2.3 Transport in Animals

AS Unit 2: Biodiversity and Physiology of Body Systems.
2.3: Adaptations for Transport.

(3) Part one Adaptations for Transport in Animals
Syllabus Objectives:
a) The similarities and differences in the vascular systems of animal groups:
Earthworm; vascularisation, closed circulatory system and pumps, carriage of respiratory gases in
blood.
Insects; open circulatory system, dorsal tube-shaped heart, lack of respiratory gases in blood.
Fish; single circulatory system.
Mammal: double circulatory system.
b) The mammalian circulatory system including the structure and function of heart and blood vessels and the
names of the main blood vessels associated with the human heart.
c) The cardiac cycle and the maintenance of circulation to include geographical analysis of pressure changes,
the role of the sino-atrial node and Purkyne/Purkinje fibres and the analysis of electrocardiogram traces to
show electrical activity.
d) The function of red blood cells and plasma in relation to transport of respiratory gases, dissociation curves
of haemoglobin of mammal (adult and foetus), including examination of microscope slides.
e) The dissociation curves of some animals adapted to low oxygen level habitats e.g. llama and lugworm
f) The Bohr effect and chloride shift.
g) The transport of nutrients, hormones, excretory products and heat in the blood.
h) The formation of tissue fluid and its importance as a link between blood and cells.
(Syllabus objective (i) (r) = Adaptations for Transport in Plants are in booklet number (4))
Specified Practical Work
Scientific drawing of a low power plan of a prepared slide of T.S. artery and vein, including calculation
of actual size and magnification of drawing.
Dissection of mammalian heart.
Learning outcome
1.
Explain why multicellular animals need transport mechanisms.
2.
Explain the significance of and the difference between open and

closed circulatory systems.
Explain the significance of and the difference between single
and double circulations.
Explain the relationship between the structure and function of
arteries, veins and capillaries.
Describe the passage of blood through the heart.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Knowledge and
understanding, 15
(1 is excellent)
Revision
notes
completed
Describe the cardiac cycle and interpret graphs showing

pressure changes during the cycle.
Explain the electrical control of the heartbeat.
WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport
8.
Describe the structure of blood cells.
9.
Describe the differences between blood, plasma, tissue fluid and

lymph.
Describe the role of haemoglobin in the transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
Describe and explain the effects of raised carbon dioxide
concentration on the oxygen dissociation curve.
Describe the transport of carbon dioxide in terms of the chloride
shift.
Describe the formation of tissue fluid and its importance in the
exchange of materials.
10.
11.
12.
13.
1.
Features of a transport system.
A. Open systems and closed circulatory systems.

Transport systems in different organisms.
When multicellular organisms develop organs of exchange such as lungs and gills, they need a transport
system to move substances over large distances, because diffusion is simply too slow. Most transport systems
consist of a series of tubes in which an efficient supply of materials is moved around under pressure. These
systems are called mass transport or mass flow systems. Plants have xylem and phloem, whereas vertebrates
have a blood system.
As organisms increase in size their surface area to volume ratio decreases to the point where diffusion through
the body surface is insufficient to meet their needs. If this is the case a specialised exchange surface is needed
to absorb nutrients and respiratory gases and to remove excretory products. These exchange surfaces are
located in specific regions of the organism. A transport system is therefore needed to take materials from the
exchange surfaces to cells, and from cells to exchange surfaces.
As well as being transported between exchange surfaces and the environment, materials also need to be
transported between different parts of the organism. As organisms have increased in size and their structures
have become more complex, the tissues and organs they are made of have become more specialised and
therefore more reliant upon one another. This makes transport systems even more essential.
Questions
1. Name the 2 main factors that influence whether or not a specialised transport medium is required.
2. Explain why larger organisms require a specialised transport medium
3. Explain why the following features are common in transport systems:
(a) A liquid based transport medium with water
(b) A closed system of tubular vessels forming a branching network
Answers
1. The surface area to volume ratio and the activity level of the organism.
2. They have a lower surface area to volume ratio so diffusion is insufficient.
3a) So that water soluble substances can be transported.
3b) So that the transport medium is distributed to all parts of the organism
Features of transport systems.
There are a number of features that are common among many transport systems. These are:
A medium to carry the materials e.g. blood. This is usually a liquid based on water because many
substances are water soluble and water can be moved easily.
A form of mass transport where the transport medium is moved in bulk

over large distances.
A mechanism to maintain the mass flow in one direction e.g. valves
A way of controlling the flow of the transport medium to meet the changing needs of different parts
of the organism.
A mechanism for moving the transport medium within vessels; a pump, such as the heart. This creates
a pressure difference between one part of the system and the other.
In addition some systems have:

A closed system of tubular vessels that contain the transport medium and form a branching network
so that the transport medium is distributed throughout the organism.
A respiratory pigment, which increases the volume of oxygen carried. Found in vertebrates and some
invertebrates but not insects.
Questions
4. How do animals move their transport medium?
5. How do plants move their transport medium?
Answers
4. Muscular contractions of body muscles or a specialised pumping organ
5. Passive processes such as evaporation of water
(i) Open circulatory systems.

The blood does not move around the body in blood vessels. It bathes the tissue directly while held in a cavity
called the haemocoel.
E.g. Insects. They have a long, dorsal, (top) tube shaped heart, running the length of the body. It pumps blood
out at low pressure into the haemocoel. Here materials are exchanged between the blood and body cells.
Blood the returns to the heart and the open circulation starts again.
Oxygen diffuses directly to the tissues from the tracheae so the blood does not transport oxygen and has no
respiratory pigment.
(ii) Closed circulatory systems.

Blood moves in blood vessels.
2 types:
(a) Single circulation
Blood moves through heart once.
E.g. earthworm blood moves forward in the dorsal vessel and back in the ventral vessel.
It has 5 pairs of `pseudohearts` = thickened muscular blood vessels that pump the blood between the dorsal
and ventral blood vessels and keep it moving.
e.g.2 fish the ventricle of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills, where its pressure falls
Oxygenated blood returns to the atrium of the heart. Blood moves to the ventricle and the circulation stats
again.
(b) Double circulation

Mammals have a closed, double circulation.
Mammals move blood through a system of blood vessels by the pumping of the heart. Mammals have a
double circulatory system where blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circulation of the
body. A lower pressure is required at the lungs and if the blood passed straight to
the rest of the body, the pressure would be too low and slow down the circulation.
Blood is returned to the heart to increase its pressure before being circulated to the rest of the body.
Mammals have a high metabolic rate and so substances need to be delivered to the rest of the body quickly.
Organs are not in direct contact with the blood but are bathed in tissue fluid, which seeps out of the
capillaries.
The blood pigment, haemoglobin carries the oxygen.
Animal
Insect
Earthworm
Fish
Mammal
Circulation type
Open
Haemocoel
Closed
Single
Closed
Single
Closed
Double
Respiratory pigment
X
Heart
Dorsal tube-shaped
`Pseudohearts`
1 atrium and 1 ventricle
2 atria and 2
ventricles
Transport in Mammals
A. Pulmonary and Systemic circulation
Double circulatory system comprise of:
(i) The pulmonary circulation
This serves the lungs.
The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left side of the heart.
(ii) The systemic circulation
This serves the body tissues.
The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to tissue.
Deoxygenated blood returns from the body to the right side of the heart.
In each circuit the blood passes through the heart twice, once through the right and once through the left side.
Double circulation is more efficient than the single circulation of a fish as oxygenated blood can be pumped
around the body at higher pressure.
B. Structure and function of blood vessels.

The vessels that make up the circulatory system in mammals are divided into 3 types: arteries, veins and
capillaries. These vessels are used to transport substances over long distances. In order for materials to reach
cells, they must diffuse from the vessels quickly. This is possible because it takes place over a large surface
area, along a short diffusion pathway and there is a steep diffusion gradient.
You should know the following components of the double circulatory system (the pulmonary circulation and
the systemic circulation). You need to know the name of the blood vessels that enter and leave the heart,
lungs, kidneys and liver. In addition to this, you also need to know that the hepatic portal vein transports
blood from the intestines to the liver.
Blood vessels are named according to their structure; Arteries need to carry blood under high pressure so
away from the heart and veins low pressure after the capillary network, whereas capillaries allow fluid
movement in and out of the system.
Arteries (including Aorta) LEAVE the heart and usually ENTER the major organs.
Veins ENTER the heart and LEAVE major organs
Questions
6. Name the blood vessel in each of the following descriptions.
a) Joins the right ventricle of the heart to the capillaries of the lungs
b) Carries oxygenated blood away from the heart
c) Carries deoxygenated blood away from the liver
d) The first main blood vessel that an oxygen molecule reaches after being absorbed from an alveolus
e) Has the highest blood pressure.
Answers
6a. Pulmonary artery
b. Aorta
c. Hepatic vein
d. Pulmonary vein
e. Aorta
(i) Basic structure of arteries and veins.
Arteries carry blood under high pressure away from the heart to organs
Arterioles are smaller arteries that control blood flow from arteries to capillaries
Capillaries are small vessels that connect arterioles to veins. The function of capillaries is to link
arterioles to veins and to take blood close to almost every cell in the body. Capillaries allow rapid
transfer of substances between cells and blood.
Veins carry blood from capillaries back to the heart under low pressure
Question
7. Use the diagram above to identify how the structure varies between an artery, vein and capillary:
Answers
7. Capillaries, arteries and veins all have endothelial cells.
Capillaries are tissues (one cell type only) whereas arteries and veins are organs.
Veins have valves but arteries and capillaries do not.
Capillaries do not have an outer layer, muscle layer or elastic layer, arteries and veins do.
Arteries have a thicker muscle layer than veins.
Arteries have a thicker elastic layer than veins.
Capillaries have a much narrower lumen

There are spaces in the lining
Arteries, veins and arterioles have the same basic layered structure. What differs between each is the
proportions of each layer in the different vessels. From the outside inwards, the layers are
Tough outer layer = tunica externa - resists pressure changes from within and outside the vessel and
so prevents over-stretching. Contains collagen fibres
Tunica media = contains a smooth muscle layer can contract to control blood flow and maintain
blood pressure as the blood is transported from the heart so more in the arteries.
Also contains elastic fibres allows stretching to accommodate changes in blood flow and pressure as
blood is pumped from the heart. At a certain point stretched elastic fibres recoil, pushing blood
through the artery = pulse. It also maintains blood pressure by stretching and springing back
Inner lining (endothelium) one cell thick and surrounded by the tunica intima. It has a smooth
lining to reduce friction and thin for diffusion
Lumen the central cavity of the blood vessel through which the blood flows
(ii) Arteries
Arteries are adapted to withstand pressure. When the heart beats, the left ventricle forces blood into the
bodys largest artery, the aorta. From here, blood enters the major arteries of the body, leading to all the
major organs and limbs. The middle layers of the artery walls are rich in muscle and, vitally, elastic fibres. This
gives them powerful recoil properties so they can withstand the pressure surge of each heart beat.
The muscle layer is thick compared to veins this means smaller arteries (arterioles) can be
constricted and dilated to control the volume of blood passing through.
The elastic layer is thick compared to veins this keeps blood pressure high so that the blood can
reach the extremes of the body. As the heart beats, the elastic wall is stretched and then springs back
when the heart is relaxed. The stretch and recoil maintains high blood pressure and prevents surges
in pressure.
Overall the wall is thick this resists bursting when under pressure.
There are no valves (except for pulmonary artery and aorta as they leave the heart) the blood does
not flow backwards because of the high pressure.
Proportion of smooth muscle increase, relative to elastin that decreases, with distance from the
heart.
(iii) Arterioles
Arterioles are adapted to control blood flow. By the time blood reaches the arterioles, it has lost much of its
pressure that has been absorbed by artery walls. The walls of the arterioles do not need as many elastic fibres,
but they do have a lot of muscle fibres. This means that arterioles are capable of either:
Vasodilation they get larger
Vasoconstriction they get smaller
In this way, blood flow to certain areas of the body can be controlled. For example, vasodilation of
subcutaneous arterioles causes the skin to redden, whereas vasoconstriction causes it to go pale.
(iv) Veins
Veins are adapted to increase blood flow when pressure is low. Compared to arteries, veins have a larger
lumen and a thinner wall. This minimises friction so blood can flow more easily. The walls are made of tough
connective tissue and there are fewer elastic and muscle fibres. Veins also have valves that can open up to
prevent backflow.
The muscle layer is thin compared to arteries they carry blood away from tissues and so they cannot
control the flow of blood to tissues. Blood flow is slower.
The elastic layer is thin compared to arteries the pressure of the blood is low and so will not cause
the veins to burst and a recoil action cannot be created.
The overall thickness of the wall is small compared to the artery the pressure is low which reduces
the risk of the vein bursting. Being thin means the veins can be flattened easily aiding blood flow.
For veins above the heart, blood returns to the heart by gravity. It moves through other veins by
pressure from surrounding muscle contractions.
There are semi-lunar valves throughout pressure is low so valves stop the
backflow of blood. Faulty functioning of valves contributes to varicose
veins and heart failure.
Open valve
closed valve
(v) Capillaries
These are numerous and highly branched, providing a large surface area for diffusion. They penetrate all
organs and tissues.
Blood from capillaries collects in venules, and then into veins, which return the blood to the heart.
Capillaries allow exchange between blood and cells. They are the smallest blood vessels. Their walls (the
endothelium) are just one cell thick. The function of capillaries is to allow metabolic exchange of materials
between blood and tissue fluid so the flow of blood is much slower.
Walls consist of endothelium cells only walls are thin so there is a short diffusion pathway and
diffusion is rapid between the blood and cells
There are many and they are branched this increases the collective surface area
They have a narrow diameter this means they can permeate issues so no cell is far from a capillary
(short diffusion pathway)
The lumen is narrow red blood cells are compressed against the side of the capillary (short diffusion
pathway)
There are spaces between the endothelial cells white blood cells can escape to deal with infections.
Capillaries are small but they cannot reach every single cell directly. Tissue fluid is the liquid that
carries metabolic materials to the tissues.
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Feature
Artery
Complete the table below with the key points

Arteriole
Capillary
Vein
Crosssection of
vessel
Structural
features
Blood flow
Type of
blood
Blood
pressure
Main
functions of
vessels
Adaptations
to the main
function
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Questions
8. How does the elastic tissue help to smooth the blood flow in arteries leaving the heart?
9. Why does the vein have valves within?
10. Why is the lumen of the vein so much bigger than arteries?
11. Why is the capillary only one cell thick and have minute holes within?
Answers
8. Allows recoil and so maintains blood pressure/smooth blood flow/constant blood flow.
9. Prevent backflow of blood to tissues and so keeps it moving towards the heart.
10. It has a thinner wall and requires less contraction and pressure to move blood.
11. To provide a short diffusion pathway and to allow exchange of materials between blood and tissues.
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2. The Heart
The human heart is a muscular organ that circulates blood around the body. The heart is essentially two
separate pumps lying side by side; one dealing with oxygenated blood and the other with deoxygenated blood.
During embryonic development in mammals, the 2 separate pumps grow together to form one overall
structure; the heart.
The heart work continuously and tirelessly throughout the life of individual (hopefully).
Mammals have a double circulation. During a complete circulation of the body, blood passes through the
heart twice. It is pumped to the lungs to be oxygenated (pulmonary circulation HEART LUNGS HEART)
and then returns to the heart to be pumped to other parts of the body that use the oxygen (systemic
circulation HEART BODY HEART).
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A. Structure
Heart Structure
The heart is divided into 4 chambers:
Right and left atria to receive blood returning from the systemic and pulmonary circulations,
respectively.
Right and left ventricles to force blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations, respectively.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs (a distance of a few cm) therefore it has a thinner muscular wall
than the left ventricle. The left ventricle has a thicker ventricular wall allowing it to create enough pressure to
pump blood to the extremities of the body (a distance of roughly 1.5m).
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The two sides of the heart are separate pumps (the 2 sides are separated by the
septum) and after birth there is no mixing of the blood in each of them. Nevertheless, they pump in time with
each other; both atria contract together and then both ventricles contract together.
The heat consists of cardiac muscle. This is specialised tissue with myogenic contraction = it can contract and
relax rhythmically, of its own accord and never tires.
The heartbeat is initiated within the muscle cells itself, (in the SAN), It is not dependent on nervous or
hormonal stimulation.
The heart rate is however modified by nervous and hormonal stimulation.
Atria receive blood from veins
Blood flows from atria ventricles arteries
Blood from the left ventricle flows to the aorta
Blood from the right ventricle flows to the pulmonary artery
Valves
There are 4 valves in the heart that control the flow of blood in the mammalian heart; one between each
atrium and ventricle (atrioventricular) and one at the base of each artery leading away from the ventricles
(semi-lunar).
The major blood vessels associated with the heart
Aorta - Largest artery carrying blood out of heart. It has a branch towards head and main flow down to
15
rest of body. Transports oxygenated blood. It is connected to the left ventricle.

Pulmonary artery Connected to the right ventricle and leaves heart and branches into 2. It takes
deoxygenated blood to the right and left lungs where oxygen is replenished and carbon dioxide is removed.
Pulmonary veins Connected to the left atrium and take oxygenated blood back to the heart from the left
and right lungs.
Venae cavae Connected to the right atrium. They run vertically on the right hand side of heart (2 large
veins; one from head and one from rest of body). Carries deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Coronary arteries These are found on surface of the heart. They branch from the aorta and deliver
oxygenated blood to walls of heart. The cardiac muscle in the heart wall respires continuously to release
the energy needed for contraction. To supply the oxygen and glucose needed, the cardiac muscle has its
own blood supply the coronary circulation. Two coronary arteries branch off the aorta just as it leaves the
left ventricle. These carry blood into arterioles and the millions of capillaries that supply the cardiac muscle
cells. The coronary arteries are narrower than many other arteries and can become blocked more easily.
Blockage of these arteries by a blood clot or atheroma leads to myocardial infarction because an area of
the heart muscle has been deprived of oxygen.
Pressure is important in blood flow

The heart consists of two pumps with output at two different pressures. Because the lungs need to have
blood flow through numerous blood capillaries (to produce large surface area) there is a drastic drop in
pressure NOT enough pressure to pump around the whole body. Therefore a second (stronger pump) is
needed to circulate oxygenated/deoxygenated blood around the body. Mammals therefore have a double
circulatory system for efficient gas exchange.
Questions
12. Describe and explain the differences in structure between the atria and ventricles?
13. Use the diagram of the heart to describe the route that blood takes from the body to the lungs.
16
14. Use the diagram of the heart to describe the route that blood takes from the
lungs to the body
15. Suggest why it is important to prevent mixing of the blood in the two sides of the heart.
Answers
12. The atria have thin muscular walls that are elastic and stretch as they collect blood. This is because they
only pump blood a short distance to the ventricles and at quite low pressure.
The ventricles have a much thicker muscular wall. This is because they have to pump blood to the lungs or to
the rest of the body, under greater pressure.
13. Body vena cava right atrium atrioventricular valve, (tricuspid valve) right ventricle
pulmonary artery lungs
14. Lungs pulmonary vein left atrium atrioventricular valve, (bicuspid valve) left ventricle aorta
body
15. The mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood would result in only partially oxygenated blood
reaching the tissues and lungs. This would mean the supply of oxygen to the tissues would be inadequate and
there would be a reduced diffusion gradient in the lungs, limiting the rate of oxygen uptake.
17
18
B. The Cardiac Cycle

This describes the sequence of events of one heartbeat.
In a normal adult this lasts approximately 0.8seconds.
There are alternating contractions (systole) and relaxations (diastole).
Cardiac cycle has 3 stages:
Atrial systole [about 0.1s] = contraction of the atria
Ventricular systole [about 0.3s]= contraction of the ventricles
Diastole [about 0.4s]
The four chambers of the heart are continually contracting and relaxing in a definite, repeating sequence
called the cardiac cycle. In humans this sequence of events is repeated around 70 times per minute when at
rest.
When a chamber is contracting we say it is in systole.
When a chamber is relaxing we say it is in diastole.
The two sides of the heart work together; as the left atrium contracts, so does the right atrium. As the right
ventricle relaxes, so does the left ventricle. The direction of the blood flow is maintained by pressure changes
and the action of valves.
One beat of the heart pumps blood through the pulmonary and systemic circuits.
The heart has 2 pumps working in series = the lub-dub you hear with a stethoscope, this is the noise of valves
closing in the heart during a heartbeat.
Right hand side pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs through the pulmonary artery at a blood pressure of
24mmHg (3.2 kPa). Left side pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta at 120 mmHg (15.8 kPa). NOTE
significant difference Lungs do not receive blood under pressure
Lungs are very spongy and blood vessels allow maximum exchange of gases in the alveoli.
Left ventricle wall is much thicker than right as it contracts and forces blood into aorta at high pressure.
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(i) Atrial systole

The walls of the atria contract. This raises the pressure of the blood in the atria above that in the ventricles and
forces open the atrioventricular valves. The blood that remains in the atria (2 percent of the total blood in the
heart) passes through the AV valves into the ventricles. The blood is only pushed a small distance so the atrial
walls are very thin. At this stage, the walls of the ventricles are relaxing.
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(ii) Ventricular systole

After a short delay that allows the ventricles to fill with blood, the ventricular walls contract. This quickly
raises the pressure of the blood in the ventricles above that in the atria, and so closes the atrioventricular
valves, (the tricuspid and bicuspid valves), preventing backflow into the atria. This creates the lub sound of a
heartbeat.
When the pressure of the blood exceeds that in the main arteries, the semilunar valves are forced open. Blood
is ejected into the pulmonary artery and aorta. The walls of the ventricles are much thicker than those of the
atria as they pump blood much further and so genrate higher pressure tha the atria too.
The wall of the left ventricle is the thickest as it pumps blood to the extremities of the body, wheras the right
ventricle has only to pump the blood a short distane to the lungs.
(iii) Diastole
The ventricles begin to relax and so increase the volume and so the pressure of the ventricles quickly falls
below that in the main arteries. The higher pressure in these arteries closes the semi-lunar valves. This creates
the dub sound of the heart beat. This prevents the blood re-entering the ventricles.
The aria also relax durinf diastole so Blood returns to the atria via the vena cava and pulmonary vein. This
increases the pressure in the atria. As the ventricles continue to relax, the pressure in the ventricles falls below
that in the atria. The higher pressure in the atria forces the atrioventricular valves open. Even though the atria
are not contracting, blood flows through the open valves passively ventricular filling.
21
Question
16. Complete the following table to summarise the 3 main events in the cardiac cycle.
Stage
Action of
atria
Result
Action of
ventricles
Result
Stage
Action of
atria
Result
Action of
ventricles
Result
1. Atrial
systole
Walls
contract
Blood is forced through AV

valves into ventricles
Walls relax
Fill with blood
2. Ventricular
Walls relax
Blood enters through the
Wall contract
a) No blood leaves, but
1. Atrial
systole
2. Ventricular
systole
3. Diastole
17.
Answers
16.
22
systole
veins
3. Diastole
Wall relax
a) Blood enters atria but

cannot enter ventricles as
AV valves are closed.
b) Blood continues to enter
atria and increased pressure
opens AV valves
pressure of blood increases.

b) Pressure of blood opens
semi-lunar valves and blood
is ejected to arteries.
Walls relax
a) Blood neither enters nor

leaves.
b) Blood enters from atria
by passive ventricular filling
as AV valves are open (high
to low)
17.
(iv) Valves their role in controlling blood flow

It is essential to think of blood flowing as a result of pressure differences (high low).
It is important to keep blood flowing in the right direction through the heart and around the body. This is
largely achieved by the pressure created by the heart muscle.
All the valves are one-way valves and work on essentially the same principle. Blood is a fluid; it flows from an
area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. There are however, situations within the circulatory system
when pressure differences would result in blood flowing in the opposite direction from that which is desirable.
In these circumstances the valves in the heart are used to prevent any unwanted backflow of blood. The valves
in the heart are designed to open when high pressure is forcing the blood in the correct direction. If high
pressure forces blood in the wrong direction, the valves are forced shut.
Valves are made up of tough, but flexible, fibrous tissues which are cusp shaped. When pressure is greater on
the convex side of cusp, they move apart to let blood flow between the cusps. When pressure is greater on the
concave side, blood collects within the bowl of the cusps. This pushes them together to prevent the flow of
blood. As the pressure generated is so great, the valves have tendons attached to the ventricular walls to
prevent them from inverting.
The valves between each atrium and ventricle are called atrioventricular valves. They prevent the backflow of
blood into the atria when the ventricles contract.
The left atrioventricular (bicuspid) valve is formed of 2 cup-shaped flaps on the left side of the heart.
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The right atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve is formed of 3 cup-shaped flaps

on the right side of the heart.
Semilunar valves are found in the aorta and the pulmonary artery. They prevent backflow of blood into the
ventricles when the recoil action of the elastic walls creates a greater pressure in the vessels than in the
ventricles.
Semi-lunar are found in veins. They ensure that when veins are squeezed, blood flows back to the heart rather
than away from it.
Questions
18. Which side of the heart carries oxygenated blood?
19. Why is the left ventricle more muscular than the right ventricle?
20. What is the purpose of heart valves?
21. What is the difference between the systemic and pulmonary circulatory systems?
Answers
18. Left side.
19. Left ventricle thicker than the right ventricle cos it needs to contract powerfully to pump blood all the way
round the body, under greater pressure. The right side only needs to get blood to the lungs which are nearby
and so needs less pressure.
20. The atrioventricular valves link the atria to the ventricles and stop blood getting back into the atria when
the ventricles contract.
The semi-lunar valves stop blood flowing back into the heart after the ventricles contract.
21. Systemic circ = heart body heart.
Pulmonary circ = heart lungs heart.
C. Pressure and volume changes during the cardiac cycle

The graph below summarises the changes in pressure and volume in the left side of the heart during the
cardiac cycle.
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(a) Atrial muscles contract = atrial systole

Thin muscular atrial walls squeeze inward onto blood, increasing pressure, push blood into the ventricles
through the atrioventricular valves.
(b) The ventricles contract = ventricular systole while atrial diastole occurs
Thick muscular ventricle walls squeeze inward onto blood, increasing pressure and push blood out of heart.
When pressure in ventricles pressure in atria = pushes atrioventricular valve shut - prevents backflow into
atria. Instead blood rushes into aorta & pulmonary artery, opening semi-lunar valves on the way.
(c) (Ventricular) diastole
Whole of heart muscle relaxes (both atrial and ventricular muscles relax) - ventricle pressure drops.
Higher pressure in atria / pulmonary artery cause semi-lunar valves to shut - prevents backflow into ventricles.
Blood from the veins (pulmonary vein / vena cava) flows back into the two atria.
Blood has very low pressure in the veins. But thin walls of atria are easily distended, providing little resistance
to the blood flow.
Atrial muscle contracts - push blood into ventricles...... Cycle starts again.
Remember the passage of blood through the two sides of the heart is coordinated.
Both atria fill at the same time, both ventricles fill at the same time, both and ventricular systole occurs in both
sides of the heart at the same time.
In together, down together and out together
A complete contraction and relaxation of the whole heart = a heartbeat.
Tips - You may be asked to explain the changes that occur at various points in the cardiac cycle from a graph
such as that shown below. Remember that:
AV valves open as soon as the pressure in the atria becomes greater than that in the ventricles; they
close as soon as the pressure in the ventricles becomes greater than that in the atria.
The semi-lunar valves open as soon as the pressure in the ventricles becomes greater than that in the
two arteries; they close as soon as the pressure on the two arteries becomes greater than that in the
ventricles.
A valve open and closes at times in the cycle when the balance of pressures on opposite sides of the
valve changes.
25
Cardiac cycle graphical representation

Exam tip: This is popular in exams. Be prepared to describe pressure changes.
26
Question
22. Use the graph above to complete the table, which summarises the events that occur during one cardiac
cycle.
Atrial systole
Ventricular systole
Ventricular diastole
Atrial systole
Ventricular systole
Ventricular diastole
Atrial wall
Contracting
Relaxing
Relaxing
Atrial pressure
Relatively high
Relatively low
Relatively low
Ventricular wall
Relaxing
Contracting
Relaxing
Ventricular pressure
Relatively low
Relatively high
Relatively low
Ventricular volume
Increasing
Decreasing
Increasing
Aortic pressure
Relatively low
Relatively high
Relatively low
Semi-lunar valve
Closed
Open
Closed
Atrioventricular valve
Open
Closed
Open
Atrial wall
Atrial pressure
Ventricular wall
Ventricular pressure
Ventricular volume
Semi-lunar valve
Atrioventricular valve
Answer
22.
D. Cardiac output
The output (volume) is equal on both sides of the heart despite the varying pressure of contraction. Cardiac
output is the output from each (only consider one) ventricle per minute.
Each time the ventricles contract, they eject blood into the main arteries. The amount of blood ejected from
one ventricle is called the stroke volume and, at any one time, it is the same for both ventricles.
The other factor that affects cardiac output is heart rate the number if beats per minute.
Cardiac output = Heart rate x the stroke volume
3
-1
The units are given as dm min .

An increasein stroke volume or heart rate (or both) increases cardiac outpit.
During exercise, the cardiac output increases to deliver more blood, carrying oxygen and glucose, to the
skeletal muscles. During sleep, cardiac output decreaes from the normal resting level because the metabolic
activity of the body is low and less oxygen is needed by almost all organs.
27
Questions
3
23. An athletes cardiac output is 3 dm per minute and her heart rate is 60 beats per minute. What is the value
of her stroke volume?
24. Match the blood vessels 1-4 with descriptions A-D:
1. Vena cava
2. Aorta
3. Pulmonary artery
4. Pulmonary vein
A. Carries blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the capillaries of the lungs.
B. Carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body.
C. Carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium of the heart.
D. Carries oxygenated blood from the capillaries of the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.
Answer
3
23. SV = CO / HR = 3 / 60 = 0.05dm
24.
1C
2B
3A
4-D
E. Control of heartbeat.
The cardiac muscle is myogenic - it naturally contracts and relaxes of its own accord, it doesnt need nerve
impulses to contract as is the case with other muscles.
The events of the cardiac cycle must take place in the correct sequence, with the correct timing. A group of
cells in the right atrium form the sinoatrial node (SAN), which acts as a natural pacemaker. The SA node
initiates the stimulus that originates the contraction. It has the basic rhythm of stimulation that determines
the beat of the heart. In this way the heart has its own built in controlling and coordinating system - to prevent
each cell from contracting and relaxing under its own rhythm.
Chambers should only contract when they are full of blood, so the heart has a conducting pathway of
specialised muscle fibres to ensure the right sequence of events. The atria must contract first and then, when
full, the ventricles follow. This means a delay is needed to allow the ventricles to fill. The full sequence is as
follows:
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1. Sinoatrial node (or SAN or pacemaker)

SAN = `specialised patch of heart muscle in wall of right atrium that initiates a wave of electrical excitation
across the atria. `
The function of the SAN is to set the rhythm for all cardiac muscle cells, by sending out a wave of electrical
activity that spreads over all atrial walls.
Atrial wall contracts, at same time as SAN - so all muscle in both atrial walls contract at the same time.
Muscles of ventricles contract after atrial walls. This delay is caused by band of fibres between atria and
ventricles which does not conduct excitation wave (atrioventricular septum). The delay is required to ensure
that the ventricle does not contract too soon.
2. Atrioventricular node (or AVN).

AVN = `The only conducting area of tissue in the wall of the heart between the atria and the ventricles,
through which electrical excitation passes from the atria to the conducting tissue in the walls of the ventricles.
`
Wave from SAN can only spread to ventricles via patch of conducting fibres in the septum.
AVN picks up electrical wave from atria, there is a delay of 0.1 seconds then passes it onto bunch of conducting
fibres = bundles of His, this runs down atrioventricular septum, to the left and right bundle branches and then
to the apex of the heart.
3. Bundles of His Bundles of His transmits excitation wave rapidly down to base of the atrioventricular septum,
to the apex of the heart, where it spreads outwards and upwards through ventricle walls.
The excitation is transmitted to the Purkinje, (or Purkyne) fibres in the ventricle walls, which carry it through
the muscles of the ventricle walls.
29
This causes cardiac muscle wall to contract in ventricles from the bottom (apex) up
- so blood is pushed up into arteries; the aorta and the pulmonary artery. This empties the ventricles
completely. .
This table summarises the events involved in the control of the cardiac cycle.
The SAN generates an impulse; the
impulse spreads along Purkyne
fibres to all parts of the atria.
Cardiac muscle in atria contracts,

cardiac muscle in ventricles is
relaxed blood is forced through
AV valves from atria to ventricles.
Atrial systole
The impulse is held up at the AVN,

allowing time for atria to empty.
Cardiac muscle in atria contracts,

cardiac muscle in ventricles is
relaxed blood continues to be
forced through AV valves.
Atrial systole
The impulse is conducted along

the bundles of His through the
ventricle walls.
Cardiac muscle in atria is relaxed,

cardiac muscle in ventricles
contracts; AV valves closed; semilunar valves opened blood
ejected into main arteries.
Ventricular systole
No impulse
Cardiac muscle in atria and

ventricles is relaxed passive
ventricular following.
Atrial and ventricular diastole
Atriole diastole
Questions
25. Explain what is meant by the term myogenic
26. Explain why it is important that there is a slight delay after the atria contract.
27. Describe how the regular contraction of the atria and ventricles is initiated and coordinated by the heart
itself.
Answers
25. Heart muscle has a built-in rhythm; the heart is able to beat without nerve impulses from the brain.
26. So that the ventricles have time to fill properly.
27. Cardiac muscle is myogenic; Sinoatrial node; spreads out a wave of electrical activity across the atria; this
initiates the contraction of the atria; the impulse passes through the atrioventricular node; the impulse is
conducted along the bundle of His; to the ventricles; the ventricles contract after the atria, they contract from
the bottom up, to force the blood up and out of the ventricles.
Fibrillation
Coordination of contraction goes wrong sometimes, then the excitation wave is chaotic it passes through the
ventricular wall in all directions, re-stimulating areas that have already been stimulated. Small areas of
muscles contract whilst others relax.
Result = fibrillation
This causes the heart wall to flutter, rather than contracting and relaxing as a whole.
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It is nearly always fatal unless treated instantly. It is caused by either electric shock,
or damage to large areas of muscle in heart walls.
F. The Electrocardiogram (ECG) (i) The ECG

This is a method used to interpret the electrical activity, or a terrace of the voltage changes produced by the
heart, detected by electrodes on the skin, or a cathode ray oscilloscope
It is used to identify abnormalities such as the fibrillation above. A normal electrocardiogram has a distinct
pattern as below.
31
During the heart cycle, the heart undergoes a series of electrical current changes. These are related to the
waves of electrical activity that are created by the SAN and the hearts response to these.
P = The P wave - this is the first part of the trace. It shows the voltage change generated by the SAN,
associated with the wave of excitation sweeping over atrial walls, causing them to contract.
The atria have less muscle than the ventricles and so the P waves are small.
The time between the start of the P wave and the start of the QRS complex = the PR interval = time taken for
the excitation to spread from the atria to the ventricles, through the AVN.
Q,R and S or the QRS Complex = depolarisation and contraction of the ventricles.
Ventricles have a more muscle than the atria and so the amplitude is bigger than that of the P wave.
T wave = repolarisation of the ventricle muscles, or the recovery of ventricle walls.
The ST segment lasts from the end of the S wave to the beginning of the T wave.
The isoelectric line = the base line of the trace and is the line between the T wave and the P wave.
ECGs are analysed to gain information on the heart rate and the rhythm.
-
Heart rate can be calculated from the trace by reading on the horizontal axis. Read the time off the
axis, for one complete ECG trace. So the length of the cycle = time between equivalent points on trace
e.g. R to R, (normally approx 0.85s)
Therefore heart rate = 60 = 71 beats per minute (0 dp)
0.85
The hearts rhythm is shown by the regularity of the pattern of the trace,
(a) A person with atrial fibrillation has a rapid heart rate and may lack a P wave.
32
In this scenario, the doctor would shock heart out of its fibrillation with strong
electric shock through chest wall. This will stop heart for up to 5 seconds after which normally beats again
normally.
(b) A person who has had a heart attack, or myocardial infarction, may have a wide QRS complex.
An ECG produced during a heart attack

shows less pronounced peaks and larger
troughs that are repeated.
(c) A person with enlarged ventricle walls, (hypertrophy), may have a QRS complex showing greater voltage
charge.
33
(d) Changes in the height of the ST segment and T wave may be related to
insufficient blood being delivered to the heart muscle, such as with blocked coronary arteries and
atherosclerosis.
Questions
28. Use the above figure for the following questions.
a. How long does one heart beat (one cardiac cycle) last?
b. What is the heart rate represented on this graph, in beats per minute?
c. The contraction of muscles in the ventricle wall causes the pressure inside the ventricle to rise. When the
muscles relax the pressure drops again. On the diagram mark the following periods:
i. The time when the ventricle is constricting (ventricular systole).
ii. The time when the ventricle is relaxing (ventricular diastole).
d. The contraction of muscles in the wall of the atrium raises the pressure inside it. This pressure is also raised
when blood flows into the atrium from the veins, while the atrial walls are relaxed. On the diagram mark the
following periods:
i. The time when the atrium is contracting (atrial systole).
ii. The time when the atrium is relaxing (atrial diastole).
e. The atrio-ventricular valves open when the pressure of the blood in the atria is greater than that in the
ventricles. They snap shut when the pressure of the blood in the ventricles is greater than that in the atria. On
the diagram mark the point at which these valves will open and close.
f. The opening and closing of the semilunar valves in the aorta depends in a similar way on the relative
pressures in the aorta and ventricles. On the diagram mark the point at which these valves open and close.
29. Complete the gaps:
34
The heartbeat is initiated in an area of the right atrium called the

............................. A wave of electrical excitation passes through conducting tissue at the
junction of the atria and ventricles called the .............................. This in turn passes the
wave to the bundle of His, which transfers it to the ................................. fibres, at the apex
of the ventricles. This cause the ventricles to contract from the base upwards and forces
blood out of the heart through the aorta and .................................
Answers
28a. 0.8 seconds.
b. 60/0.8 = 75 beats per minute.
c . 1d atrial systole from 0 sec up until Ventricle systole (see diagram in booklet if unclear)
e and 2f
29. Sino-atrial node

Atrio-ventricular node
Purkinje fibres
Pulmonary artery
(ii) Pressure changes in the blood vessels

Blood pressure highest in aorta and largest arteries. It rises and falls rhythmically with ventricular
contraction.
The higher the blood pressure, the faster the flow.

The further away from the heart that the blood travels the lower the blood pressure and the slower
the flow.
Friction between the blood and vessel walls and the large total surface area causes a pressure drop in
the arterioles, even though they have a narrow lumen. Their pressure also depends on whether they
are constricted or dilated too.
In the capillary beds pressure drops further, as fluid leaks from the capillaries to the tissues.
35
Veins not subject to pressure changes derived from the contraction of the
ventricles, as they are so far away from them, so blood pressure is low.
Veins have a larger diameter, so blood flows faster than in capillaries despite the low pressure.
Blood does not return to the heart rhythmically. Its return is aided by the effect of the skeletal
muscles contracting around the veins.
G. Blood
Is a tissue made up of cells (45%) in a solution called plasma (55%).
(i) Red blood cells
Red blood cells or erythrocytes are red as they contain the pigment haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin function = transport oxygen from lungs to respiring tissues.
RBCs are biconcave discs. This gives a large surface area, so oxygen diffuses into them at a faster rate.
The thin centre makes them look paler in the middle. It reduces the diffusion distance and so makes gas
exchange faster.
RBCs have no nucleus and so more room for more haemoglobin and so more oxygen carried.
36
(ii) White blood cells/leucocytes

Larger than erythrocytes.
2 main types:
(a) Granulocytes have a granular cytoplasm and lobed nucleus.
They are phagocytic.
(b) Agranulocytes/lymphocytes clear cytoplasm and spherical nucleus.

They produce antibodies and antitoxins.
(iii) Plasma
Pale yellow liquid, 90% water.
Contains solutes such as:
Food molecules like glucose, amino acids, vitamins B and C, mineral ions,
Waste products, (including urea, HCO3 ),
Hormones
Plasma proteins, (including albumin, blood clotting proteins and antibodies).
Plasma also distributes heat.
37
Question
30. Fill in the gaps:

The blood consist of a pale yellow fluid called ................. which contains red and white
blood cells. The red blood cells or ..................... transport .......................... combined with
haemoglobin as ......................................
Answer
30. Plasma
Erythrocytes
Oxygen
Oxyhaemoglobin
3.
Transport of Oxygen
A. Structure of haemoglobin.
(i) Reminder of structure from unit 1:
There is a group of haemoglobins, all chemically similar with the same general structure. All are conjugated
proteins.
Primary structure = Sequence of amino acids but there are four chains (two alpha and two beta).
Secondary structure = helix.
Tertiary structure = each chain loosely folded into a precise shape relates to function.
Quaternary structure = 2 pairs of polypeptides (so 4 chains).
In adult haemoglobin, (HbA), there are 2-globin and 2-globin chains. All 4 polypeptide chains are linked to
from an almost spherical shape.
2+
Each have a prosthetic group, which is a haem group associated with it, which contains a ferrous (Fe ) ion.
So in one haemoglobin molecule there are 4 haem groups.
2+
Each Fe ion can combine with a single oxygen molecule (O 2). Process = oxygenation.
In total 1 haemoglobin can combine with 4 O 2 molecules (8 atoms).
Exam tip you need to be able to relate the structure of red blood cells to their function of carrying oxygen.
(ii) The role of haemoglobin.
= combines and then transports oxygen.
To do this must:
Readily associate with oxygen at surface where gaseous exchange occurs, i.e. the alveoli.
Readily dissociate from oxygen at those tissues requiring it, such as muscle.
Oxygen + Haemoglobin
4O2
Hb
Oxyhaemoglobin
Hb4O2
st
The 4 polypeptides of each haemoglobin are tightly bound together. So difficult to absorb the 1 oxygen
molecule, onto the first haem group.
st
Once loaded this 1 oxygen molecule causes haemoglobin molecule to change shape, making it easier for the
nd
2 oxygen molecule to attach.
38
nd
The 2 oxygen molecule attaching changes the shape again, making it easier for the
rd
3 oxygen molecule to attach. = cooperative binding = `the increasing ease with
which haemoglobin binds its second and third oxygen molecules, as the conformation of the haemoglobin
molecule changes.`
Allows the haemoglobin to pick up oxygen rapidly in the lungs.
rd
The 3 oxygen molecule does not induce a shape change, so it takes a large increase in oxygen partial pressure
th
to bind the 4 oxygen molecule.
Thus haemoglobin can change its affinity for oxygen under different conditions. Achieves this by changing
shape in the presence of carbon dioxide.
Different haemoglobins have slightly different sequences of amino acids and therefore slightly different
shapes. Depending on the shape, haemoglobin molecules range from those with a high affinity to those with a
low affinity for oxygen.
In presence of carbon dioxide haemoglobin binds more loosely to oxygen, so haemoglobin releases its oxygen
more easily.
Process of haemoglobin combines with oxygen = loading or associating. Happens in alveoli.
Process of haemoglobin releases its oxygen = unloading or dissociating. Happens in tissues.
Region of body
Oxygen
concentration
Carbon dioxide
concentration
Low
Affinity of
haemoglobin for
oxygen
High
Gas exchange
surface
Respiring tissues
High
Low
Result
Oxygen is attached
High
Low
Oxygen is detached
(iii) Different haemoglobins

Different organisms have different haemoglobin. They differ due to how they take up and release oxygen.
Haemoglobins with a high affinity for oxygen.
Affinity = `the degree to which 2 molecules are attracted to each other.`
So here take up oxygen more easily but release it less readily.
E.g. of an organism that lives in an environment where there is little oxygen, so haemoglobin must be able to
combine readily with oxygen if it is to absorb enough. Metabolic rate must not be too quick, and then it does
not matter if oxygen is not released as readily into the tissues.
Haemoglobin with a low affinity for oxygen.
Takes up oxygen less easily but release it more readily.
E.g. organism with high metabolic rate needs to release oxygen readily into its tissues. As long as there is
plenty of oxygen in the environment, then it is more important that the haemoglobin releases oxygen easily.
39
Questions
31. Describe the quaternary structure of haemoglobin.
32. Explain how DNA leads to different haemoglobin molecules having a different affinity for oxygen.
33. When the body is at rest only 1 of the 4 oxygen molecules carried by haemoglobin is normally released into
the tissues. Suggest why this could be an advantage when the organism becomes more active.
34. Carbon monoxide occurs in car exhaust fumes. It binds permanently to haemoglobin in preference to
oxygen. Suggest a reason why a person breathing in car exhaust fumes might lose consciousness.
Answers
31. 2 pairs of polypeptides, (2 and 2) link to form a spherical molecule, (globular protein). Each polypeptide
has a haem group that contains a ferrous ion.
32. Different base sequences in DNA- different amino acid sequences (different primary structure) and so get
different tertiary/quaternary structures and shape different affinities for oxygen.
33. If all oxygen molecules were released there would be none in reserve to supply tissues when they are more
active.
34. Carbon monoxide will gradually occupy all the sites on the haemoglobin instead of oxygen. No oxygen will
be carried to tissues, such as the brain. Cells cease to respire and to function person loses consciousness.
B. Oxygen dissociation curves.

(i) Adult oxygen dissociation curve
Measuring oxygen concentration
Amount of gas in a mixture is measures by the pressure it contributes to the total pressure of the gas mixture =
partial pressure of the gas. The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure it would exert if it were the only one
present.
For oxygen written as pO2. For carbon dioxide = pCO2
Measured in kilopascals (kPa).
The % of haemoglobin associated with oxygen at a given partial pressure of oxygen (pO 2) = % saturation.
Normal atmospheric pressure = 100kPa.
Oxygen makes up 21% of atmosphere, so its partial pressure = 21kPa.
In lungs partial pressure of oxygen = 13kPa and 98% of haemoglobin associates (binds) with oxygen.
In respiring tissue at rest pO2 = 5.3kPa, with 73% haemoglobin associated with oxygen.
In moderately respiring muscle pO2 = 2.5kPa, with 35% oxygen still associated with haemoglobin.
When a pigment is exposed to increasing partial pressures of oxygen, if it absorbed oxygen evenly, the graph
plotted would be linear. But cooperative binding means that haemoglobin exposed to increasing partial
pressure of oxygen shows a sigmoid curve, (S shaped curve).
At very low partial pressure it is difficult for haemoglobin to load oxygen but the steep part of the graph shows
oxygen binding increasingly easily.
At high partial pressure of oxygen, the percentage saturation of oxygen is very high.
Graph of this = oxygen dissociation curve
40
A small decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen leads to a lot of oxygen becoming dissociated from
haemoglobin.
Graph tails off at very high oxygen concentrations because haemoglobin is almost saturated with oxygen.
Where the curve is very steep a small change in pO2 causes a big change in the amount of oxygen carried by
haemoglobin.
The oxygen affinity of haemoglobin is high at high partial pressure of oxygen and oxyhaemoglobin does not
release its oxygen.
Oxygen affinity reduces as the partial pressure of oxygen decreases and oxygen is readily released, meeting
respiratory demands. A very small decrease in the oxygen partial pressure leads to a lot of oxygen dissociating
from haemoglobin.
There are a large number of oxygen dissociation curves because there are many types of haemoglobin and any
1 type of haemoglobin molecule can change under different conditions.
All have roughly the same shape but remember:
The further to the left the curve is the greater the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen, so it takes oxygen up
result but releases it less easily.
The further to the right the curve is the lower the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen, so it takes up oxygen
less readily but releases it more easily.
If the relationship between oxygen partial pressure and % saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen were
linear:
At higher partial pressure of oxygen, haemoglobins oxygen affinity would be too low and so oxygen
would be readily released and would not reach the respiring cells.
At lower partial pressure of oxygen, haemoglobins affinity would be too high and oxygen would not
be released in respiring tissues, even at low oxygen partial pressures.
(ii) Different lives Different haemoglobins.

(a) High altitude adaptations in mammals.
At high altitude temp, humidity and pressure decreases. Oxygen partial pressure is lower, reducing the
amount of taken up by blood.
Can lead to inadequate amounts of oxygen getting to respiring cells.
41
If person goes up mountain slowly, then body adjusts = altitude acclimatisation.

Get increase in haemoglobin content and increase in density of red blood cells in blood.
With more haemoglobin the carrying capacity of haemoglobin increase but blood becomes thicker and
requires more pressure to pump it around body.
Those that live at higher altitudes are born with higher red blood cell counts and have oxygen dissociation
curves shifted to the left of a normal curve.
Advantage because it increases the oxygen saturation of haemoglobin at low oxygen partial pressure that
occur at high altitude.
Disadvantage oxygen is unloaded less readily.
(b) The dissociation curve of foetal haemoglobin

Foetus in uterus gets oxygen by diffusion from mums placenta. Foetus has foetal haemoglobin (HbF). This has
two -globin chains and two -globin chains. This means there are variations in amino acid sequences produce
haemoglobin with different properties. This gives the foetal haemoglobin a higher affinity for oxygen than
maternal blood, at the same partial pressure of oxygen.
Their blood flows very close in the placenta, so oxygen transfers to the foetuss blood at any partial pressure of
oxygen, the percentage saturation of the foetuss blood is higher than the mothers. So foetal haemoglobin has
oxygen dissociation curve to left of maternal one.
(c) Transport of oxygen in other animals.

Lugworm
Live in the sand at the beach. Not very active, living head down, in a U shape burrow. Is covered by sea water,
which circulates in its burrow. Oxygen diffuses into the lugworms blood, from the water and the haemoglobin
transports it to the tissues respiring. This means that its haemoglobin loads oxygen very readily but only
releases it when partial pressure of oxygen is very low. The haemoglobin will be 90% saturated.
When the tide goes out it does not have fresh supply of oxygenated water. So water contains less and less
oxygen, as lugworm uses it up.
Organisms with access to low concentrations of oxygen have haemoglobin with a high affinity for oxygen than
human haemoglobin. The curve is to the left of the human one.
42
Llama
Llamas live at high altitude. Here the atmospheric pressure is lower and so the partial pressure of oxygen is
also lower. It is therefore difficult to load haemoglobin with oxygen. Its haemoglobin has a high affinity for
oxygen at all partial pressures, so loads oxygen more readily in the lungs and releases oxygen when the oxygen
partial pressure is low, in its respiring tissues.
Another solution to the problem of low oxygen availability occurs in people living at high altitude, e.g. in the
Andes and in athletes who train at high altitudes. They make more red blood cells, allowing more oxygen to be
carried around the body.
Questions
35. Explain why a lugworm can survive at these low concentrations of oxygen while a human cannot.
36. How is the lugworm able to obtain sufficient oxygen from an environment that contains so little?
37. Suggest 1 feature of a lugworms way of life that helps it to survive in an environment that has little
oxygen.
38. Haemoglobin usually loads oxygen less readily when the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, (the Bohr
shift). The haemoglobin of lugworms does not exhibit this effect. Explain why to do so could be harmful.
39. Suggest a reason why lugworms are not found higher up the seashore.
Answers
35. At this partial pressure it is still 90% saturated. This is enough for a sedentary animal like the lugworm. For
a human this low partial pressure would mean a much lower % saturation, more like 10%, not enough to keep
cells alive.
Haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen, so pick up oxygen easily and release it less readily.
36. The dissociation curve is shifted to the left. This means it is fully loaded with oxygen, even when there is
little in the environment available.
37. Lugworm is not very active. So requires little oxygen.
38. Respiration produced carbon dioxide. This builds up in burrow. If lugworm exhibited the Bohr shift effect, it
would not be able to absorb much oxygen when it was present in very low concentrations.
39. Higher part of beach is uncovered for longer period of times, so lugworm would receive less frequent fresh
sea water, during long times without fresh sea water, the lugworm would use up all oxygen and die.
Higher up the beach, there will be drier sand and so the burrow will have less water in it and so less oxygen.
43
Diving mammals
E.g. whales and seals.
Would expect these, to have haemoglobin with high affinity for oxygen because they dive in deep water but
not so, as they take in air before they dive at the surface, so they dont require high affinity for oxygen.
Small mammals
Have a large surface area to volume ratio. So lose heat quickly. So to maintain temperature they have high
metabolic rate to generate heat.
Active = higher demand for oxygen, so have haemoglobin with a lower affinity for oxygen than human
haemoglobin.
So oxygen dissociation curve of a mouse is to the right of humans.
Questions
40. The oxygen dissociation curve of the mouse is shifted to the right of humans. What difference does this
make to the way oxygen is unloaded from mouse haemoglobin compared to that of a human?
41. What advantage does this have for the maintenance of body temp in mice?
Answers
40. It unloads more readily.
41. Oxygen is more readily released from haemoglobin to the tissues. This helps tissue respire more and
produce more heat, which helps maintain the body temp of a mouse.
Birds and fish.

Flight in birds and swimming in fish both need energy. Flight muscles in wings need lots of oxygen to respire, to
keep them airborne. So during flight they have a very high metabolic rate, to produce the energy to oppose
gravity in air that gives little support.
Fish have a different problem they expend a lot of energy swimming because water is very dense and
difficult to move through.
(d) Haemoglobin in root nodules

Get haemoglobin in some plants and also symbiotic bacteria e.g. root nodules of leguminous plants like peas
and beans. They have special haemoglobin like molecule = lepthaemoglobin.
Nodules contain bacteria they absorb nitrogen from air ammonia = nitrogen fixation, using enzyme
nitrogenase.
Must be in anaerobic conditions, but plant roots need aerated soil.
So leguminous plants have evolved the lepthaemoglobin from cytochrome molecules that are present in all
cells. Lepthaemoglobin absorbs the oxygen in the root nodules and creates an oxygen free atmosphere for the
nitrogen fixation bacteria.
Questions
42. Is the oxygen dissociation curve of a pigeon to the right or left of a human? Why?
43. Mackerel swim in the surface water of the sea. They swim fast to avoid predators. Plaice move slowly on
the sea-bed, camouflaged from predators. Both are approx. same mass. Sketch a graph to show the positions
of the oxygen dissociation curves for these 2 fish.
44. What is the effect of increased carbon dioxide concentration on oxygen dissociation?
45. How does this change the saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen?
46. A rise in temperature shifts the oxygen dissociation curve right. How does this enable exercising muscle to
work more efficiently?
Answers
44
42. Shifted to the right so more oxygen is readily released to the tissues, so
haemoglobin supplies more oxygen to respiring muscles.
43. Sigmoid curves. Plaice to the left of mackerel.
44. The curve is shifted to the right.
45. Haemoglobin has become less saturated.
46. Exercising muscle releases heat, shifting the curve to the right. This causes haemoglobin to release more
oxygen for muscular activity and increased respiration. Hence supply can meet demand.
(iii) The effects of carbon dioxide concentration The Bohr Shift

In the presence of a higher concentration of carbon dioxide, haemoglobin has a reduced affinity for oxygen.
Haemoglobin gives up or releases oxygen more readily at higher partial pressures of carbon dioxide.
At any oxygen partial pressure, the haemoglobin is less saturated with oxygen, so the data points on the
dissociation curve are all lower. This shift in the graphs position the Bohr shift.
Bohr shift = `The movement of the oxygen dissociation curve to the right at a higher partial pressure of carbon
dioxide, because at a given oxygen partial pressure, haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen.`
At a given partial pressure of oxygen, when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is higher, haemoglobin has a
lower affinity for oxygen.
Cells respire and produce carbon dioxide. This raised the Pco2, so increases the rate of oxygen unloading and
curve shifts down.
The greater the conc. of carbon dioxide the more readily the oxygen is released. This accounts for the
unloading of oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin in respiring tissues, where the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is
high and oxygen is needed.
Lungs
= gaseous exchange surface. Here low conc. of carbon dioxide, so affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is
increased, which coupled with the high conc. of oxygen means oxygen is readily loaded by haemoglobin. The
reduced carbon dioxide level has shifted the oxygen dissociation curve to the left.
45
Respiring tissues
E.g. muscles with higher levels of CO2. The affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is reduced. Added to the low
concentration of oxygen in the muscles means oxygen is readily unloaded from haemoglobin into muscle cells.
The increased CO2 has shifted the oxygen dissociation curve to the right.
Loading, transport and unloading of oxygen.

The greater the concentration of carbon dioxide, the more readily haemoglobin releases its oxygen. This is
because dissolved CO2 is acidic and the low pH causes haemoglobin to change shape.
At gas-exchange surface carbon dioxide is constantly removed.
pH increases here due to low levels of CO2.
High pH changes shape of haemoglobin so that oxygen is loaded more readily.

This change in shape increases the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen, so it is not released whilst
being transported to the tissues.
In tissue CO2 levels high due to respiration.
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid.
This reaction releases hydrogen ions
So pH of blood drops.
Lower pH changes shape of haemoglobin so it has a low affinity for oxygen.
Haemoglobin releases oxygen into respiring tissues.
The higher the rate of respiration the more CO2 tissues produce the lower the pH the greater the
haemoglobin shape change the more readily oxygen is unloaded the more oxygen is available for
respiration.
Humans haemoglobin carries 4 oxygen molecules. Normally when resting only 1 of the 4 is unloaded at
respiring tissues, so the haemoglobin that returns to the lungs still is 75% saturated.
In an actively respiring tissue, then the 3 remaining oxygen molecules can be unloaded as well.
Or partial pressure of oxygen (kPa)

kPa 12 = Haemoglobins molecule is loaded with oxygen in the lungs.
46
kPa 6 = Haemoglobin molecule in a resting tissue unloads 25% of its oxygen.

kPa 2 = Haemoglobins molecule in an active tissue unloads 75% of its oxygen.
The partial pressure of oxygen at which haemoglobin is 95% saturated = the loading pressure.
The partial pressure of oxygen at which haemoglobin is 50% saturated = the unloading pressure.
(iv) Myoglobin
Is a muscle protein.
Its oxygen dissociation curve is far to the left of haemoglobin.
Normally respiring tissue obtains oxygen from haemoglobin.

Oxyhaemoglobin only unloads its oxygen when the oxygen partial pressure is very low.
E.g. when exercising heavily.
So Myoglobin is described as an oxygen store.
4. Transport of carbon dioxide
A. The 3 methods
1. In solution in the plasma (approx 5%).
2. As the hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3 (approx 85%)
3. Bound to haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin (approx 10%)
Some carbon dioxide is transported in the red blood cells but most is converted into hydrogen carbonate in
the red blood cells and then it diffuses into the plasma.
B. The chloride shift
The following describes the reactions in red blood cells:
CO2 diffuses into red blood cells
Carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid (H2CO3). Catalysing enzyme = carbonic anhydrase.
Carbonic acid dissociates hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate (HCO3 ) ions.
HCO3 ions diffuse out of red blood cells into blood plasma.
To balance the outflow of negative ions and maintain electrochemical neutrality, chloride ions diffuse into the
red blood cells from the plasma = chloride shift
+
H ions cause oxyhaemoglobin to dissociate into haemoglobin and oxygen.
The hydrogen ions are picked up by haemoglobin haemoglobinic acid, (HHb). This removes hydrogen ions
and so pH of red blood cells does not fall.
Oxygen diffuses out of red blood cells into respiring tissues.
47
Haemoglobin here is acting as a buffer for the blood, resisting the changes in blood
pH when carbonic acid is formed. It does this by removing hydrogen ions from solution, so preventing pH
falling.
The formation of haemoglobinic acid forces haemoglobin to unload oxygen, causing the Bohr shift. So the
higher the partial pressure of carbon dioxide; the lower the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
This is why the behaviour of haemoglobin is different in the lungs than the tissues.
5. Intercellular or Tissue fluid

Exam tip: make sure you can describe the differences between plasma, tissue fluid and blood.
What is tissue fluid?
Capillaries adapted to allow exchange of materials by:
Thin, preamble walls.
Large surface area for exchange of materials.
Slow blood flow to allow time for exchange.
Blood flows close to every cell of the body in the capillary networks in all organs. However, it is tissue fluid, not
blood which carries glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, salts and oxygen to the cells. As well as supplying the
cells with materials tissue fluid also receives carbon dioxide and other waste materials from the tissues. In this
way, tissue fluid is the means by which materials are exchanged between blood and cells. Tissue fluid is
formed from blood plasma, when it is forced thorough the capillary walls, in every capillary network. It flows
around the cells, bathing them in a fluid that provides a constant environment. The constant pH and
temperature of the tissue fluid help to provide optimum conditions for enzyme activity in the cells.
The diffusion of solutes in and out of the capillaries relates to the bloods hydrostatic pressure and solute
potential.
48
Formation of tissue fluid

Tissue fluid forms because the capillary walls are permeable to most molecules and the pressure of the blood
entering the capillaries is high enough to force materials across the capillary walls. However, plasma protein
molecules are too large to leave and so are not found in tissue fluid.
As tissue fluid leaves the blood, it carries with it dissolved oxygen and nutrients. These enter the cells from the
tissue fluid by diffusion, active transport, or facilitated diffusion. Most of the tissue fluid that bathes the cells is
returned to the blood in the capillary networks carrying with it dissolved carbon dioxide and other metabolic
waste products. The remainder drains into the lymphatic system. The lymphatic vessels carry lymph towards
the heart. Lymph is returned to the blood where veins from the head and neck join with those from the arm.
Lymph is formed from excess tissue fluid.
49
What is Hydrostatic pressure?

Two main factors are involved in the formation of tissue fluid:
Due to the contraction of the ventricles, there is a high hydrostatic pressure in the blood. This acts
outwards on the wall of any vessel carrying the blood. If the wall is permeable, liquid is forced out of
the vessel.
The other factor is water potential of blood plasma. The plasma contains many dissolved substances
including proteins, which are too large to leave the capillaries. Therefore it has a low water potential,
which draws water into the blood plasma in the capillaries by osmosis.
At the arterial end of a capillary bed:

Blood is under pressure from the heart pumping and muscle contraction in artery and arteriole walls. High
hydrostatic pressure pushes liquids outwards from the capillaries to the spaces surrounding the cells.
50
Plasma is a solution and has a low solute potential, due to the colloidal plasma
proteins. It tends to pull water back into the capillary by osmosis.
At the arterial end of the capillary the high hydrostatic effect outweighs the effect of the plasmas solute
potential and so tissue fluid (all the substances in the blood such as water and solutes in the plasma except
large proteins) is forced out of the capillaries. This is because the hydrostatic pressure at the arterial end is
higher than that of the surrounding tissue fluid.
Solutes such as glucose, oxygen and ions are used in the cells, so their concentration in and around the cells is
low but in the blood is higher. This favours diffusion from the capillaries to the tissue fluid.
mm = millimetres of mercury these day units will be kilopascals (KPa). Large osmotic pressure results from a
low water potential.
At the venous end of the capillary bed:
As tissue fluid has left the capillary this reduces the hydrostatic pressure of the blood.
Plasma proteins are more concentrated, so solute potential is more negative.
At the venous end of the capillary network, the effect of the water/solute potential outweighs that of the
hydrostatic pressure (which is lower in the capillaries than in the tissue fluid) and water is drawn back into the
capillaries by osmosis. Other substances such as carbon dioxide diffuse into the blood down concentration
gradients.
Plasma proteins that are not forced out of the blood are largely responsible for the water potential of the
blood plasma being lower than that of the surrounding tissue fluid at the venous end of a capillary network.
At the venous end of the capillary bed, the solute potential of the blood is only a little more negative, despite
the considerable loss of water. This is because it is measured on a logarithmic scale. So to have a decrease of
1kPa, the concentration of the solutes would have to increase ten-fold.
51
Question
47. Match the terms 1-4 with the descriptions A-D:
1. Bohr effect
2. Tissue fluid
3. Chloride shift
4. Haemoglobin
A. The means by which electrochemical neutrality of the red blood cells is maintained.
B. The fluid that allows exchange of materials between the body cells and the blood.
52
C. The blood pigment that carries oxygen in mammals.

D. At higher partial pressure of carbon dioxide, the oxygen dissociation curve moves
to the right.
Answer
47.
1D
2B
3-A
4-C
If the bloods protein concentration is very low, the solute pressure pulling fluid back into the capillaries at the
venous end of the capillary bed is very low.
If it is lower than the hydrostatic pressure pushing fluid out, fluid will not return to the capillary. It then stays in
the tissue making them swollen. Condition = kwashiorkor this explains why children raised on very low protein
diets may have a swollen face, abdomen and limbs.
Blood plasma
Ultrafiltration
Return of
lymph via
lymph
vessels
Tissue fluid
Lymph
What is the lymphatic system?

This is carried in the lymphatic system which is made up of capillaries resembling blood capillaries.
Closed ended lymphatic capillaries lie in spaces between cells. They unite to form larger and larger vessels
eventually to join the great veins in the neck dripping their contents into the blood. The lymph fluid will have
53
to pass through lymph nodes that contain lymphocytes and macrophages. These
cells screen the lymph and will remove foreign materials. Lymph nodes may swell
with dead cells causing swelling in the groin, armpits and neck during infection (swollen glands).
The contents of the lymphatic system are not moved by the pumping of the heart. Instead they are moved by:
Hydrostatic pressure of the tissue fluid that has left the capillaries.
Contraction of body muscles that squeeze the lymph vessels valves in the lymph vessels ensure that
fluid inside them moves away from the tissues in the direction of the heart.
Characteristics of plasma, tissue fluid and lymph
Site
Associated cells
Respiratory gases
Nutrients
Large protein molecules
Water potential
Plasma
Blood vessels
Erythrocytes
Granulocytes,
lymphocytes
More oxygen,
Less carbon dioxide
More
Lower
Tissue fluid
Surrounding body cells
Granulocytes,
lymphocytes
lymph
Lymph vessels
Granulocytes,
lymphocytes
Less oxygen
More carbon dioxide
Fewer
Higher
Less oxygen
More carbon dioxide
Fewer
Higher
Questions
48. Describe how tissue fluid is formed and how it is returned to the circulatory system.
49. The tissues of people who are starving often swell because of the accumulation of tissue fluid. Explain
what causes this accumulation of tissue fluid.
50. By which 2 routes does tissue fluid return to the bloodstream?
51. What forces tissue fluid out of the blood plasma in capillaries and into the surrounding tissues?
Answers
48. Formation
High blood / hydrostatic pressure / pressure filtration;
Forces water / fluid out;
Large proteins remain in capillary;
Return
Lower water potential in capillary / blood;
Due to (plasma) proteins;
Water enters capillary / blood;
(By) osmosis;
49. Starvation linked to low protein content of diet/ low protein concentration in plasma/ blood;
Water potential of blood higher/ smaller water potential gradient;
Tissue fluid is formed rather than returned/ less tissue fluid returned to blood.
50. Via the capillaries and via the lymphatic system
51. Hydrostatic pressure due to pumping of the heart
54
Past paper questions

Q1.
(a)
The cardiac cycle is controlled by the sinoatrial node (SAN) and the atrioventricular node
(AVN). Describe how.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................... (5)
Q2.
The graph shows changes in the volume of blood in the left ventricle.
(a)
Between which times is the left atrium contracting? Give the evidence from the graph that
supports your answer.
Times ...........................................................................................................
Evidence ......................................................................................................
55
......................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Use the graph to calculate.

(i) the heart rate;
Answer ............................................
(ii)
(2)
stroke volume.
Answer ............................................
(1)
(c)
Describe how you would calculate cardiac output from heart rate and stroke volume.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
(1)
The table shows the rate of blood flow to some organs when a person is at rest and during a period of vigorous
exercise.
3
Organ
Rate of blood flow / cm minute

at rest
(d)
during exercise
Skeletal muscles
1 000
16 000
Kidney
1 200
1 200
Brain
750
Heart muscle
300
1 200
Suggest a value for the rate of blood flow to the brain during exercise.
......................................................................................................................
(1)
(e)
(i)
The coronary arteries take blood to the muscles in the wall of the heart. Calculate the
ratio of the rate of blood flow into the coronary arteries during exercise to the rate
flowing into these arteries at rest.
Answer.............................................
56
(1)
3
(ii) At rest the rate of flow of blood to the heart muscle is 0.9 cm g per
minute. Calculate the volume of blood 1g of heart muscle would receive in 5
minutes of vigorous exercise.
Answer.............................................
(1)
(Total 9 marks)
Mark scheme
M1.
(a)
1.
SAN initiates heartbeat/acts as a pacemaker/myogenic;

Q Must be in context
2.
(SAN) sends wave of electrical activity/impulses (across atria)

causing atrial contraction;
Reject: signals/electronic/messages/nerve impulses once only
3.
AVN delays (electrical activity/impulses);

Neutral: reference to non-conducting tissue delaying impulses
instead of the AVN
4.
(Allowing) atria to empty before ventricles contract/ventricles

to fill before they contract;
5.
(AVN) sends wave of electrical activity/impulses down

Bundle of His/Purkyne fibres;
6.
(Causing) ventricles to contract (from base up)/ventricular

systole;
5 max
M2.
(a)
0.1 0.6 seconds;

Volume (in left ventricle) increasing / ventricle filling;
2
(b)
(i)
2 marks for correct answer of 75 (beats) per minute;

1 mark if heart beat correctly identified as lasting 0.8 seconds;
2
(ii)
70 cm ;
1
57
(c)
Multiply them;
1
(d)
750;
Accept a small increase up to 800 cm
(e)
(i)
4 : 1 / 4;
Ratio must be expressed in simplest terms
1
(ii)
18 cm ;
1
[9]
58

2.3 Transport in Animals

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2.3 Transport in Animals

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AS Unit 2: Biodiversity and Physiology of Body Systems.

2.3: Adaptations for Transport.

Explain why multicellular animals need transport mechanisms.

Explain the significance of and the difference between open and

Describe the cardiac cycle and interpret graphs showing

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

Describe the structure of blood cells.

Describe the differences between blood, plasma, tissue fluid and

Features of a transport system.

A. Open systems and closed circulatory systems.

A form of mass transport where the transport medium is moved in bulk

In addition some systems have:

(i) Open circulatory systems.

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

(ii) Closed circulatory systems.

(b) Double circulation

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

B. Structure and function of blood vessels.

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

(i) Basic structure of arteries and veins.

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

Capillaries have a much narrower lumen

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

veins and heart failure.

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

Complete the table below with the key points

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

Atria receive blood from veins

Blood flows from atria ventricles arteries

Blood from the left ventricle flows to the aorta

Blood from the right ventricle flows to the pulmonary artery

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

rest of body. Transports oxygenated blood. It is connected to the left ventricle.

Pressure is important in blood flow

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

B. The Cardiac Cycle

When a chamber is contracting we say it is in systole.

When a chamber is relaxing we say it is in diastole.

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

(i) Atrial systole

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

(ii) Ventricular systole

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

Blood is forced through AV

Fill with blood

Blood enters through the

a) No blood leaves, but

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

a) Blood enters atria but

pressure of blood increases.

a) Blood neither enters nor

(iv) Valves their role in controlling blood flow

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

The right atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve is formed of 3 cup-shaped flaps

C. Pressure and volume changes during the cardiac cycle

WJEC AS Bio Unit 2.3: (3) Adaptations for Transport

(a) Atrial muscles contract = atrial systole