive the
waste produced by 19 household; in fact:
m3
0.15
inh
hh
wb = 115
Inh _ WB =
19
=
load _ wb
load _ wb
m3
0.001
inh d
How many hours the workers need to collect the garbage and fill one wheelbarrow?
The number of household per km is about 50 (it means 300 inhabitants per km of street). The
hh
19
km
D _ wb = wb = 0.23
hh
wb
50
km
The velocity of the worker with wheelbarrow is assumed to be 2 km/h and he stops 3 minutes in
each household.
min
hh
min
19
= 57
hh
load _ wb
load _ wb
km
0.23
h
min
load _ wb
= 0.115
=7
km
load _ wb
load _ wb
2
h
It means that, as a whole, the worker needs 7 + 57 = 64 minutes = 1.06 hours to discharge one
hh
wb
7
It results that each worker serves 133 households per day ( = 19
wb
d
hh
inh
).
per day ( = 133 6
d
hh
Each skip serves 1500 inhabitants, then each skip needs 2 collectors with wheelbarrows.
III-27
In fact:
inh
skip
wor ker
=2
N wor ker s =
inh
skip
798
wor ker
One truck serves four skips and two workers serve each skip, then eight workers with wheelbarrows
1500
Finally considering this alternative of collection, the equipment and the workers necessary to serve
Sheick are:
- one driver + 2 helpers working 5 h/d
- 5 skips (volume = 3 m3)
- 10 workers with wheelbarrows working 8 h/d
In order to quantify the capital and operation costs for the proposed alternative, the charges are:
USD
0 .8
L = 0.2 USD
Cost km =
km
km
4
L
Now its possible to quantify the costs.
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Trucks with crane
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Existing
equipments
0
0
0
Total
Unit to be
purchased
1
5
10
III-28
Cost per unit
15000 USD
500 USD
30 USD
Total
15000USD
2500 USD
300 USD
17800 USD
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers
Subtotal
Accidents + Protective Clothes+ etc
Total
Unit
1
2
10
14600 km/truck/ y
Cost per unit

1800USD/y
1200 USD/y
1200 USD/y
0.2 USD/ km
25 % of Subtotal
Total
1800 USD/y
2400 USD/y
12000 USD/y
2920 USD/y
19120 USD/y
4780 USD/y
23900 USD/y

Capital cost =17800 USD/ 6000 inh = 2.96 USD/inh
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
Voices of cost
Capital Cost
n (years)
Trucks with crane

Skips
Wheelbarrows
Total
15000 USD
2500 USD
300 USD
10y
10y
0.5 y
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.13
0.13
2
Cost
per
year
1950 USD/y
325 USD/y
600 USD/y
2875 USD/y
Paying 0.42 USD/inh/y more, that is 4.40 USD/inh/y (26.40 USD/hh/y), it is possible to accumulate
money for the purchase of new equipments when necessary.
An alternative is to hire a private truck. In this case the costs are the following.
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Existing
equipments
0
0
Total
Unit to be
purchased
5
10
III-29
Cost per unit
500 USD
30 USD
Total
2500 USD
300 USD
2800 USD
Operation cost:
Voices of cost
Truck with crane and driver
Helpers
Subtotal
+ Accidents + Clothes, etc.
Total
Depreciation cost:
Voices of cost
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Unit
1
2
10
14600 km/truck/ y
Cost per unit

9390 USD/y
1200 USD/y
1200 USD/y
0.2 USD/ km
Total
9390 USD/y
2400 USD/y
12000 USD/y
2920 USD/y
26710 USD/y
5342 USD/y
25 % of Subtotal
32052 USD/y
Existing
equipments
0
0
Total
Unit
Total cost
5
10
2500 USD
300 USD
13%
2
Depreciation
cost
325 USD/y
600 USD/y
825 USD/y
It means that the costs per each inhabitant served by a rented truck, are:
Capital cost =10225 USD / 6000 inh = 1.7 USD/inh/y
Operation cost = 32052 USD/ 6000 inh = 5.3 USD/inh/y
The operation cost, even not considering the depreciation costs for wheelbarrows and skips, is
higher than the previous alternative.
3.2 Puntland
3.2.1 Bossaso
The population of this town was estimated by the Municipality about 120,000 inhabitants due to the
elevated numbers of IDP living in the suburban areas.
Households solid wastes are collected door to door by IDPs (mainly women) using wheelbarrows.
They are paid directly by inhabitants according to the amount of garbage. The collected wastes are
posed in 5 transfer stations, placed in the city. Four of them are made of skips 16 m3 realised by
using rehabilitated old truck bodies. Waste are then manually loaded into 5 trucks 4m3 each, and
transported to the landfill. The private company Alaa Amin that is paid by the Bossaso Municipality
has been carrying out this activity for 6 years. Altogether, 28 people are currently employed in solid
waste management. The landfill, receiving either liquid or solid waste, is placed 9 km east from the
city, in an area owned by the Municipality.
III-30
Main remarks :
- Solid waste collection does not cover the entire city, therefore there are areas inside
the urban settlements where wastes are abandoned
- IDPs and Alaa Amin employees involved in solid waste collection does not wear
proper protective cloths
- In the landfill wastes are just burnt, and not compacted
- The major fraction in the landfill is tin cans, and metal objects, that are not burnt.
Until a few years ago, those materials were recovered and exported abroad; the
reasons having led to stop this recycling activity are not known
Municipality of Bossaso
Waste
Waste Density
Waste Daily production per person
Waste Daily Production per person (volume)
Inhabitants
Area of the city
Unit
Value
kg/ m3
kg/inh*d
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
400
0.4
0.001
120
ha
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
1400
120000
86
6
It was difficult to estimate the number of inhabitants and the area of the town, due to the rapid
growth of the population. Data from Municipality and a UN-Habitat map have been used.
Considering the data provided, the volume of waste produced by each inhabitant in one day is:
V =
kg
3
inh d = 0.001 m
kg
inh d
400 3
m
0 .4
The total volume produced in the city in one day is:

m3
m3
Volume _ waste = 120000inh 0.001
= 120
inh d
d
The primary collection is currently conducted by IDPs (its one of the few ways for these people to
earn some money). It has been decided not to change this type of primary collection. The
Municipality is just in charge of the secondary collection.
III-31
Existing equipments
Trucks
Served Collection points
SWTS
Unit
m3
m3
m3
Value
4
16
16
Number / Type
5 tipper trucks
4 rehabilitated body trucks
1 built with concrete
The suggested alternative is the one that uses skips and trucks with crane.
First of all, the existing equipments have to be considered.
The volume of one tipper truck is 4 m3.
How many loads the truck can carry to the landfill in one day?:
Time for 1 load =90 + 60 + 10 = 160 min = 2.6 h
The truck works 12 h/d, so it can transport approximately 4 loads per day and dispose 16 m3/d.
m3
16
d
P=
= 16000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
The Municipality have five tipper trucks, that can serve 80000 inhabitants per day and dispose 80
m3/d.
Each tipper truck goes to the landfill and comes back four times per day, then in one year it covers
the following distance:
Dis tan ce = 18
km
load
d
km
4
365 = 26280
load
d
y
y
Each SWTS has a volume of 16 m3, so the number of SWTS served by one truck is:
m3
SWTS
truck day
=1
3
m
truck
16
SWTS
16
N SWTS =
And the population served by one SWTS is:

inh
16000
truck = 16000 inh
PopulationSWTS =
SWTS
SWTS
1
truck
The area served by one SWTS is:
III-32
Areaskip =
inh
SWTS = 186 ha
inh
SWTS
86
ha
16000
It means that the area served is a square with a side of 1.3 kilometres.
The available trucks serve the existing SWTS.
The remaining garbage has to be disposed using skips and trucks with crane.
A truck with crane passes and loads the skip full of garbage and transports it to the disposal site.
The truck can carry 3 skips per load.
How many skips one truck can transport to the landfill in one day?
The distance to the landfill from the centre of the city is 9 km and the velocity of the truck is
supposed 12 km/h:
time _ to _ go _ to _ the _ landfill =
9km
= 0.75h = 45 min .
km
12
h
Time to go to the landfill and to come back = 90 min

Time to place an empty skip and to load the full skip on the truck = 15 min
Time to discharge the skips in the landfill = 15 min
Therefore time necessary for the truck to place the empty skips, to load the full skips, go to the
landfill, discharge the skip and come back at the town is:
Time for one load = 90 + 15 + 15 = 120 min = 2 hours
The workshift of the truck is equal to 12 hours per day.
h
d = 6 load
Load _ per _ day =
h
d
2
load
Moreover, two teams of employees work for the truck 6 hour a day. One driver and one helper
compose each team of workers.
Now it is possible to quantify how many skips one truck can transport and discharge into the
landfill in one day:
skips
load
skip
6
= 18
load
d
d
12
following distance:
km
load
d
km
Dis tan ce = (18 + 5)
6
365 = 50370
load
d
y
y
3
The volume of one skip is 2 m . Consequently the volume of garbage that one truck can transport to
the landfill is:
III-33
skip
m3
m3
2
= 36
d
skip
d
The number of inhabitants served by one truck is:
Volumeday = 18
m3
d
P=
= 36000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
inh
36000inh
Pskip =
= 2000
skip
18skip
36
The area served by one skip, depends on the density of inhabitants.

Density _ of _ inhabi tan ts =
120000inh
inh
= 86
1400ha
ha

inh
2000
ha
skip
Area skip =
= 23.2
inh
skip
86
ha
m3
40
d
= 1.1trucks 2trucks
m3
36
truck d
skips
= 36skips 40skips
day truck
inhabitants are:
- 40 skips (volume = 2 m3 )
- 5 tipper trucks (4m3) working 12 h/d
- 5 SWTS (considering the existing ones) 16m3
In order to quantify the capital and management costs for the proposed alternative, it has to be
considered the following costs for the equipments and the wedge for the collectors:
- cost of one skip (volume = 2 m3) = 500 USD
- annual wage of helpers (for the trucks)= 1080 USD/y
III-34
- number of km covered by the truck with one litre of fuel = 3.5 km/litre
USD
0.7
L = 0.2 USD
Cost km =
km
km
3.5
L
Now its possible to quantify the costs.
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Trucks with crane
Skips
Total
Existing
equipment
---
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers
Fuel
Unit to be Cost per unit

purchased
2
15000 USD
40
500 USD
Unit
14
14
50370km/y/truck
with
crane
26280km/y/tipper trucks
Cost per unit

2520USD/y
1080 USD/y
0.2USD/km
Subtotal
Maintenance+ Administration +
Accidents + Protective Clothes
+ etc.
Total
20% of
Subtotal
Total
30000 USD
20000 USD
50000 USD
Total
35280 USD/y
15120 USD/y
20148 USD/y
26280 USD/y
96828 USD/y
19366 USD/y
116194 USD/y
The capital cost per each served inhabitant is:

The operation cost per each served inhabitant is:
Operation cost = 116194 USD/120000 inh = 0.96 USD/inh/y
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
Voices of cost
Capital
n
cost
Truck with crane
30000 USD 8 y
Skips
20000 USD 4 y
Total
III-35
0.05
0.05
0.15
0.28
Depreciation
cost
4500 USD/y
5600 USD/y
10100 USD/y
Paying 0.50 USD/hh/y more, its possible to accumulate money for the purchase of new
equipments, when they are necessary.
- 1 more SWTS every 7 SWTS in order to have a bit more reserve volume for the collection
of waste
3.2.2 Galkayo
Current collection system of municipal solid wastes does not cover the whole town. The garbage,
collected with carts and wheelbarrows is discharged into an area, surrounded by walls, situated in
the nearby of a school. The door to door waste collection is implemented also by some IDPs
collecting garbage with bags. Collected waste is transported to the Galkayo landfill realised by the
municipality with the help of UNICEF, which is located in the northern part of the town.
Sometimes the municipality hires a bulldozer to reduce the volume occupied by the disposed
wastes. There is a taxation system regarding the market area.
Miain remarks:
- The Municipality manages only the northern part of the city that is divided by a green line.
- There are lots of illegal dumpsites all around the town.
- The central collection area is very strict to houses and to a school and presents problems relating
to health of people living, studying and working there.
- The hygienic conditions of the IDPs settlements placed in the south of the town are very
precarious; furthermore, several settlements are very strict to an uncontrolled dumpsite.
Municipality of Galkayo
Waste
Waste Density
Inhabitants
Unit
kg/ m3
kg/inh*d
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
Value
500
0.5
0.001
200
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
200000
120
6
kg
3
inh d = 0.001 m
V=
kg
inh d
500 3
m
0.5
III-36
So the total volume that the city has to dispose in one day is:
m3
m3
= 200
inh d
d
Existing equipments
Trucks
Unit
m3
Value
4
Number / Type
1 tipper truck
The alternative with skips is the more suitable because of the large area of the city.
The volume of the existing tipper truck is 4 m3.
Time for 1 load =60 + 60 + 10 = 130 min = 2.16 h
The truck works 8 h/d, so it can transport approximately 3 loads per day and dispose 12 m3/d.
m3
12
d
P=
= 12000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
km
load
d
km
3
365 = 32850
trip
d
y
y
The remaining amount of garbage has to be disposed using skips and trucks with crane.
- Time to place an empty skip and to load the full skip on the truck = 10 min
- Time to discharge the skip in the landfill = 10 min
Dis tan ce = (15 + 15)
Therefore time necessary for the truck to place an empty skip, to load one full skip, go to the
landfill, discharge the skip and come back at the town is:
8
Load _ per _ day =
1.33
h
d
h
load
=6
load
d
One truck can transport and discharge into the landfill in one day six skips. The volume of one skip
is 3 m3. Consequently the volume of garbage that one truck can transport to the landfill is:
III-37
Volume day = 6
skip
m3
m3
3
= 18
d
skip
d
following distance:
km
load
d
km
Dis tan ce = (15 + 15)
6
365 = 65700
trip
d
y
y
The number of inhabitants served by one truck is:
m3
18
d
P=
= 18000inh
m3
0.001
inh d
Each truck serves 18000 inhabitants and discharges 6 skips a day in the landfill, so the number of
inh
18000inh
Pskip =
= 3000
skip
6skip
The area served by one skip depends on the density of inhabitants; in this case:
inh
3000
skip
ha
= 25
Area skip =
inh
skip
120
ha
It has to be evaluated the number of workers provided with wheel-barrows necessary to collect
The volume of one wheelbarrow is 0.15 m3 and one household is composed by 6 inhabitants.
inh
m3
m3
V =6
0.001
= 0.006
hh
inh
hh
m3
0.15
wb = 25 hh
N hh =
wb
m3
0.006
hh
The number of household per km is 47 hh/km (it means 282 inhabitants per km of street). The
hh
25
wb = 0.53 km
D=
hh
wb
47
km
III-38
The velocity of the worker with wheelbarrow is assumed to be 2 km/h and it stops 3 minutes in
each household.
min
hh
min
t =3
25
= 75
hh
wb
wb
km
0.53
wb = 0.26 h = 16 min
t=
km
wb
wb
2
h
It means that, as a whole, the worker needs 16 + 75 = 91 minutes = 1.5 hours to discharge one
The workshift for the collector with wheelbarrow is 6 h/d.
Consequently, in one day he can discharge 4 wheelbarrows into the skip (= 6 h / 1.5 h/load).
hh
wb
), and 600 inhabitants
4
wb
d
hh
inh
( = 100 6
).
d
hh
inh
3000
skip
wb
=5
N wor ker s =
inh
skip
600
wb
One truck serves six skips and five workers serve each skip, then 30 collectors with wheelbarrows
m3
d
= 10.4trucks 11trucks
m3
18
truck d
skips
= 66 skips 70skips
day truck
188
wb
= 350wb
skip
Finally, in this case, the equipment and the workers necessary to serve a population of 200000
inhabitants are:
- 1 tipper truck working 8 h/d
- 70 skips (volume = 3 m3)
III-39
350 workers with wheelbarrow working 6 h/d
The following costs have to be considered:

USD
0.8
L = 0.2 USD
Cost km =
km
km
4
L
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Truck with crane
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Total
Existing equipment
0
0
0
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers
Workers
Fuel
Unit
11
70
350
Cost per unit

15000 USD
500 USD
22 USD
Unit
12
24
350
32850 km/tipper truck/y
65700 km/truck with crane/y
Subtotal
Accidents + Protective Clothes +
etc.
Total
Total
165000 USD
35000 USD
7700 USD
207700 USD
Cost per unit

1440 USD/y
960 USD/y
720 USD/y
0.2 USD/km
Total
17280USD/y
23040 USD/y
252000 USD/y
151100 USD/y
20% of Subtotal
443430 USD/y
88686 USD/y
532116 USD/y

Capital cost = 207700 USD/ 200000 inh = 1.03 USD/inh
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
III-40
Voices of cost
Capital cost
Truck with crane
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Total
165000 USD
35000 USD
7700 USD
10 y
5y
0.5 y
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.13
0.23
2
Depreciation
cost
21450 USD/y
8050 USD/y
15400 USD/y
44900 USD/y
Paying 0.22 USD/hh/y (44900 USD/y : 200000inh) more, that means a cost per year of
3.26USD/inh/y, it possible to accumulate the money for the purchasing of new equipments when
they are necessary.
3.2.3 Gardo
Gardo is a small town in Puntland; its population is about 30000 inhabitants.

Households solid wastes are collected door to door by IDPs, who discharge them in open areas
placed inside the town.
A local NGO (GSIO-Gardo Sanitation Improvement Organisation), which works on voluntary
basis, transports the waste form the open areas to the dumpsite (3 km South-East) three days a
week. GSIO uses 6 t tipper trucks appositely rented; the Municipality just pays for the fuel.
Waste disposed into the dumpsite is usually burnt.
There is a milk industry (not visited) nearby the town. It looks after its own solid (and presumably
not hazardous) wastes autonomously.
Main remarks:
- There is not an organized collection of waste.
- There are not proper disposal areas, only dumpsites
- Open areas where wastes are abandoned are very close to households.
- There are no equipments for the transport of waste owned by the Municipality.
- The waste produced by hospital (not visited) is burnt inside its premises and ashes are
dispersed in open areas outside the town.
III-41
Municipality of Gardo
Waste
Waste Density
Inhabitants
Unit
kg/ m3
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
Value
300
0.0013
39
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
hh/km
30000
120
5
90
The proposed option is the following: workers provided with wheelbarrows carry out primary
collection of waste in households. The collected waste is then carried to skips placed inside the
town. A truck with crane passes and loads the skip full of garbage and transports it to the disposal
site.
kg
m3
inh
d
V =
= 0.0013
kg
inh d
300 3
m
0 .4
The total volume produced in the city in one day is:

m3
m3
= 39
inh d
d
-

Time to load three skip on the truck = 10 min
Time to discharge the skip in the landfill = 10 min
The work shift of the truck is equal to 6 hours per day.It is possible to quantify how many skips one
truck can transport and discharge into the landfill in one day:
h
6
skip
skip
d
Number _ of _ skips =
= 5.1
5
h
d
d
1.16
skip
The truck goes to the landfill and comes back five times per day, then in one year it covers the
following distance:
III-42
km
skips
d
km
5
365 = 25550
trip
d
y
y
3
The volume of one skip is 3 m , consequently the volume of garbage that one truck can transport to
the landfill is:
skip 3m 3
m3
= 15
Volumeday = 5
d
skip
d
Dis tan ce = 14
m3
d
= 11539inh
The number of inhabitants served by the truck is P =
m3
0.0013
inh d
inh
11539inh
Pskip =
= 2308
skip
5skip
15
It has to be quantified the number of workers provided with wheelbarrows necessary to collect
The density of inhabitants in Gardo is 120 inh/ha, so:
inh
2308
ha
skip
Area skip =
= 19.3
inh
skip
120
ha
It means that the area served by one skip is a square with a side of 438 meters.
The volume of one wheelbarrow is about 0.15 m3 and one household is composed by 6 inhabitants.
inh
m3
m3
V =6
0.0013
= 0.0078
hh
inh
hh
m3
0.15
wb = 19 hh
N hh =
wb
m3
0.0078
hh
The number of households per km of street is 90 hh/km (it means 540 inhabitants per km of street).
The distance that the worker has to cover for 19 households is:
hh
19
wb = 0.21 km
D=
hh
wb
90
km
The velocity of the worker with wheelbarrow is assumed 2 km/h and he stops 3 minutes in each
household.
III-43
min
hh
min
t =3
19
= 57
hh
wb
wb
km
0.21
wb = 0.105 h = 6 min
t=
km
wb
wb
2
h
It means that, as a whole, the worker needs 6 + 6 + 57 = 69 minutes = 1.16 hours to discharge one
The workshift for the collector with wheelbarrow is 6 h/d, consequently in one day he can discharge
5 wheelbarrows into the skip (= 6 h / 1.16 h/load).
hh
wb
), and 570 inhabitants
5
wb
d
hh
inh
( = 95 6
).
d
hh
Each skip serves 2308 inhabitants, then 4 workers are necessary to carry the waste from the
households to the skip. In fact:
inh
2308
wor ker
skip
=4
N wor ker s =
inh
skip
570
wor ker
One truck serves five skips and four workers serve each skip, then 20 collectors with wheelbarrows
Finally, in this case, the equipment and the workers necessary to serve a population of 30000
inhabitants are:
- One driver + 1 helper working 6 h/d per truck
- 18 skips (volume = 3 m3) (15 served by the trucks+ 3 to place empty skip)
- 60 workers with wheelbarrows working 6 h/d
The costs for workers and equipment are the following:
- cost of the truck with crane = 9000 USD (a second hand truck)
USD
0.8
L = 0.2 USD
Cost km =
km
km
4
L
III-44
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Truck with crane
Skips
Wheelbarrows
Total
Existing equipment
Unit to be
purchased
3
18
60
0
0
0
Cost per unit
Total
9000 USD
500 USD
25 USD
27000 USD
9000 USD
1500 USD
37500 USD
Capital cost = 37500 USD/ 30000 inh = 1.25 USD/inh
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers
Workers
Fuel
Subtotal
Total
Unit
3
3
60
km
Cost per unit

1440 USD/y
960 USD/y
840 USD/y
0.2 USD/km
20% of Subtotal
Total
4320 USD/y
2880 USD/y
50400 USD/y
15330 USD/y
72930 USD/y
14586 USD/y
87561 USD/y
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
Voices of cost
Capital
cost
Truck with crane
27000 USD
Skips
9000 USD
Wheelbarrows
1500 USD
Total
6y
4y
0.5 y
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.19
0.28
2
Depreciation
cost
5130 USD/y
2520 USD/y
3000 USD/y
10650 USD/y
Paying 0.35 USD/hh/y (10650USD/y : 30000inh) more, that means 3.26USD/inh/y, its possible to
accumulate money for the purchasing of new equipments when they are necessary.
III-45
1 more truck every 4 trucks in order to allow the programmed maintenance of each truck
1 more skip every 5 skips in order to have a bit more reserve volume for the collection of
waste
3.2.4 Garowe
In Garowe wastes are collected and disposed by a committee named Waste Collection Management
(WCM), which is composed by PUPA (a local NGO), the Garowe Municipality and some privates.
Garowe is divided in 6 different zones, but the waste collection service does not cover all of them.
The WCM owns 1 truck equipped with a crane and 7 skips (each of them with a volume of about 3
m3) displaced in strategic areas of the town and 54 employees. Every day, the truck is able to carry
from 5 to 12 loads to the dumpsite area.
There are even IDPs women involved in the garbage collection: they are paid directly by the
households and commercial activities owners.
There is a taxation system in town: for solid waste collection for business activities, and for liquid
waste. The only truck available collects both solid and liquid wastes.
Wastes from Garowe hospital (not visited) are burnt directly inside the hospital area, without using
an incinerator like in Galkayo.
There is one landfill for solid wastes, 9 kilometres north far from the centre of the town; it is about
100 m wide and 150 m long and it has been working from February 2005
The garbage is normally burnt after unloading, causing serious problems with the pollution of the
air due to gaseous emissions.
Primary collection, is carried out by selectors with wheelbarrows.
Main remarks:
- Equipments can serve only the 30% of the population
- Skips are too high (about 1.5 m), then children, that are often in charge of carrying wastes from
households, put them just near the skips. Furthermore, skips are rapidly filled up, so people have to
throw garbage on the ground
- Solid wastes are not compacted in the landfill (a caterpillar is sometimes hired to do it)
- Employees involved in solid waste collection do not wear proper protective cloths and masks
Municipality of Garowe
Waste
Waste Density
Inhabitants
Area of the city
III-46
Unit
Value
kg/ m3
kg/inh*d
m3 / inh*d
m3/ d
300
0.4
0.0013
67
ha
inh
inh/ha
inh/hh
hh/km
400
50000
125
5
105
kg
3
inh d = 0.0013 m
V=
kg
inh d
300 3
m
0.4
So the total volume that the city has to dispose in one day is:
m3
m3
= 67
inh d
d
Existing equipments
Trucks
Skips
Wheel-barrows
Unit
m3
m3
m3
Value
4
3
0.15
Number / Type
1 truck with crane
7 skips made in Garowe
20 wheel barrows
The suggested alternative for waste collection is the use of skips.

Therefore a truck with crane passes and loads the skip full of garbage and transports it to the
disposal site. The first step is to quantify how many skips one truck can transport to the landfill in
one day.
The distance to the landfill from the centre of the city is 9 km and the velocity of the truck about 30
km/h:
time _ to _ go _ to _ the _ landfill =
9km
= 0.53h = 16 min .
km
30
h

Time to place an empty skip and to load the full skip on the truck = 15 min
Time to discharge the skips in the landfill = 10 min
Load _ per _ day =
h
d
=7
load
d
h
load
It means that in one day one truck can transport and discharge seven skips into the landfill.
The truck goes to the landfill and comes back seven times per day, then in one year it covers the
following distance:
0.95
III-47
Dis tan ce = 16
km
load
d
km
7
365 = 40880
trip
d
y
y
The volume of one skip is 3 m3. Consequently the volume of garbage that one truck can transport to
the landfill is:
load
m3
m3
Volumeday = 7
3
= 21
d
skip
d
m3
21
d
= 16153inh
The number of inhabitants served by one truck is: P =
m3
0.0013
inh d
inh
16153inh
Pskip =
= 2308
skip
7 skip
The area served by one skip, depends on the density of inhabitants.
Density _ of _ inhabi tan ts =
50000inh
inh
= 125
400ha
ha

inh
2308
ha
skip
Areaskip =
= 18.4
inh
skip
125
ha
m3
d
= 3.1trucks 4trucks
m3
21
truck d
67
skip
= 21skips
truck
For the primary collection it has to be considered the use of wheelbarrows 0.15 m3 each. Moreover
5 inhabitants compose one household.
The volume produced daily by one household is the following :
V =5
inh
m3
m3
0.0013
= 0.0065
hh
inh
hh
III-48
m3
0.15
wb = 23 hh
N hh =
m3
wb
0.0065
hh
The number of households per km is 105 (it means 525 inhabitants per km of street). The distance
that the worker has to cover for 19 households is:
hh
23
wb = 0.21 km
D=
hh
wb
105
km
The velocity of the worker with wheelbarrow is supposed to be 2 km/h and he stops 3 minutes in
each household.
min
hh
min
t =3
23
= 69
hh
wb
wb
km
0.21
wb = 0.105 h = 6.3 min
t=
km
wb
wb
2
h
It means that, as a whole, the worker needs 6 + 6 + 96 = 109 minutes = 1.8 hours to discharge one
The workshift for the worker with wheelbarrow is 6h/d.
Consequently, in one day he can discharge 3 wheelbarrows into the skip (= 6 h / 1.8 h/load).
hh
wb
), 345 inhabitants
3
wb
d
hh
inh
( = 69 5
).
d
hh
inh
2308
wb
skip
N wor ker s =
=7
inh
skip
345
wb
One truck serves seven skips and seven workers serve each skip, then 49 workers with
wheelbarrows are necessary for one truck.
inhabitants are:
- 4 trucks with a crane for the transport of skips working 7 h/d (+1 for maintenance)
- one driver + 1 helpers working 7 h/d per truck
- 28 skips (volume = 2 m3) (+ 2 skips to have some additional volume )
III-49
170 collectors with wheelbarrows working 7h/d
data:
- cost of the truck with crane = 9000 USD (second-hand truck)
- cost of one skip (volume = 3 m3) = 620 USD
- cost of one wheelbarrow (0.15 m3)= 25 USD
- annual wage of helpers (for the trucks)= 1080 USD/ y
- annula wage for the collector with wheelbarrow= 720 USD/y
USD
0.8
L = 0.26 USD
Cost km =
km
km
3
L
Capital costs:
Voices of cost
Trucks with crane
Skips
Wheel-barrows
Total
Existing equipment
1
7
20
Operation costs:
Voices of cost
Drivers
Helpers
Fuel
Subtotal
+ Accidents + Protective
Clothes + etc.
Total
Unit to be
purchased
3
23
150
Unit
4
8
150
40880 km/y truck
Cost per unit
Total
9000 USD
620 USD
22 USD
27000 USD
14260 USD
3300 USD
44560 USD
Cost per unit

1440 USD/y
1080 USD/y
720 USD/y
0.2 USD/km
20% of Subtotal
Total
5760 USD/y
8640 USD/y
108000 USD/y
32704 USD/y
155104USD/y
31021 USD/y
186245 USD/y

Capital cost = 44560 USD/50000inh = 0.89 USD/inh
Operation cost = 186245 USD/50000 inh = 3.72 USD/inh/y
(i + 1) n i
r=
(i + 1) n 1
where:
III-50

Voices of cost
Capital
n
cost
Truck with crane
27000 USD 8 y
Skips
14260 USD
5y
Wheelbarrows
3300 USD
0.5 y
Total
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.15
0.23
2
Depreciation
cost
4050 USD/y
3280 USD/y
6600 USD/y
13930 USD/y
Paying 0.27 USD/hh/y (13930 USD/y : 50000inh = 0.27 USD/inh/y) more , that means a cost per
year of 3.99 USD/inh/y, its possible to accumulate money for the purchase of new equipments
when they are necessary.
waste.
III-51
4. Options for waste recycling

In the waste there are many components that can be reused/recycled directly or after a treatment.
Main recyclable materials present in urban waste are organic matter (which can be used as fertilizer
if composted), plastic and paper.
Recycling is already common at the household (in fact the primary generator usually recycles
materials like glass and plastic bottles and containers for direct reuse) but the waste contains useful
materials that can be separated through:
1. Separate collection of waste flow (separate skip for different fractions of waste)
2. Hand selection (scavenging) from un-separated waste
3. Mechanical selection (recycling plants)
After the separation phase, each material can be opportunely treated to realise a new product. The
following paragraphs illustrate synthetically some options for waste recycling.
4.1 How to recycle organic matter

The organic matter present in the waste can be recycled through the composting process, that is a
biological process consisting in an aerobic degradation of the organic matter. The final product of
the composting process can be used as fertilizer in agriculture.
The following table contains the materials that can or cannot be composted.
Materials that can be composted
Kitchen discard
Residual of vegetables and fruits
Residual of pasta or rise (not too much)
Eggshells
Little bones
Garden discard
Wither flowers
Dry leaves and grass
Branches of trees (grinding before use)
Others biodegradable materials
Cartons (grinding and wetting before use)
Sawdust, wood shavings (without paint)
Materials that cannot be composted

Glass
Textiles
Articles with plastic or metals
Art paper (magazines)
Oils
Medicine
Battery
Paint or chemical products
Composting activity is a good practice because it:

produces a useful product for agriculture
reduces sensitively the quantity of waste to dispose in the landfill (compostable materials can be
up to 80% of the municipal waste stream)
can be started with very little capital and operating costs.
can integrate existing informal sectors involved in the collection, separation and recycling of
wastes.
But there are also a few constraints that have to be considered when making compost:
its possible to not have a market for the final product;
the quality of compost strongly depends on the mix of discards, thus poor feed stock could yield
poor quality finished compost, for example for heavy metal contamination.
The following table shows a procedure to realize a domestic small scale composting plant.
IV-1
How you can do your own composting plant

1.Choosing the right place
Area should have these characteristics:
- being near a source of water (useful to wet materials)
- being in a shadowed place
2. Equal mix of discards
- Making a mix of dry and wet materials
- Chopping up bulky materials
- Realizing a pile by posing wastes in layers
3. Shape and dimension of the pile
A truncated pyramid shape is good but also different kinds of shapes can be utilized.
4. Moisture
Water is an important factor for the life of microorganism. If the material is:
- too much WET, it could present a bad smell .
- too much DRY, the decomposition process is too slow
Good practices in order to maintain good moisture content:
- a good mix of materials (dry and wet)
- suitable shape of pile
- pile covering during raining period and watering in case of dry season.
A simple method for the control of the moisture is the first evidence; squeezing with the
hand a little bit of compost:
- water drops falling down too much moisture
- no water on the hand too much dry
- there are not drops but the hand is wet OK
5. Oxygen
During composting, organic wastes are decomposed by microorganisms that need oxygen
for their life. Therefore air is necessary for compost. It can be supplied through turning
materials (at least 2 times/month). Furthermore bulky materials should be grinded
6. Temperature
The temperature of pile gives indication about the process. During the starting phase
temperature should increase; if this does not happen, the biological process is not running,
probably due to:
Lack of oxygen
Lack of water
7. How to recognise if compost is mature
When compost is mature it has these characteristics:
- Dark colour
- Soft aspect with unrecognizable starting materials
- A lack of worms or flies
IV-2
4.2 How to recycle paper

Paper is a sheet material made from fibres of wood, grass or cotton. It can be used for writing,
printing, and packaging. After use, waste paper can be recovered as a fuel or to produce other paper.
In the following table there are listed the types of waste paper that can be recovered:
- Printing and trimmings
- Writing papers
- Computer punched cards
- Office papers
- School and letter papers
- Paper sacks
- Corrugated cardboard
- Mixed waste paper
- Packing papers
- Newspapers
The following materials have to be kept out of waste paper, to permit its recycling.
plastics of all sorts
paper coated with plastics
sanitary towels and babies nappies
metals
stones, dust, sand
textiles, carpets, sacking
wood, leather, bone, glues
organic materials: food, peelings etc.
book covers containing glue, plastic etc.
The cheapest way for the collection of waste paper is by putting it into a sack, but this does not hold
enough to be profitable. The next step is a hand-cart, small enough for one person, or a bigger one
for a large enterprise. After the collection of paper, its important baling it because it makes
transport and storage cheaper.
Waste paper can also be directly reused for animal bedding, for fruit boxes from old cartons, and
also as a fuel.
The following table contains the procedure for a hand-making paper recycling process.
Hand-making process
Materials
- waste paper, tissue paper, office paper, newspaper etc.
- a bucket where to mix the paper to make a pulp
- something to stir and something to press (e.i. rolling pin)
- a flat surface where to put the pulp in a layer
- a towel
Procedure
- Cut in small size (1-2 cm length) the waste paper you want to reuse
- Place the cut paper in the bucket.
- Add enough warm water to cover the paper.
- Make pulp by beating waste paper with constant stirring. You may have a uniform
pulp. You can use also your hands to break all the fibres. The thicker the pulp, the
thicker your piece of paper will be. If it is too thick, add more water.
- Drain the water away to leave a uniform layer of pulp, and then press it to expel most
of the water.
- When dry, it needs a second pressing (with a rolling pin). Place a towel on top on your
new sheet in order to remove more water when passing the rolling pin.
- Carefully remove the top layer of towel. Now lay your sheet out to dry. Your paper
should be dry and ready to use in a few hours. You may speed up the process by
IV-3
placing the sheet outside in the sun.

Further treatment are:
dipping in a bath of gelatine or starch solution that provides a coated surface;
or interleaving with perfect smooth metals and passing through heavy rollers,
to make the surface smooth.
4.3 How to recycle plastic

Plastic is a man-made material consisting of big organic molecules. Its a versatile material that can
be flexible or rigid, transparent or opaque. The basic raw materials are petroleum or natural gas.
Plastics can be divided into two main types:
Thermoplastics, that are soften on heating and Thermosets, that have a complex molecular
harden on cooling, and that can be recycled.
structure. These materials cannot be recycled
They include:
and include:
PET
Polyethylene
Terephthalate:
All other types of plastics or packaging
Two-litre beverage bottles, mouthwash
made from more than one type of
bottles, boil-in-bag pouches.
plastic.
HDPE High Density Polyethylene:
Electronics and automotive products
Milk jugs, trash bags, detergent bottles.
Phenol
formaldehyde;
Plastic
laminates (Formica; Melamine)
V Vinyl (sometimes seen as PVC, for
polyvinyl
chloride):
Cooking oil bottles, packaging around
meat.
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene:
Grocery bags, produce bags, food wrap,
bread bags.
PP
Polypropylene:
Yogurt containers, shampoo bottles,
straws, margarine tubs, diapers.
PS Polystyrene:
Hot beverage cups, take-home boxes,
egg cartons, meat trays.
The collection of plastics can be carried out in different ways:

- House-to-house combined with other materials (i.e. paper).
- House-to-house collection of plastic, but all types of polymers.
- House-to-house collection of certain objects only (handbags, luggage).
- Collection at a central point.
- Regular collection from shops, factories, hotels, etc.
- Purchase of scavengers on the municipal dumpsite.
How is it possible to recognize different types of plastics? In the following table there are some
simple tests to distinguish the main recyclable polymers.
IV-4
Tests
PET
PVC
Water test
Floats
Sinks
Burning test
Blue flame with yellow tips
Yellow. It doesnt continue to

burn if the flame is removed.
Smell after burning
Like candle wax
Hydrochloric acid
Scratch
Yes
No
Which type of plastic can be recycled?

PET: can be recycled to make fibre for clothing, new packaging;
PVC: can be recycled and used to make drainage pipes, electrical fittings and clothing;
HDPE: can be recycled to make fences, signposts, or in bottles;
Plastic can be recovered in different ways. Its possible to re-use it directly (i.e. plastic bags, plastic
containers or plastic bottles), in a semi-direct way to make handmade articles (i.e. hat, cushions,
women bags etc.) or in industrial processing.
Considering industrial process, plastic can be recycled in a much simpler way if it is free of other
materials or if it is made of the same polymers. Normally its difficult to divide different types of
plastic, so there could be some problems during recycling:
1. Products often contain parts made of more different polymers, sometimes strongly bounded
together, or to metal or textiles. The temperature at which different polymers melt and flow in a
mould is not the same.
2. Coloured plastics can only be recycled into certain other colours.
3. Used plastics can be dirty. Oil affects the chemical behaviour and can block moulding machinery.
4. Physical properties (strength, flexibility, density, etc,) of recycled polymers are different from
those of virgin material. If exposed to ultraviolet light, the recycled plastic can become brittle.
After having collected waste plastic, the recycling process generally consists on the following
treatments:
1. Inspection
Workers inspect the plastic trash to separate different types of plastic and colour (clear , white, red,
brown, blue etc.)
2. Chopping and washing
Plastic is washed and chopped into flakes.
Material delivered to the customer must be free from dirt:
- Washing in cold water , with a brush
- Washing in water with detergent
- Cut off all the impurities that cannot be washed away ( rings of metals, paper labels etc.)
After washing, the materials have to be chopped in a granulator into regular size, and after
crumbing into flakes.
3. Flotation tanks
If mixed plastics are being recycled, they are sorted in a flotation tank: some types of plastic sink
and others float
IV-5
4. Drying
The plastic flakes are dried in a tumble dryer
5. Melting
The dried flakes are fed into an extruder where heat and pressure melt the plastic.
6. Filtering
The plastic are forced through a fine screen to remove any contaminants, and then sort like
spaghetti
7. Pelletizing
The spaghetti are cooled in water, and then chopped into uniform pellets.
Plastic pellets can be used to make new products.
A useful address for the purchase of plastic machinery for small recycling plants:
BRIMCO PLASTIC MACHINERY Prt.Ltd.
55 Gort Industrial Estate
Kandirli ( West)
Mumbai 400 067
India
Other information are available on the following websites:http://www.kolsite.com (Kabra
Extrusionstechnik Ltd, Mumbai)
http://www.pimcomachine.com (PIMCO Machines Private Ltd, Mumbai)
http://www.gloplast.com (Glow Industries, Mumbai)
http://www.indianplasticportal.com/plastic-associations (Association of Indian plastic makers)
IV-6
5. Design and technical management of landfills

What is a landfill? It is not just a place where waste is disposed, but it is a technological plant
designed, realized and managed to obtain a minimization of its impact towards the surrounding
environment.
5.1 Types of landfill

1.HILL SHAPED
The principal constraint of a hill shaped landfill is his visual impact but leachate (see par. 6.3.1) and
storm water flow outside the landfill is facilitated.
2. ON A SLOPE
Also in this case leachate and storm water flow is facilitated, but there could be problems with the
stability of the waste masses.
V-1
3. IN A DEPRESSION SITE
The landfill can be realised taking advantage from an existing depression of the soil. In this case
leachate should be removed by pumping it outside the landfill.
5.2 Location of landfill sites

The right location of a landfill should be chosen taking into consideration the following factors:
Areas absolutely out (negative areas):
- Closer to populated areas
- Drinking water protection areas (wells, superficial basins, rivers)
- Unstable ground
- Areas subjects to overflowing
- Areas with extreme morphology
Preferable site areas (positive areas)
- Soil with low permeability
- Possibility of continuous gravity drainage for leachate
- Presence of access roads
5.3 Landfills emissions

The waste present in a landfill is subjected to several chemical, physical and biological processes
that cause two main types of emissions:
- leachate;
- biogas.
5.3.1 Leachate
Leachate is a liquid generated as a result of percolation of rainwater or other liquid through
landfilled waste, and compression of the waste as the weight of overlying materials increases.
Leachate is considered a contaminated liquid since it contains many dissolved and suspended
materials and it can determine a contamination of surface and groundwater.
The characteristics of leachate depends on:
- Waste composition
- Shape and age of landfill
- Refuse permeability
- Metereological and hydrogeological conditions
V-2
In particular, when the waste is placed inside the landfill, the oxygen present in its pores is rapidly
consumed by the microorganisms, so anaerobic processes (i.e. processes that happens in absence of
oxygen) start and cause the presence of high concentration of reduced pollutants in the leachate.
The main pollutants present in the landfill leachate are organic compounds (for instance COD, that
is an index of the organic contamination of a liquid, can reach values up to several thousands of
milligrams per liter), metals (most of them are toxic and can reach value up to several hundreds of
milligrams per liter) and salts (that are less toxic for human beings); furthermore, other very
hazardous contaminants, such as pesticides or solvents, can be present in the leachate.
The diffusion of leachate in the subsoil should be avoided by posing an impermeable layer (usually
clay and/or synthetic materials) on the bottom and the slopes of the landfill.
The leachate produced by the landfill should be collected and treated properly but engineered
chemical-physical processes are expensive (in terms of either capital and operation costs) and their
management is difficult. An alternative to the chemical-physical processes are ponds, where
contaminants are removed through biological processes and evaporation, but they need large areas
and could cause the proliferation of mosquitoes.
A possible solution could be the exploitation of the self-purifying capacity of subsoil, where
biological and chemical-physical processes reduce sensitively the pollutants concentration. In this
case, the minimum distance from the nearest drinking-well and the landfill has to be more than 3
km.
5.3.2 Gaseous emissions

The production of gaseous emissions (usually called biogas) derives from the biological degradation
of waste. The characteristics of biogas depends on:
- Waste composition
- Age of landfill
- Landfill management
If there are anaerobic conditions, biogas can contain up to 40% of methane that could form an
explosive mixture when mixed with oxygen.
5.4 Semi-aerobic landfills

The semi-aerobic landfill is an alternative to the usual sanitary landfill (where waste are in
anaerobic conditions).
The aerobic degradation of MSW within a landfill can:
1. Significantly increase the rate of waste decomposition and settlement;
2. Decrease the production of methane gas and odours;
3. Reduce the level of toxic organics in the leachate (see the following figure)
V-3
How does a semi-aerobic landfill works?

In presence of proper quantities of air and moisture, respiring bacteria convert the biodegradable
mass of waste and other organic compounds to mostly carbon dioxide and water, instead of
methane, with a stabilized humus remaining.
Semi aerobic landfills have leachate collection pipes at the bottom, with a lot of small holes,
covered by gravel. The collection pipes remove leachate from the landfill site quickly and fresh air
goes inside the landfill through the pipes and creates aerobic condition inside.
The heat generated by the biological processes allows reaching temperatures of 50-70C that attract
air from the outside.
The following figures illustrate how a semi-aerobic landfill can be realized.
5.5 Wastes placing inside the landfill

The following rules are at the basis of the proper disposal of wastes inside a landfill:
1. wastes have to be disposed in layers with a thickness not more than 1 m;
2. everyday the disposed waste has to be covered with a layer of soil at least 15 cm high in
order to avoid bad smell, proliferation of vermin and pests, and scattering of light waste by
the wind.
In case of semi-aerobic landfills, a new layer of waste has to be disposed when the aerobic
fermentation in the layer below has ended (it usually requires a few months).
The waste can be moved manually by workers provided with shovels and handcarts, or through
mechanized equipments like wheeled loaders.
V-4
5.6 Final capping of landfills

When the landfill is full of waste, it has to be covered appropriately in order to:
- limit infiltration of storm water in the waste and, consequently, reduce the leachate production;
- recover the area and reintegrate it in the landscape.
The production of leachate can be limited through:
- placing an impermeable layer (for instance a layer of compacted clay higher than 30 cm) on the
upper layer of waste in order to limit infiltration of rain water;
- modelling the surface of the landfill to facilitate the rainwater flow (for instance by adopting
slopes of the top equals to 5-10%)
It is better waiting one year before realizing the final cover of the landfill, to permit macroscopic
sinking of the buried waste. In fact, the sinking of the top of the landfill can reach 20-30 % and can
compromise the continuity of the final capping and, consequently, its impermeability.
5.7 Burning of waste

The burning of waste has the following advantages:
- the sensitively reduction of volume of solids to be disposed in the landfill. In fact, the volume of
the residual combustion product is about 10-15% of the starting waste;
- the hygienization of the waste because pathogens are destroyed;
- the destruction of the organic matter present in the waste and, consequently, the absence of
animals and mosquitoes (that are attracted by the organic waste);
- a lower impact of the landfill on the subsoil and groundwater in terms of organic substances.
But the burning of waste produces hazardous gaseous emissions that can be classified as follows:
- macro-pollutants, such as particulate, halogenated acids, sulphur and nitrogen oxides, that are
present in concentration of several g/m3 or mg/m3
- micro-pollutants, such as metals, dioxins, volatile organic compounds, that are present just in
small concentrations (several g/m3) but are very hazardous
Furthermore, there is the risk of explosions.
Controlled burning could ensure against explosions, potentially harmful emissions, smouldering,
smoke and unpleasant odours. Explosions can be avoided by removing all aerosol cans, gas bottles,
closed containers, etc. from the waste, while the risk of toxic emissions can be minimised by
removing PVC, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, etc. from the waste. Smouldering, smoke and
unpleasant odours can be prevented by ensuring an efficient burning process through the provision
of adequate fuel and oxygen. This is achieved by the removal of all moist and non-combustible
waste materials and by burning in small controlled fires, rather than allowing the whole waste body
to burn in an uncontrolled manner. Such fires should be tended and turned with long metal rakes to
facilitate better aeration. Burned waste must be completely extinguished before being landfilled.
V-5
6. Sizing of a landfill
We suppose to have to design a landfill receiving the municipal solid waste produced in a city of
50,000 inhabitants.
We need a datum:
- the waste daily production per person
In this exercise, the waste daily production per person is assumed to be 0.4
kg
, so the annual
inh d
production of waste can be calculated as follows:

kg
kg
Wday = 0.4
50,000inh = 20,000
inh d
d
kg
d
kg
W year = 20,000 365 = 7,300,000
d
y
y
We need another datum:
- the waste density
We assume that the waste density is 300 kg/m3, then the volume of waste transported in the landfill
is:
kg
20,000
3
d = 66.7 m
Vday =
kg
d
300 3
m
m3
d
m3
365 = 24345
V year = 66.7
d
y
y
The waste arriving from the city is not just buried in the landfill, but it is previously laid on the
ground in a layer 20 cm high for one day. In this way the waste is dried and the biological activities
are precluded. The area of the drying zone can be calculated as follows:
m3
66.7
d = 333.5m 2 (for instance, an area 30m long and 12m large)
Adrying _ zone =
0.2m
The number of workers necessary to lay the waste is 4 (it means that each of them has to lay about
16.7 m3 of waste per day, that is about 2.1 m3per h).
It is necessary that the waste, laid on the ground by workers provided with shovels and forks, is
covered with a net in order to avoid the spread of light materials (such as plastic and paper) all
around the drying area (because of the wind). The drying area could be placed either inside or
outside the landfill.
Furthermore, it has to be underlined that in this area a scavenging activity could be organised to
recover useful materials and reduce the volume of waste that has to be buried.
After one day, workers provided by wheelbarrows and shovels transport the dried waste into the
zone of the landfill where it is definitively buried. It is important that the waste buried in the landfill
is daily covered with a layer of soil 5-15 cm high to sensitively reduce bad smell, diffusion of
insects and animals, scattering of light waste by the wind.
VI-1
The number of workers necessary to transport the dried waste is 7. In fact, assuming that the
volume of waste transported by one wheelbarrow is 0.12 m3, the whole number of loads of
wheelbarrows is
m3
66.7
d = 555 loads = 70 loads
N _ loads =
d
h
0.12m 3
that means 10 loads per hour per worker.
The number of workers necessary to place appropriately the waste in the landfill is 4.
The density of waste buried in the landfill is higher than 300 kg/m3 ; in fact, during the drying phase
the waste looses its moisture and when it is disposed inside the landfill it is compacted by the
overlaying strata of wastes. We can suppose that the density of buried waste is 400-600 kg/m3. We
keep the most precautionary value, that is 400 kg/m3. So the volume of landfill necessary to receive
the waste produced in one year is:
kg
7,300,000
y
m3
= 18250
V year =
kg
y
400 3
m
The area occupied by the landfill can be calculated on the basis of the landfill stratigraphy and, in
particular, the height of waste layers.
We impose the stratigraphy illustrated in the Figure 1. Starting from the bottom we have:
- the subsoil where the landfill is placed;
- 1 m of solid waste;
- 515 cm of soil for the daily coverage of waste;
- 30 cm of compacted clay, that limits the infiltration of stormwater inside the waste and,
consequently, the production of leachate. This stratum of clay has to be posed a few months
after the disposal of the last layer of waste (when the underlying layers are settled);
- 15 30 cm of soil for the protection of clay from stormwater
VI-2
15 cm SOIL
30 cm COMPACTED CLAY
15 cm SOIL
100 cm WASTE
15 cm SOIL
100 cm WASTE
15 cm SOIL
100 cm WASTE
SUBSOIL
Figure 1 Stratigraphy of the landfill

The whole height of the landfill is 390 cm, but the height of waste is 100 cm x 3 = 300 cm = 3 m, so
the area of the landfill that is necessary to receive the waste produced in one year is:
m3
18250
y
m2
A year =
= 6080
, that means an area 100 m long and 60 m large.
3m
y
We have to know the orography of the area where we should place the landfill. If there is a hill, it
could be appropriately shaped in order to contain the waste and facilitate the flowing of the
leachate. In the case of flat areas, there are two possibilities:
a. the subsoil is permeable: in this case it is possible to realise a depression landfill by excavating
the subsoil. This solution can be adopted also if subsoil is not permeable but only in arid regions
(where the mean annual rainfall is low, i.e. minor than 200 mm/y). The following figures shows
the section of the landfill (the small embankments placed all around the landfill have to be
realised with the soil excavated).
GROUND LEVEL
1.5 m
BOTTOM OF THE LANDFILL
Figure 2 Section of the landfill

b. the subsoil is not permeable and the mean annual rainfall is relatively high (> 400 mm): in this
case it is preferable not to realize a depression landfill (because it could become a swimming
pool), so a hill shaped landfill should be realised.
During the realisation of the landfill, its bottom should have a slope of 2-3 % in order to
facilitate the flow of leachate outside the landfill itself.
Embankments all around the landfills have to be constructed to contain the waste. The following
Figure 3 shows the section of this embankment.
VI-3
protecting rocks
3m
OUTSIDE THE
LANDFILL
draining channel
INSIDE THE
LANDFILL
3.3 m
9.6 m
Figure 3 Section of the embankment

Now it is possible to quantify the costs for the realisation of the landfill. As an example we quantify
the costs for the case b (hill shaped landfill).
The quantity of materials can be rudely estimated as follows are the following:
- embankment: the area of its section is A = ( 3m + 9.62m )3.3m = 20.8m 2 and its length is about
L=2x70m + 2x110m = 360 m, then the volume of the embankment is V = A x L = 20.8m2 x 360
m = 7500 m3
- protecting rocks: the area covered by them is A = (4.5 m + 3 m) x 360 m = 2700 m2. Assuming
that their average high is 0.05 m, the volume of protecting rocks is V = 2700 m2 x 0.05 m = 135
m3
- final capping: the landfill is covered with 30 cm of clay and 30 cm (15+15) of soil. The volume
of soil+clay to move is V = 0.6m x 6000 m2 = 3600 m3
Construction costs
The excavation of soil and its movement can be realised by using a bulldozer. The embankments
can be compacted by a compacting machine. The bulldozer can move about 1000 m3/d of soil and
its rent costs 50 USD/h, that means 400 USD/d. The compacting machine rent is about 20 USD/h,
that means 160 USD/d, and the number of days it works are about the half of the bulldozer working
days.
The cost of protective rocks and clay (covering also the transport costs) is assumed to be 5 USD/m3.
The bulldozer has to move about 10000 m3 of materials, so it has to work 10 days, whereas the
compacting machine should work 5 days. Consequently, the construction costs are the following:
Voices of cost
Bulldozer
Compacting machine
Protective rocks
Clay
Unit
10 d
5d
135 m3
1800 m3
Contingency costs
Cost per unit

400 USD/d
160 USD/d
5 USD/m3
5 USD/m3
Subtotal
20% of subtotal
Total
It means that the construction cost per each served inhabitant is:
Construction cost = 17,370 USD/50,000 inh = 0.35 USD/inh*y
VI-4
Total
4000 USD
800 USD
675 USD
9000 USD
14475 USD
2895 USD
17370 USD
Operation costs:
The operation costs can be quantified taking into consideration that:
- 4 workers lay the waste coming from the town in the drying zone;
- 7 workers provided with wheelbarrows transport the dried waste inside the landfill;
- 4 workers place properly the waste inside the landfill;
- all the workers have to wear appropriate protective cloths, masks, gloves, shoes.
Consequently, the operation costs are the following:
Voices of cost
Workers
Wheelbarrows
Protective cloths
Subtotal
Administration + Accidents +etc.
Total
Unit
15
7
15
Cost per unit

1000 USD/y
30 USD/each
50 USD/each
20% of Subtotal
Total
15000 USD/y
210 USD/y
750 USD/y
15960 USD/y
3192 USD/y
19152 USD/y
Operation cost = 19,152 USD/y/50,000 inh = 0.39 USD/inh*y
As a whole, the annual cost for the waste disposal is:
Annual costs = construction + operation costs = 0.35 USD/inh + 0.39 USD/inh*y = 0.74 USD/inh*y
VI-5
Main references
Ali M., Cotton A., Westlake K., Down to earth, Water Engineering and Development Centre
(WEDC), Loughborough University, 1999
Ali M., Sustainable Composting, Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC),
Loughborough University, 2004
Bagchi A., Design, Construction and monitoring of landfills Wiley- Interscience: New York, 1994
Ball J.M., Legg P.A. Views on appropriate landfill technology for developing countries V-Volume,
pp.355- 362 , Proceedings from Sardinia , Sixth International landfill symposium, 1997
Campbell D.J.V. Waste management needs in developing countries, pp. 1851-1866, Proceedings
from Sardinia, Fourth International landfill symposium ,1993
Cointreau-Levine S., Environmental Management of Urban Solid Wastes in Developing Countries:
A project guide Urban Development Technical paper Number 5, Urban Development
Department, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1982
Design collection system, Water for the world, Technical note No SAN 3.D.3., Agency for
international development , Washington, The World Bank
Diaz LF, Savage GM, Eggerth, LL, Golueke CG, Solid Waste management for economically
developing countries, International Solid Waste Management , Copenhagen, 1996
Johannessen L., Boyer G., Observations of Solid Waste Landfills in Developing Countries: Africa,
Asia, and Latin America, Urban Development Division Waste Management Anchor Team,The
World Bank, Washington, 1999
John R. Holmes, Managing Solid Wastes in Developing Countries, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester,
1984
Oeltzschner H., Mutz D., Guidelines for an appropriate management of domestic sanitary landfill
sites, GTZ, Eschborn, 1994
Petts J., Edulijee G, Environmental Impact Assessment for waste treatment and Disposal Facilties,
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1994
Planning in Municipal Waste Management, Water for the world, Technical note No SAN 3.P.
Agency for international development , Washington The World Bank
Rushbrook P., Pugh M., Solid Waste Landfills in Middle- and Lower-Income Countries, Urban
Development Division Waste Management, The World Bank, Washington, 1999
Savage G.M., Diaz L.F., Golueke C. G., Martone C., Guidance for Landfilling Waste in
Economically Developing Countries, EPA, Environmental Protection Agency Center for
Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, 1998
Scheinberg A., Financial and economic issues in Integrated Sustainable Waste Management, 2001
Thom Kozmiensky, Recycling in developing countries, E. Freitag, Dubendorf, 1982
Urban Development Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region, What a Waste: Solid Waste
Management, The World Bank, Washington, 1999
Vogler J., Small-Scale recycling of Plastics, Print Power, London, 1984
Vogler J., Work from Waste, Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd., London, 1983

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URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROPRIATE STRATEGY FOR THE SANITATION SECTOR:

2 SIZING OF DIFFERENT ALTERNATIVES FOR SOLID WASTE COLLECTION

3 SIZING OF THE MSW COLLECTION SYSTEM IN THE VISITED CITIES

4 OPTIONS FOR WASTE RECYCLING

5 DESIGN AND TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT OF LANDFILLS

The document is articulated in 6 chapters:

1. Evaluation of the main characteristics of solid waste

1.1 Typical sources of waste

1.2 How to evaluate the waste production

1.3 How to evaluate the waste density

1.4 How to evaluate the waste composition

Weight for each day (kg) Total weight (kg)

2. Sizing of different alternatives for solid waste collection

A truck carrying a skip

In this exercise, we suppose that:

If this time is not known, you have to suppose:

waste production = 0.4

waste density = 300

Cost per unit

The depreciation costs can be calculated as follows:

Cost per unit

The first step is to fix the volume of the tipper truck.

The number of inhabitants served by each transfer area is:

In this exercise, we assume that:

Now we can quantify the costs.

Cost per unit

The depreciation costs can be calculated as follows:

Cost per unit

Time to go from the town to the landfill and to come back

Cost per unit

Cost per unit

A street container (V = 1.1 m3)

and the time to cover this distance is:

In this exercise, we assume that:

Cost per unit

Cost per unit

It means that the costs per each served inhabitant are:

3. Sizing of the MSW collection system in the visited cities

Time for one skip = 84 + 30 = 114 min = 2 hours

One wheelbarrow can receive the waste produced by 19 household; in fact:

8 trucks with a crane for the transport of skips working 6 h/d

Cost per unit

It means that the costs per each served inhabitant are:

- annual wage of the workers with wheelbarrows = 1000 USD/y

Cost per unit

Cost per unit

It means that the costs per each served inhabitant are:

The depreciation costs can be calculated as follows:

The volume of the tipper truck is 4 m3.

The volume of each truck with crane is 6 m3.

One wheelbarrow can receive the waste produced by 25 households; in fact:

3 tipper trucks (12m3/d)

Cost per unit

It means that the costs per each served inhabitant are:

Trucks with crane

The volume of each tipper truck is 4 m3.

So time for one load is 1.15 + 0.14= 1.29 h/load

It means 114 households per load.

Cost of donkey + cart= 250 USD

The cost per km covered by the truck is:

Cost per unit

Cost per unit