AWS SM HDBK 2nd Ed 1977 Soldering Manual

AWS S M * I N D E X
**
R 078q2b5 000bllL7 8 R
Soldering Manual
COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Licensed by Information Handling Services
AWS S M * I N D E X
**
I078L1265 00061118 T I
SOLDERING MANUAL
Second Edition, Revised
Prepared by
AWS Committee on Brazing and Soldering
Under the Direction of
AWS Technical Activities Committee
Approved by
AWS Board of Directors, April 1,1977
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC.

.2501 N.W. 7th Street, Miami, Florida 33125

AWS S M m I N D E X
**
0 7 8 4 2 b 5 0006439 3
Library of Congress Number: 77-90783

International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-151-6
American Welding Society, 2501 N.W. 7th Street, Miami, FL 33125
@ 1978 by American Welding Society.
All rights reserved.
Note: By publication of this manual, the American Welding Society does
not insure anyone utilizing the manual against liability arising from the
use of such manual. A publication of a manual by the American Welding
Society does not carry with it any right to make, use, or sell any patented
items. Each prospective user should make an independent investigation.
Printed in the United States of America

AWS S M U I N D E X
**
I07842b5 0 0 0 b 4 2 0 B E
CONTENTS
Personnel vii
Introduction ix
1. Principles of Soldering 1
2. Solders 3
3. Fluxes I3
4. Joint Design 21
Precleaning and Surface Preparation 35
Equipment, Processes, and Procedures 41
FluxRemoval 49
Inspection and Testing 51
9. Copper and Copper Alloys 63
10. Steel 69
11. Coated Steels 71
12. Stainless Steels 75
13. Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys 79
14. Lead and Lead Alloys 83
15. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 91
16. Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 97
17. Tin and Tin Alloys 101
18, CastIrons 105
19, Precious Metal Coatings and Films 107
20. Printed Circuits 109
21. Safety and Health Protection 113
22. The Soldering of Pipe and bbe 117
23. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Solder Joints 125
5.
6.
7.
8.
Index 145

AWS S M * I N D E X
**
0 7 8 4 2 6 5 0006112L T
PERSONNEL
R.L. Peaslee, Chairman
*G.M. Slaughter, Chairman
M.M. Schwartz, Vice Chairman
*D.J. Spillane, 1st Vice Chairman
*R.E. Ballentine, 2nd Vice Chairman
T.J. Olivem, Secretary
W.G. Bader
R.E. Beal
C.R. Behringer
J.R. Bonnar
J.P. Brodenck
G.D. Cremer
A.S. Cross, Jr.
D.C. Dilley
F.C. Disque
R.M. Evans
E. B. Gempler
R.G. Gilliland
K. Gustafson
A.N. Kugler
A.H. Lenk
J.B. Long
R.O. McIntosh
J.A. Mehaffey
M.T. Merlo
E.J. Minarcik
W.J. Reichenecker
M.N. Ruoff
J.F. Smith
G.K. Sosnin
H.A. Sosnin
H.W. Spaletta
J.R. Terril1
D. Wireman
*Commencing June, 1974

Wail Colmonoy Corp.

Oak Ridge National Lab,
Rohr Corporation
General Electric Co.
Westinghouse Electric Corp.
American Welding Society
Bell Telephone Laboratories
IIT Research institute
Western Gold & Platinum Co.
Handy and Harman
Eutectic and Castolin Institute
International Harvester Co.
Engelhard Minerals & Chemicals
Consultant
Alpha Metals Incorporated
Battelle Memorial Institute
United Aircraft Products
Pelton Steel
Westinghouse-Hanford
Consultant
Reynolds Metals Co.
Tin Research Institute
National Electronics
Stanley Flagg and Co.
Chemetron Corporation
NL Industries
General Electric Co.
Lead Industries Association
The ELEE. Company
Consultant
Aerojet Nuclear Co.
Aluminum Company of America
Aerobraze Corporation
AWS S M * I N D E X
**
I0784265 Ob1122 L I
viiiPersonnel
Advisory Members
N.C. Cole
O.S. Gschwind
T.Hikido
W.S. Lyman
M. Prager
H.S.Sayre
Combustion Engineering
United Aircraft of Canada, Ltd.
Pyromet Industries
Copper Development Association
Consultant
U.S. Naval Ship Engineering Center
Subcommittee on Soldering
W.G. Bader, Chairman

T.J. Olivera, Secretary
R.E. Beal
P.J. Bud
C. DiMartini
F,C. Disque
K. Lazar
J.B. Long
M.T. Merlo
E.J. Minarcik
M. Prager
W.J. Reichenecker
J.F. Smith
W.R. Studnick
,J. J. Stokes
H.A. Sosnin
J. Sylvester
Bell Telephone Laboratories

American Welding Society
IIT Research Institute
Electrovert Incorporated
American Smelting & Refining Company
Alpha Metals Incorporated
Refinery for Electronics
Tin Research Institute
Chemetron Corporation
NL Industries
Consultant
Western Electric
Aluminum Company of America
Consultant
Hexacon Electric Co.
Past Subcommittee members who assisted in the

preparation of this Manual
T.Agne
R.M. Healy
J.A. Kennedy
J,F. Lockwood


Kester Solder
Hexacon Electric
DowChemical .
**
AWS S M * I N D E X
W 0784265 0006423 3 W
INTRODUCTION
Soldering is one of the oldest and most widely who are familiar with the fundamentals of solderpracticed methods of joining metals. The art and ing may proceed directly to chapters on specific
science of soldering have continuously advanced metals or applications to obtain information for
since the Soldering Manual was first published in which they have an immediate need.
While every attempt has been made to provide
1959. Considerable impetus was provided by the
revolutionary changes in the electronics industry the most recent and reliable information on solwhere solders were required to join hundreds of dering, the Committee realizes that all the needs
components on printed circuits. At the present of the specialist will not be filled. However, it is
time, soldering is utilized on microcircuits to pro- hoped that the manual will provide the necessary
vide joints as small as 150microns. Joint reliabib information to direct his efforts towards a more
ity is required for applications ranging from au- complete solution of his problems.
Since the trend in American industry is to
tomotive radiators to the most sophisticated
computers in environments that range from convert to the use of metric units, all U.S. cushouseholds to outerspace. As a result of these tomary measurements were converted to metric.
diverse applications, much new technical infor- The metric units used are those of the Systme
mation has been generated on solders, their in- . Internationale d'Units (SI),which is the internateraction with base metals, and the properties of tionally accepted metric system. Where tolersoldered joints. This second edition of the Solder- ances are not essential, metric measurements
ing Manual incorporates these many advances were rounded off to the nearest O or 5; for examand new data along with the fundamentals of the ple, 150" C (-3000 F)-note that the symbol
Is=**
soldering process.
i s used to indicate approximation. Where
The American Welding Society defines solder- commercial products (which are still available
ing as "a group of welding processes which pro- mostly in U.S. customary units) are described,
duces coalescence of materials by heating them the metric unit is rounded off to the nearest Oor 5 ,
to a suitable temperature and by using a filler and the word nominal precedes it. For example, a
metal having a liquidus not exceeding 450" C nominal i .5 kg (3 Ib) solder bar. Throughout the
(8400 F) and below the solidus of the base mate- text, U.S. customary units are included parenrials. The filler metal is distributed between the thetically.
closely fitted surfaces by capillary attraction."
Comments, inquiries, and suggestions for fuThe liquidus temperatureof4$0 Cdifferentiates ture revisions of this manual are welcome. Adsolders from brazing filler metals.
dress them to Secretary, AWS Committee on
The data in this manual have been arranged in Brazing and Soldering. American Welding Sociwhat the Committee! believes ta be the proper ety, 2501 N.W. 7th Street, Miami, Florida
order for the reader who wishes to study each 33125.
aspect of the soldering pr.ocess. However, those
ix

AWS S M * I N D E X
**
I0 7 8 4 2 6 5 0 0 0 b 4 2 4 5
INDEX
abrasion: cleaning. 37;solders. 95

abrasion tools: for aluminum alloys. 95: for magnesium
alloys. 98
ac6clerated aging. f i x . . 5.
acid cleaning. 35.37
acids: for clcaning. 35-32;inorganic. 14. fable. 15
activaicd rosin fluxes, 16
ape-hardenable alloys, 79
alloying. 2 , 125
alloys. melting and solidification process of. 3
aluminum and aluminum alloys, 5 . IO. 13. 91.96.
f i g . . 93
aluminum coated sieels. 7 I
American Society for Tcsiing Matcnals. See ASTS1
Kmencan Standard 2 49.I . I 13. I I4
amines. i n iniermcdiate fluxcs. 15
ammonium chloride. 14, 17
aniimony, 5. 7. 8. 123. rable, 6, 7, I2Y
ASTM. 5 . I I . 130
base meial: alloying of. 125: corrosion o by flux rcsiducs. 49; selection of. 92;scleciion o. i n joini
design. 21.34
bell and spigot joints, 87
bisniurh: soldenng o. IO; properties of IOU meliing
alloys of, 133,iablr, 134 Sre also fusible alloys
blowpipe for tin soldering. 101
brass: soldcrs. 63: surface prcparaiion o. 64
bridging, 33,jix., 5 9
Brinell hardness, 60, 127
bronzes: flux Tor soldering. 19: solders for, 63
butt joinis. 21, 22,fig., 2 2 , 138, fable. 1-39
cable sheath joints. 8 8 4 ~ s . 84-86
.
cadmium coaied steel. 72
cadmium-silver solder, 9,fable. 10
cadmium-zinc solders. IO, fable. 10
calorizcd tips. 4 2
can manuaciuring industry. soldering for. 4. 73

capillary flow: in joini design. 23-?6,ji~.,

26: in iinantimony.lcad solders, 8
capillary iesis, I , 5 I
carbon tetrachloride, as a health hazard. I 15
cast coppcr and'copper allo), rable. 6 7
casi irons, 105. 106
caustic cleaners for aluminum alloys. 95
chemical hazards. I15
chloride5 in fluxes. 15
chromium plaied steels. 72
circuii board joinis./ips., 32, 33
clcaning. 2 . 35.39: with acid, 3 5 ; b y abrasive
techniques. 35; by chemical means. 35, 73; by
deprcasing. 35: by mechanical means. 37, 120: of
pipe and lube. 120: of precious metal, 108; of
printed circuiis, I I ? ; of stainless steels. 75-76
clcarances: for joinis in steel. 70: for coafcd sicel joints.
71
coaied copper bast alloys. 65
coaied sieels. 7 I
cald solder joint. fable. 57,jig.. 58
commercial forms of solder. fahle. 12
conlaminants: ionic./ig.. 61: surface. 13
contamination checks. 61 -62
conveyors. 48
cooling method. 2
copper and copper alloys. I , 63-68.iablcs. 66.68,
jig. 65
coppcr tips. in soldering irons, 43
copper tube. sizes and weights of, fables, 1/11
corrosion, 9 I
corrosive fluxes, 2, 14-15,64,
creep sirenph, 127. 128. robles. 129, 131, 132
creep iesi, 60
cup joint in lead pipe, 88
dcfects in soldered joints, table. 57. /R.. 58
design of soldered joinis. See joint design
AWS S M * I N D E X
**
W 07842b5 000b425 7 I
146llnde.r
destructive testing. 51.62; fatigue test, 60; impact test,
. 61; peel test. 59; shear test.rable. 60: stress rupture
test, 60;tension test. 59
dewctting,fig.. 59
dip soldering. 4. 43
direct spread test, 5 I
disturbed soldered joint,fig. 58
dry flux and solder for casi irons, 105
dry flux for steels. 70
dust, metal, t 15
dye penetrant inspection. 58
edge dip lest. 52

effects of impurities on solders. 4 - 5
electrical conductivity of solder, 127. rableJ. lt7, 134
electrical connections, 27-33. fables andfigs., 30.33
electrical heating, precautions for. I13
electrical resistance method for testing soldered joints,
59
electrically heated soldering irons, 4 1-42. See' also
soldering irons
electrochemical surface cleaning for cast irons, 105
electrodeposited coatings. 73
electroplating. 39. 95
enibriitlement of nickel and high nickel by Icad solders,
79
environmental tests, 61
equipment. 4 1-43
etching, 37
'
euiectic compositions. 3
excess solder in joints, fable. 57, fi^.. 58
expansion, thermal. See thermal expansion
facc fed joints, 48
failure, cyclic, 49
fast cooling. 2
fatigue: in lead and lead alloys. 33: tests for, 60
Federal Specifications. 16: address for obtaining. I I :
limiti,ng impurities in tin-lead solderr. 4. 5
flame heated soldering irons. 41
flow point. 3
fluidity of molten solder, I
fluorides i n fluxes. 15
flux action. l3,&., I4
fluxes. 13-20; activated rosin. 16: for air conditioning
and refrigerating equipment, 17; for aluminum and
aluminum alloys, 94; for aluminum coated steels.
71; ammonium chloride and zinc chloride mixtures, 123; for auto bodies. 17: for auto radiators,
17: for cadmium coated steels. 72; for cast irons,
105.06; chemical. 94; corrosive. 2, 14-15. 17-19,
iablc, 18; for coated sieels. 71; for copper and
copper alloys, 63; intermediate constituents of, IS.
19, roble, 15: inorganic salts and acids in. 14-15,

IS: for lead and lead alloys, 87; for mag.

nesium, 98; for nickel and high-nickel alloys, 80;
for nickel plated steels, i 2 : nonconosivc 16, 20;
paste, 16: forpipeandtube, 121. 123:forplumbing
and heating applications. 117; for precious metals.
108; for printed circuits. I 1 I; reaction. 17, 94;
selection of, 18. 19. rablc. 18: self-neutralizing. 2;
for stainless steels. 76: for steels. 70; surface con.
taminants of, 13; for terneplate. 72: testing of, 20;
theories of. 13; for tin, 101; for tinplate. 72: types
of. 14-17; zinc chlonde. 14. IS. 17- 19.49: for zinc
coaled steels, 74
fluxless soldering: magnesium and magnesium alloys.
97-99; of aluminum alloys. 95
flux removal. 2.47.49, 50
flux residues, 14: corrosive, 49-50; on aluminum alloys. 91; paste. 50
focused infrared soldering. 46
fracture initiation strength of joints, 138. roble. / 4 0
fusible alloys. IO. table. IO. See bismuth
ioblc.
galvanized iron. See zinc coated steels

gas-handling equipment. 114
globule solderability tesi.fig., 52
gold. 107. table, I
I
hardness: of4ead joints. 83; tests for. 60. 127

hwards: from chemicals. 115: from fumes. 114: health
and safet!, I t3-15; from heat. I13
heat conductivity: of aluminum.*coated steels, 7 I ; o
cast iron. 105-06: of magnesiuni allo)s. 98
heating methods. 2: for cast iron. 105-06: for copper
and copper alloys. 64:for lead and lead alloys. 87;
for magnesium, 98: for nickel and high-nickel solders, 79; for pipe and tuhing, 12 l , 122: for stainless
steels, 76; for steels. 69; for terneplate, 72; for tin.
101-02
hot gas soldering. 46

high-nickel alloys. composition of, roble, 80
'hoses for gas fuel, i 14
hydrochloric acid, IS. 17: for acid cleaning. 36
hydrofluoric acid, IS; lor acid cleaning. 36
impact strength, fables, 126, 129
impurities. 5
indium solders. I I . rubles, II, /Ox
induction heating. 4. 44, 114
inorganic salts and acids. 14, roble, 15
inspection and testing of soldered join&, 5 1-62
insufficient solder in joint, fable. 5 7
intergranular penetration. 92
intermediate fluxes. 15.16, roble, 15
intermetalli.c compounds, 8. 140
ionic contaminants.fig.. 61
Izad impact test, ruble, 129
AWS S M * I N D E X
**
W 0 7 8 4 2 6 5 OOCIb42b 9 W
ttidexl1.17
jigging, 2, 2 4 . j i ~ . ,25, fable. 31

joint clcarancc, 23. 24, 26,JiR.. 26. 133; for coated
sicels. 71: for pipe and iubc, 117; for steel, 70; tor
tin-antimony-lead solden. 8; for tin-lead solders, 4
joini design, 21.33.figs.. 2 2 - 2 6 , 3 2 , 3 3 ,fables. 28-32;
for aluminum alloys. 94.95: for lead and lead al.
toys, 87; for magnesium, 98: for nickcl and nickcl
alloys. 80: for precious mcials. 108: for stainlcss
sicel, 77; for s1ccI. 70; for icrncptaic, 72; for iin.
102-03
joini fit-up. 2
joini properties,.? I, 129.43, fahlrs. 129-35, Ij4-42,
jigs.. 136-38. 140-43
joinis, dclects in. /ahIr, 57; in pipes and iubcs. I24
land spacing, 27
lap joints, 21, 22. 27
lap shear icst, 59
Icad and Icad alloys, 83-89; fatiguc of. 83; fluxes of.
87; hardness of. 83; heating mcihods, 87; mcchanical clcaning of, 83; mechanicjd propcnics of, 83; '
pori soldering treatment of, 88; soldcring of. 8X:
soldcrs for, 83; surace prcparaiion of. 8 3 :
icchnique for wiping,/igs., RJ-86; thermal cxpan.
sion oi,/igs., 28.29; types of joints of. 87, 88;
wetting ability of, I
lcad.bismuth solders. 91
Icad pipc and plumbing joints, 87, 88
Icad pull icst,fig., 60
lead.silver soldcn, 9 , iahlts, 9, II
lead-iin antimony, I2X.?Y
lead-tin soldcrs, 3.5, fi^., 5 . / a b l r ,6.7.
liquidus iempcraturcs, I , 3-12, 132.35, fahles, 6.7,
9-12, 132-35, fix.. 5
In.),joints, 22.24,/lx.. 23: for Icad and lead alloys. 87
low iempcraiure (room iemperaiurc) propenics of sol.
dcr, 125, iahlr, 126 (cryogcnic) 12X. iublr, 129
low icnipcraiurc soldering. 133, fahle. 134
magncsium and magnesium alloys, 97.99. rahlc, 98
nicltinp characicrisiics. 3. I I ./i~..
5 , fablcc.&7. 9 - 1 1 ,
132.35
mctal coaiings on sicels, iahlr, 74
motor-generator cquipnicni for induciion heating. 45
movement in soldered joint.fig.. 58
nickel and cobalt plated steels. 72
nickcl and high nickcl alloys, 79-8 I , rahlr, 80: acids
for cleaning, 37
nitric acida,36
nondcsiructive icsiing of soldercd joints, 57-59. I24
organ pipes of soldercd tin./iR.. 10.7
organic acids in intermediate fluxes. I5
organic hydrohalidcs uscd in iniermcdiaic fluxes, 15
cirnanicntal trim of solcrcd stainless steel. 77

orthophosphoric acid. 15; Cor acid cleaning. 36

oven soldering, 4, 46
oxidc fiims: on aluminum alloys. 91; on magnesium
alloys. 97: removal o. 13
palladium, 107
paste fluxcs. 16
pasic solder, 16
peel test, 59,jig.. 60, 138. 140. fahle, 141
pcrceniagc of solder fill. 23./ig., 26
pcrsonal cleanliness. I I S
pcwicr soldering, IOI.O3,j58., IO?
'
pipe and lubes. 117-24, fahles. 118-20, jig.# 124
pipe joints in Icad and lead alloys. 87
pipe of tin. 101.03
plaicd magnesium. 99
plumbers soil. 83
polishcd stainless stccl soldering. 76
post soldcnnp treatmcnt: for cast irons. 106: for copper
and copper alloys. 65: for lead alloys. 88: for mag.
nesium alloys, 9X-99: for nickcl and high-nickel
alloys, 80; for pipe and iubcs. 123: for prccious
mcials. iahlc. 108: for stainless stccls, 77; for tin
and iin alloys. 103
potassium chloride in flux, I S
precious mctalq. 107-0X.jg.. IiKI, rahlr. /OH
precoaiing. 2, 37; for indium solden. IO; of nickel and
high.nickcl alloys. 79-80: of steel. h9
preformcd l c a d s , / i ~ . 33
,
preheating in wave soldcripp. 47
pressure ratings for coppcf tubing. 136, ruhlr, 139
prcssurc icstinp. 58 ruhic. 139
prciinning. YS-96
printed circuits, 32-31. fahle. 32, j i ~ s . .32, 3 3 , 61.
io9-i2.jiR.. 110
procedures for soldering. I , 2
processsoldenng: torch. 43: dip, 43: induciion hcaiing,
4:
rcsistancc hcating. 45: oven, 46; ultrasonic. 46;
ftxruscd infrared. 46; hot gas, 47
properties of soldcrcd joints. 2 1 , 129-43
propcnies of solders a i clcvared ienipcraturcs. I 2 8
radiaiors. 4. 2 5
radiography. 59. 124./i~., 124
reaction fluxes for aluminum and aluminum alloys. 94
reactions bcrween solder and coppcr, 140,fi~s,.142,
143
removal of surface films by ultrasonic vibration, 46,
95.97
rcpair of printed circuiis, I12
rcsidues, 14, 49.50. See also flux removal; flux
residues
rcsisiance hcating. 45: of tubular parts./ig.. 122; flux
selection, 32
I 4 8Diidex
hodium, 107
msin base flux. 2, 9. 16, 20, 102
rosin joint. rable, 57.fig., 58
rotary dip tesi, 53,fig.. 53
safely and health proieciion. 113-15, 136. rahle. 139
sanitary cans, 73
sealing solder, 88
self-jigging suppon, 24. 25. 3 l , f i ~ s . ,25. 31
shear strength. 125, 130. rable. 130
shear tesis, O.fi8..60
silver. 7, 107, 108. roble. 108
sockct joini lor tubes, 23.fix.. 23
sodium chloride in fluxes. 15, 17
solder coatings on aluminum alloys, 95
solder cups. 117
solder joini deecis. 57-59. roble, 5 7 . j i g . . 58. 5Y
solder pois. 113, I14
solderability, 52-55; of aluminum alloys, rable. !73: o
cadmium plated steels. 72; of copper alloys. roble
68; of high-nickel alloys. rohle, HO
solderability tests. I , 5?.55./i~s.. 52.56
soldered cable jotits, 88
soldsred joints: corrosion or. 91; designs of. II -33; of
eicciricai circuiis. robles. 313.32: inspeciion and
iesting o, 51-62: o lead and lead alloys. 87. 88. of
printed circuits. 109-12; of siainless sieel ai high
ieniperaiure~~'76;
propcnies of. 129.44; visual
Cexaminaiion o. 57
soldering: applicaiions of. 2; o aluminum allovs,
91 596; of cadmium coaied'sieels, 71, 72; o coated
steelb. 71 -74; of copper and copper alloys, 63.68; ai
elevaied temperatures. 13 I ; equipment For. 41.43;
of leid and lead alloys. 83.89; of lead cable sleeve>,
88; ai low tempcraiures, 133: omagnesiuni alloys.
97.99: of nickel and nickel a l l r y . 79.8 I ; o nickel
plaicd steels, 72; o pewicr. IOI-03.jix..102; o
pipe and tubcs. 117.23; o plaicd niagnesiuni, 99;
of precious metals, 102-OK: principlcs of, I ; of
printed circuiis. 109.12; proccsses of. 43.48; of
stainless steels. 75.77; of steels. 69-70: sieps in. 2;
o terneplaie, 72; of tin. 10143; o tubular joints.
I l ? , 121
soldering irons. 4 I d 3 , f i ~ s4. 2 , 4 4 ; for lead joints. 87;
for soldering sieel. 69; grounding of, I14
soldering tcmperaiure, 133
'solders. 3-12; abrasion, 95; for aluminum alloys.
91-96; for brdss pipe and tubing. 123; cadmiuni:
silver, 9 , fable, 10: cadmium-zinc. 10, rable, 10,
91.92; for cast iron. 105; for coated steels, 71-74;
commercial forms of. rohle, 12: for copper and
copper alloys. 63. 123; fusible alloy. 10.rablc. /O;
indium, I I . rohle. I / : for lead and lead alloys. 83;
Icad.bisrnuth. 91, 93: lead-silver, 9 , rnblr, I l ; Tor
magnesium and magnesium alloys. 97.98. rahlr.

98; for nickel alloys, 79; for nickel and cobalt

p l a i d steels. 72; for precious mcials, 107-08, f a ble, 108; preplacement of. fig., 24: for printed
circuits, I 1 I; propenes of. 125-44; forse&..lp. 88;
for slainless steels, 75; for siecl. 69; for tin. 101;
tin, table, II: tin-antimony, 8 , roble. 7 ; tin.
antimony.lead, 8: tin-cadmium. 98; (in-lead. 4,
roble, 6, 91, 93. 97, 98: tin-silver. 8 , rahle, 7 ;
lin-zinc, 8, rable. 9. 91, 93, 97, 98; tin-tinccadmium, 97. 98; Tor zinc. 5; zinc-aluminum, IO,
rable, IO; for zinc coated steels, 73
solid state conveners for induction heating, 4 5
solidus iemperaiure, I . 3. 4, 98
solvent depreasing, 35
.
spray gun soldering, 43
stainless steels, 75.77
stannous chloride in uxes. 15
sicaric acid as a flux, 83
Sicels. 69-70
sires) during elevated iemperaiures, 13 I . roble, 131.
140.j8.. t 4 1
s u m rupiure iests. 60
substrate composition. 133
sulphuric acid lor cleaning. 36
surface contaminants, 13
suracc films. See oxides '
surlace preparation, 35-39; of aluminum and aluminum
alloys. 61. 95; o cast irons, 105: 01 copper and
copper alloys, 3 6 , h ; of lead and leadaloys, 83: of
magnesium 98; of nickel alloys. 37.79; o precious
meials. 108: of printed circuits. I I I ; of siainlcss
steels, 37, 75: of steel. 69; of tin. 101
surface tension of solder. 127; test. 55-56,Jig.. 56
ruble, 128
lank-io-tube plaie joini. 26.fig., 26
iCnsilC strength. 8. 125. iable. 126: lest. 60
lemeplaie. 69, 72,rahle. 74
tesiinp o soldered joinis. S 1-62
thermal conductivity: of copper. 63: o magnesiuni. 98;
Of siainless steel. 76: o solders. iahlr. 127
thermal expansion. 125. 1 2 7 ; of aluminum and
aluminym alloys. 91; o rneials and alloys. /ahles.
28. 29: o soldcn and babe metals. I I ; o siainless
steels, 26
thickness of joint propenies. 129
time, soldering. i30
tin and tin alloys, 101.03; in tin.aniimony solders. 8 .
rable,7; in iin-antimony-lead solders. 8; in iincadmium solders. 97, 98; in tiplead-alloy system.
j ~ .5:in
, tin-lead solders. robles. 6-7.89,97,98; in
tin4lver solders. 8, roble. 7 ; in tin-zinc solders,
8-9. roble. 10. 97, 98; in tin-zinc-cadmium solders.
97.98
tin coated steels, 73
tia pipe. 102-03
AWS S M * I N D E X
**
W 0 7 8 4 2 6 5 O006428 2 I
Index/ I49
tinning, 1
torch soldering. 4, 43; of pewter, f i g . , 102: of tin
alloys, 101
torsional suength. 138, rabie, 144: tests, 59
TRI-Moorc lest, 53
Tube connections: socket joint,Jig., 26; knk-to-tube
plaie&., 23
ultrasonic soldering. 46; of aluminum alloys. 95-96: of
magnesium alloys, 97
vacuum rube oscillator for induction heating. 45
venrlaiion. I 13, I I5
venting o closed-end joint. 23,Jig.. 23
viscosity, mb/e. 128
visual examinaiion. 57
visual method for grading solder deccts. fable, 57,
Jig.. 58

warpage, 2
water soluble flux residue, 59
wave fluxing, 47
wave shapes, 48
.
wave soldering, 47-48.Jig., 65
wetting characteristics, 1, 2 ; of aluminum alloys,
93-94; o solders for magnesium, 97; testing of, 1 ,
53,/igs., 54. 55: o tinzlead solders. 4
width o reaction layer. 140,Jig., 143
wiped joints, 8 7 , f i g s . , 84-86
wiping solder, 83
wire connections, 27. 30-32,Jg.. 32
wTapping test. 51
zinc.. 5 , ! O , rabies. 10, I I ; cadmium-tinc solden.
IO.tab!c, 10. 91. 92, tin-zinc solders. 8. IO.tob/e,
I I . 91. 92; zinc-aluminum solder. IO. rabie, IO
zinc chloride. 2, 14, 17, 18. 19
zinc coated sheets, 73
CHAPTER 1
PRINCIPLES OF
SOLDERING
GENERAL PROCEDURES
Wetting is often associated with the ease of

intermetallic compound formation. Although
heat is applied to facilitate wetting, prolonged
heating must be avoided when some solders are
applied to certain metais. Excessive intermetallic
reactions, due to prolonged heating, may cause
brittleness or a reduction in joint strength.
The fluidity of molfen solder is an important
property which influences the spreading of the
solder over the met. surfaces. The flowability, or
spread, of a solder may be determined by a variety of methods. The simplest method is to melt a
given volume of solder by uniform heating on a
standard metal plate with a specific flux. The area
covered by the solder is a measure of the solders
flow properties on that metal.
The flow of solder into narrow spaces by capillary attraction is important, and a number of tests
for determining this property have been devised,
for example, measuring the rise of molten solder
between standard twisted wires or between plates
with a small, measured gap. Such tests are useful
for qualification work.
The introduction of automated, high rate soldering operations has added a new dimension to
solder testing. In addition to wetting, flow, and
capillary, it has become necessary to measure
the rate at which wetting occurs. Several fully
automated instruments, Solderability Testers,
have been developed to provide these data. The
instruments quantitatively record the reaction
force between the base metal specimen and the
molten solder, as a function of time. The recorded
data provide a quantitative evaluation of a solder
Soldering is a group of welding processes which

produces coalescence of materials by heating
them to a suitable temperature and by using a
filler metal having a liquidus not exceeding 450
C (840 F) and below the solidus of the base
materials. The filler metal is distributed between
the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary
attraction.
WETTING, ALLOYING,
AND CAPILLARITY
When a molten. solder leaves a continuous, permanent film on the base metal surfacesit is said to
wet that surface. Wetting is frequently incorrectly
referred to as tinning, which actually means precoating the base metal with solder, whether or not
the solder contains tin. Without wetting there can
be no soldering action. In order for wetting to
occur, theremust be a stronger attraction between
certain atoms of the solder and the base metal
than among the atoms of the solder itself. Intermetallic reactions usually take place at the inferface between the base metal and the solder. This
wetting action is partly chemical in nature.
Wetting is greatly facilitated by the ability of a
solder to alloy with the base metal. For example,
pure lead does not readily wet (or adhere to)
either copper or steel, whereas a tin-lead solder
readily wets both. Lead does not alloy with copper or iron but tin does. Some other metals, such
as zinc, increase the wetting properties of lead.

07842b5 0 0 0 b 2 8 1 9 W
2ISOLDERING MANUAL
system. showing both static and dynamic characteSStics. The instruments are used in soldering
product and process development and for quality
control functions.
BASIC STEPS
IN SOLDERING
Joint Fit-Up
Clearances between the parts being joined should
be such that the solder can be drawn into the
space between them by capillarity, but not so
large that the solder cannot fill the gap. A clearance of 0.15mm (=O.O05 in.) is suitable for most
work except when precoated metals are used, in
which case a clearance of 0.025 mm (=O.O01 in.)
or less is advisable (see Chapter 4 for further
details).
hecleaning
A clean, oxide-free surface is imperative to ensure uniform quality and a sound soldered joint.
If all grease, oil, dirt, And oxides have been carefully removed from the base metal before soldering, there is a much better chance of obtaining a
sound joint because only then can uniform capillary attraction be obfained. Chapter 5 contains a
detailed discussion of cleaning methods.
Application of Nux
The flux that is applied to the surfaces to be
soldered should have the following characteristics:
1. It should be fluid and effective in removing
oxides and other nonmetallic materials that might
be present at soldering temperatures.
2. It should be a banier to reoxidation of the
metal surface that has been previously cleaned.
3. It should permit displacement by thesolder.
4. It should promote wetting of the surface by
the solder.
The various types of soldering fluxes used are
discussed in Chapter 3.
Application oHeat
After the flux is applied, the next step in a soldering operation generally is the application of heat.
A number of different heating methods are used;
they are described in detail in Chapter 6.

Applying the Solder

Soldering takes place in two steps: wetting the
metal surfaces and then filling the gap between
them with solder. The two steps can be carried out
separately or together, depending upon the conditions dictated by the application. In general, each
sfep is better done separately because the conditions can be more easily controlled. It is frequently desirable to precoat the base metal, especially if it is difficult to solder, with solder or
solderable metals.
Cooling the Joint

After the surfaces of the joint have been wetted
and the space between them filled with solder, the
next step is to cool the joint to room temperature.
Properjigging, assembly, or controlled cooling
may be employed to prevent excessive deformation of the joint or failure of the joint during
solidification of the solder. The solder should be
cooled and solidified as rapidly as possible,
commensurate with the requirements of the assembly and the solder used, as slow cooling may
cause excessive alloying resulting in embrittlement. Fast cooling from too high a temperature
may cause warpage and may also cause small
fractures in the solder.
Cooling may normally be achieved either by
conducting the heat away to the main mass of the
assembly or by accelerating it with a water spray
or air blast. The cooling method should be varied
to suit each individual job.
Flux Residue keatment

After the soldered joint is completed, there is a
flux residue which may or may not be removed,
depending upon its degree of corrosiveness.
Noncorrosive fluxes, which generally have a
rosin base, do not require removal of the residue
unless appearance is a prime factor or the joint
area is to be painted or otherwise coated. On the
other hand, corrosive fluxes, such as those having
a zinc chloride or other corrosive base, leave a
fused residue which, if not removed, would most
likely cause corrosion. The self-neutralizing
fluxes vary from slightly to highly corrosive and
should be treated accordingly as to the removal of
the residue(for more detailed information referto
Chapter 7).
AWS S M * C H * 2
**
E 0784265 000b317 4 E
-.
r
1 -
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL
not over a range. In this respect eutectic solders

behave like pure metals. In any binary system
having a eutectic, the eutectic is that composition
where two descending liquidus curves meet.
Thus the eutectic composition (point E in Fig.
2. I ) has a lower liquidus temperature than its
neighboring compositions.
Asshownin Fig.2.1,100%lead hasamelting
point of 327' C (621' F) (point A), whereas
100(.70tin has a melting point of232' C(450' F)
(point B).
It will be observed that the tin-lead solders
containing from 19.5% tin (point C) to 97.5% tin
(point D) have the same solidus temperature183" C (361" Figure 2.1 shows that the eutectic composition is approximately 63% tin and
37% lead (point E). When this composition
melts, it becomes completely liquid at 183" C
(361" F). Any composition other than the eutectic composition will not become completely
liquid until a higher temperature is reached. For
example: 50% tin-50% lead solder has a solidus
temperature of 183" C (361" F) and liquidus
temperature of 216" C (421' F). This combination of tin and lead will begin to melt at 183' C
(361' F) and will become completely liquid at
216" C(421" F).
At temperatures between the solidus and
liquidus lines, the solder is partially melted. The
region between the solidus (ACEDB) and
liquidus (AEB) lines is called the melting range.
A better understanding of the nature of solders,

and how to select one for a specific application,
can be obtained by examining the melting characteristics of metais and alloys. Pure metals transform from the solid to liquid state at one temperature. The melting of alloys is more complicated
because they may melt over a temperature range.
Any alloy system can best be studied by examining the phase diagram which shows the melting
characteristics in relation to chemical composition.
T h e Tin-Lead Diagram
The tin-lead phase diagram is shown in Fig. 2.1.
The terms used are defined as follows:
The solidus temperature is the highest temperaNre at which a metal or solder is completely
solid (curve ACEDB of Fig. 2. i).
The liquidus temperature is the lowest temperature at which a metal or solder is completely
liquid (AEB of Fig. 2.1).
Melting point and flow point are terms which
have been in common use, but they have not
always been applied with the same meaning. For
this reason the terms solidus temperature and
liquidus temperature, which can be more clearly
defined, will be used.
Eutectic compositions are those specific solder
compositions that melt at one temperature and
o
AWS S M * C H * 2
**
m 0784265 000b3LB
4/SOLDERING MANUAL
TYPES OF SOLDERS
Tin-Lead Solders
The tin-lead alloys are the most widely used
solders and are used for joining most metals.
Joint clearances of O. 1 to O. 15 mm (0.003 to
0.005 in.) are optimum, but variations are allowable in specific instances. Capillary attraction, as
a force to fill gaps with solder, does not function
with clearances grezter than 0.25 mm (0.010 in.).
All cleaning and soldering processesmay be used
with the tin-lead solders. Fluxes of all types are
used with these solders. The selection is dependent on the type of metais to be joined. The
treatment of the flux residues is dictated by the
flux used. These solders have good corrosion
resistance to most of the common media. Some
characteristics of the tin-lead solders are shown
in Table 2.1.
The 2A and 5A solders have relatively high
solidus temperatures with a short melfing range?
The wetting and flow characteristics are poorer
than those of the higher tin content solders, which
necessitatesextra care in surface preparation. The
high leadcontaining solders, used for some a u t e
motiveradiators, havebetter strength properties at
150" C (=300" F) than tin-lead solders containing more tin. The high soldering temperature
limits the use of organic base fluxes such as rosin
or those of the intermediate type (see Chapter 3).
The 5A solder is particularly adaptable to torch,
dip, induction, or oven soldering. The low tin sol, ders are used for sealing precoated containers,
coating and joining metals, and for moderately
elevated temperature uses.
The 10B, 15B, and 20B solders have lower
liquidus and solidus temperatures but wider melting ranges than the 5A solder. The wetting and
flow characteristics are also better. Joint clearances are the sameas already described. Extreme
care must be taken to avoid movement of the
solder joint during solidification to prevent hot
tearing. Fluxes of all types and all heating
methods are applicable. These solders are used
for fabricating automobile radiators and coating
and joining of metals where service temperatures
are low enough to permit their use.
'The solder classification system used in this document
conforms to that given in ASTM B32.

The 25A and 30A solders have lower liquidus

temperatures than all previously mentioned alloys but have the same solidus temperature as the
20B solder. Therefore, the melting range is narrower. Ali standard cleaning, fluxing, and soldering techniques can be used with these solders.
Machine and torch soldering are widely used.
Many automobile radiators and cans are made
with solders of this type.
The 35A, N A , 45A, and 50A solders have
liquidus temperafures low enough to be easily
worked. The solidus temperature is the same as
that for 20B to 30A solders. The melting ranges,
therefore, are relatively narrow. Solders of this
group have the best combination of wetting properties, strength, and economy and, as such, are
widely used. These tin-lead solders are the general purpose solders and are used for wiping and
sweating solders. Soldering automobile radiator
cores, electrical connections, roofing seams, and
heating units are but a few of the typical applications for these solders. The 40% tin-60% lead
solder has become a very popular general purpose solder and is used extensively in sheet metal
work. It is used as arosin cored wire for radio and
television applications.
The 60A and 63A solders are generally referred to as fine solders and are used wherever
temperature requirements are critical. These solders are most commonly used for wave and dip
soldering of electronic assemblies. Ali methods
of cleaning, fluxing, and heating may be used
with these solders.
The 70A solder is a special purpose solder used
where high tin content is necessary Ail soldering
techniques are applicable.
Effects of Impurities on
the Performance of Tin-Lead Solders
Impurities in tin-lead solders can result not only
from carelessness in the refining and alloying
operations but can also be added inadvertently
during normal usage. Impurity pickup, however,
can readily occur during many soldering operations. Because refining of metais requires
specialized equipment and close metallurgical
control, purification of solders by the user is not
generally recommended.
**
:AWS S t l * C H * 2
0784265 000b319 8
SolderslS
400
350
300
250
200
v
150
100
50
O
Lead
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Tin
Tin percent
Fig. 2.1 - Phase diagram for the tin-lead alloy system
Zinc and Aluminum. The soldering properties of tin-lead solders are acutely affected by
small traces of aluminum or zinc. More than
0.005% of either metal may cause lack of adhesion, grittiness, or susceptibility to failure during
solidification. Both ASTM and federal specifications limit the maximum amount of either of these
metals to 0.005%.
Iron. The presence of iron-tin compounds
makes tin-lead solders hard and gritty, although
harmful effects are not ordinarily detectable
below 0.1%. ASTM and federal specifications
limit iron content to 0.02%.
Copper. There is considerable discrepancy between British and American standards on copper
limits in tin-lead solders. The British Standard
Specification has a value of 0.5% maximum
compared to a limit of 0.088 for both ASTM and
federal specifications. Copper amounts above
0.3% may adversely affect the appearance of soldered joints.
Antimony. Antimony can play a dual role in
tin-lead solders. Depending on the purpose for

which the solder is to be used, it can be considered as either an impurity or as a substitute for
some of the tin in the solder. Federal Specification QQ-S-571 requires antimony content of 0.2
to 0.5% maximum for compositions Sn 70, Sn
63, Sn 62, Sn 60,Sn 50, Sn 40, Sn 30, and Sn 20.
However, grades Sn 35,Sn 30, and Sn 20 require
antimony contents up to approximately 6% of the
tin content. ASTM B32, Class A, specifies a
maximum of 0.12% antimony or solders containing more than 35% tin, and Class B requires
0.2 to 0.508 antimony content. Class C covers
solders containing 20 to 40% tin and specifies
that the antimony content is not to exceed 6% of
the tin content.
Arsenic. Contaminatjon well in excess (2 to 4
times) of the specified 0.02-0.03% arsenic may
cause dewetting on brass or copper. Spots may
occur on bar solder, but soldered joints will not be
frosty.
Excessive Contamination in Dip Soldering.
Excessive contamination in dip soidering is usually indicated when, after operating for some
6ISOLDERING MANUAL
l l l l N l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l 1 1

AWS S M * C H * Z
**
07892b5 0006322 b
Solders17
!
I I I I I
I l I I I
c : m
c
c
r n m

8/SOLDERING MANUAL
time at a reasonable solder pot temperature, it
becomes necessary to increase the pot temperature substantially to overcome what appears to be
sluggishness in the solder. Excessive contamination is also characterized by a rough and gritty
solder bond. The increase of the pot temperature
to overcome sluggishness is only a temporary
expedient since the increased temperature will
further accelerate contamination.
ASTM and federal solder specifications which
specify maximum allowable concentrations of
impurities for different grades of solders are intended only as a basis for purchasing solder.
Their use as a guide for determining when solder
is contaminated could result in discarding solder
that is still very satisfactory for the purpose intended. Thus, although the federal specifications
require that the iron content be less than 0.02%,
bad effects, such as grittiness, are usually not
detectable below O. 1%.
Some iron and copper can be removed from the
contaminated solder by taking advantage of the
lower solubility of copper-tin and iron-tin compounds at the liquidus temperatures. For best
results the temperature of the solder should be
lowered to just above the liquidus temperature of
the uncontaminated solder, at which point the
copper-tin and iron-tin compounds will crystallize. These crystals (dross) can be removed with a
perforated ladle.
Tindntimony-LeadSolders
Antimony may be present as an impurity in solder, or deliberately added. The solders for which
0.2 to 0.5% antimony is the specified range are
generally classed as B solders, Le., 20B, 30B,
40B, etc. Federal Specification QQ-S-571 requires the presence of antimony to prevent the
possible phase change from beta tin to alpha tin
(called the tin pest), with the accompanying
change in volume and drastic loss of solder
strength. These solders may normally be used,
except in very special cases, for the same applications as the A solders. Antimony may be added to
a tin-leadsolderasasubstitute forsome of the tin.
The addition of antimony up to 6% of the tin
content increases the mechanical properties of
the solder with but slight impairment of the soldering characteristics,

Joint clearances for the tin-antimony-lead solders should be from O. l to O. 15 mm (=0.003to

0.005in.), whereas0.25 mm(O.0 loin.) isapracticai maximum to obtain capillary flow. All standard methods of cleaning, fluxing, and heating
may be used with these solders. Their use is not
recommended on aluminum, zinc, or zinc coated
metals, such as galvanized iron. Solders containing antimony, when used on zinc or zinc alloys,
form an intermetallic compound of zinc and antimony which causes the solder joint to become
brittle.
The 20C to 4C solders have melting properties closely approximating those of equivalent A
solders containing 5% more tin (see Table 2.1).
The tensilesrength, creep strength, and hardness
ofthesolderedjointsarehigherthanthoseobtained
with nonantimonial solders, but solder flow and
capillarity are somewhat lower. The use of these
solders i s limited to soldering non-zinccontaining metais or coatings.
Tin-Antimony Solder
The tin-antimony sold& shown in Table 2.2 has
excellent soldering and strength characteristics.
It is useful for application where moderately elevated temperature is a factor. It has a higher
electrical conductivity than the tin-lead solders
and is also recommended in applications such as
in food handling vessels where lead contamination must be avoided. This solder may be easily
applied with rosin fluxes.
Tin-Silver Solders
The characteristic of the tin-silver solder, listed
in Table 2.3, is similar to those of the tin-antimony solder. The tin-silver solders are usually used for fine instrument work and some
specialty tube joining because the cost is prohibitive for general purpose soldering. They
are easy to apply with rosin flux.
Tin-Zinc Solders
A large number of tin-zinc solders, some of

which are listed in Table 2.4, have come into use
for the joining of aluminum. Galvanic corrosion
of soldered joints in aluminum is minimized ifthe
metals in the joint are close to each other in the
electrochemical series. Thus, alloys containing
AWS S M * C H * 2
**
I0784265 0006323 T I
Solders19
70 to 80% tin, balance zinc, have been highly

recommended. These alloys have liquidus tem;
peratures between 260" and 310" C (500" and
5900 F). In recent years the tendency has been to
add 1to 2% aluminum or to raise the zinc content
to as high as 40%. These solders are more corrosion resistant but they have higher liquidus temperatures and are therefore a little more difficult to
apply (see Chapter 15 on aluminum).
Lead-Silver Solders
Lead-silver solders listed in Table 2.5 have solidus temperatures high enough to make them
useful where strength at moderately elevated
temperatures is required. Although pure lead
melts at 327" C (621" F), a comparatively high
temperature for solder, it is not used because lead
normally does not wet steel, cast iron, or copper
and its alloys. The addition of silver to lead resuits in alloys which will more readily wet steel
and copper. Flow characteristics, however, are
very poor. The lead-silver solders are susceptible
to humid atmospheric corrosion in storage and
may become unusable as solders. The addition of
I% tin to a lead-silver solder increases its wetting
and flow characteristics and, in addition, reduces
its susceptibility to humid atmospheric corrosion.
%bible 2.4 -Tin-zinc solders

Composition
(weight %I
Sn
2n
91
80
70
9
20
30
60
40
30
70
Temperature
Solidus
Liquidus
O C
"F
"C O F
199
199
199
199
199
.390
390
390
390
390
199
270
311
341
376
390
518
592
645
708
The addition of tin to a lead-silver solder containing more than 1.75% silver causes the segregation
of tin-silver intermetallic crystals. Therefore,
silver content is generally limited to 1.5% when
tin is to be added.
The tensile, creep, and shear strengths of these
solders at temperatures up to 175" C ( ~ 3 5 0 'F)
are good. Their fatigue properties are considerably better thanthose of the solders that do not contain silver. The lead-silver solders require higher
soldering temperatures and special fluxing
techniques. The use of a zinc chloride base flux to
produce a good joint on uncoated metals is recommended. Rosin fluxes are readily decomposed
at the higher soldering temperatures and can be
used only when the soldering time is relatively
short (see Chapter 3).
Cadmium-Silver Solder
The 95% cadmium-5% silver solder has melting
characteristics shown in Table 2.6. The primary
use of this solder is in applications where service
temperatures will be higher than permissible with
lower melting solders. At room temperature butt
joints in copper can be made to produce tensile
strengths of 170MPa (25 o00 psi). At 220" C
(=425"F) a tensiiestrength of 18MPa (2600 psi)
can be obtained.
Joining of aluminum to itself or dissimilar
metals is possible with cadmium-silver solder.
However, as is generally true in joining
aluminum with dissimilar metals, electrolytic
corrosion must be considered. Improper use of
this solder may lead to health hazards (see Chapter 21 for safety precautions).
%able 2.5 -Lead-silver solders

Composition (weight '75)
ASTM
Alloy
Grade
Fed.
Spec.
QQ-S-571
Pb
Ag
Sn
2.5 S
Ag 2.5
Ag 5.5
Ag 1.5
97.5
94.5
97.5
2.5
5.5
1.5
5.5 s
1.5 s

1.0
Temperature
Solidus
Liquidus
"C "F
"C "F
304 579
304 579
309 588
304 579
365 689
309 588
IO/SOLDERING MANUAL
3. Step soldering operations where a low soldering temperature is necessary in order to avoid
The cadmium-zinc solders, listed in Table 2.7, are
destroying a nearby joint that has been made with
useful for soldering aluminum. These solders dea higher melting temperature solder.
velop joints with intermediate strength and corro4. On temperature sensing devices where the
sion resistance when used with the proper flux.
failure of a soldered joint is required at a relaThe40% cad~um-6O%zincsolderhasfoundcontively low temperature, which is known as the
siderable use in the spot soldering of aluminum
yield temperature.
lamp bases. Improper use of these solders may
lead to health h a i d s (see Chapter 21 for safety
precautions).
'Ible 2.6-Cadmium-silver solder
Zinc-AluminumSolder
Composition
Temperature
weight %.)
Solidus
Liquidus
The zinc base solder, shown in Table 2.8, is
specifically for use on aluminum and develops
Ag
"C "F
"C "F
joints with high strength and good corrosion re95
5
338 640 393 740
sistance. The solidus temperature of the sdder is
high, which limits its use to applications where
soldering temperatures in excess of 370" C
( =70O0 F) can be tolerated. This solder is extensively used in ultrasonic soldering of aluminum
Table 2.7- Cadmium-zinc solders
heat exchanger return bends.
Composition
Temperature
Fusible Alloys
Solidus
Liquidus
(weight %.)
O C
"F
"C O F
Cd
Zn
Bismuth-containing solders, the so-called fusible
alloys, are useful for soldering operations where
17.5
265 509 265 509
82.5
a soldering temperature below 183" C (361" F)
265 509 335 635
40
60
(lower than that available with the tin-lead sol90
265 509 399 750
10
ders) is required. The melting characteristics and
compositions of a representative group of fusible
alloys are shown in Table 2.9.
Fusible alloys have applications in cases such
Table 2.8-Zinc-aluminum solder
as the following:
1. Soldering heat treated surfaces where higher
Composition
Temperature
soldering temperatures would result in a soften. (weight %)
Solidus
Liquidus
Zn
AI
"C OF
"C "F
ing of the part.
2. Soldering joints where adjacent material is
95
5
382 720 382 720
very temperature sensitive and would deteriorate
if a higher soldering temperature were necessary.
Cadmium-Zinc Solders
CL
Table 2.9 -Typical fusible alloys
Sn
13.3
15.5
14.5
43
Composition (weight %)
Bi
Pb
Cd
Others
50.5
52.5
48.0
55.5
57.0
26.7
32.0
28.5
44.5

10
Solidus
"C "F
Liquidus
70 158
90 203
antimony9.0
103 217
124 255
138 281
70 158
90 203
227 440
"C "F
124 255
138 281
Yield
temperature
"C O F
70
158
90 203
116 241
124 255
138 281
AUS S M * C H * 2
Solders1 1 1
Many of these solders, particularly those containing a high percentage of bismuth, are very
difficult to use successfully in high speed soldering operations. Particular attention must be paid
to clean metal surfaces and the use of strong
fluxes to obtain satisfactory joints on uncoated
metal surfaces such as copper or steel. On uncoated surfaces it is very unlikely that satisfactory soldering can be obtained with a noncorrosive type flux. If a plated surface, such as tin,
silver, or cadmium, canbeprovidedforsoldering,
then there is the possibility of using a noncorrosive. flux. Joints produced with these solders
exhibit v e y low creep strengths, particularly
above room temperature (see Chapter 4 for recommended joint designs).
Solders containing tin, lead, and indium having more than 25% indium also show very gocd
resistance to corrosion by alkaline solutions.
However, they start melting at a much lower
temperature and have a wider pasty range than
thelead-silver-indiumsolder. A 50%indium-50%
tin solder adheres to glass readily and may be used
for glass-to-metal and glass-to-glass soldering.
The low vapor pressure of this alloy makes it
useful for seals in vacuum systems.
Indium solders generally do not require special
techniques during use. The low melting indium
solders containing bismuth do require the use of
acid fluxes or precoating. All of the heating
methods, fluxes and techniques which are used
with the common tin-lead solders are applicable
with indium solders.
Indium Solders
Indium solders possess certain properties which
make them valuable for some special applications. Their usefulness for any particular application should be checked with the supplier. The
melting characteristics and compositions of a
representative group of indium solders are shown
in Table 2.10.
The standard 97.59 lead-2.5% silver solder
does not wet most metais well. Adding 1 to 2%
indium to this solder improves its wetting properties. Thus, a higher melting solder can be used
without precoating the parts to be soldered. The
lead-silver-indium solders are especially applicable where alkaline corrosion is a problem.
COMMERCIALFORMS OF SOLDERS
Typical commercialforms of solder aregivenin
Table 2.11.
The tables in this chapter pertaining to solder
specification are excerpts. Copies of the latest
complete specification should be secured from
the following organizations:
ASTM American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103
QQ
Federal Specifications, Naval Publication and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor
Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa. 19120
Table 2.10-lndium solders

Composition (weight c/r 1
Tin
8.3
12
12.8
50
48
Indium
Bismuth
Lead
Cadmium
19.1
44.7
49
48.0
22.6
18
25.6
5.3
il
4.0
50
52
9.6
/-

Temperature
Solidus
Liqu idus
OC "F
"C O F
47 117
58 136
61 142
117 243
117 243
47
58
65
127
117
117
136
149
260
243
ci
AWS S M * C H * 2
**
0 7 8 4 2 b 5 0006326 5
1LISOLDERING MANUAL
Table 2.11-Commercial
forms of solders
Solders are commercially available in various sizes and shapes which can be grouped into about a
dozen classifications. These major groups are listed below. This listing is by no means complete,
inasmuch as any desired size, weight, or shape is available on special order.
Available in nominal 22.5 and 45
kg (50 and 100 Ib.) pigs.
Clrkes or Rectangular or circular in shape,
iiigots weighing nominal 1.5,2.5, and 4.5
kg (3,5and i0 Ib.).
Bars Available in numerous cross sections, weights and lengths.
Ptiste Available as a mixture of powdered solder and suitable flux in
paste.
Foil, Sheet Available in various thicknesses
or Rild~ori and widths.
P g

Segment
ordrop
Wire, Solid
Wire,
Flia Cored
Preforins
Triangular bar or wire cut into any

desired number of pieces or
lengths.
Diameters of nominal 0.25 to 6.5
mm (0.010 to 0.250 in.) on spools.
Solder cored with rosin, organic,
or inorganic fluxes. Diameters of
nominal 0.25 to 6.5 mm (0.010 to
0.250 in.).
Unlimited range of sizes and
shapes to meet special requirements.
AWS S M * C H * 3
**
W 0 7 8 Y 2 6 5 0006362 9
CHAPTER 3
FLUXES
DEFINITION
_..
A soldering flux a liquid, solid, or gaseous

material which, when heated, is capable of promoting or accelerating the wetting of metals by
solder. The purpose of a soldering flux is to
remove and exclude oxides and other impurities
from the joint being soldered. Anything that interferes with the attainment of uniform contact
between the surface of the base metal and the
molten solder wilt prevent the formation of a
sound joint. An efficient flux removes films and
oxides from the.meta1 and solder and prevents
reoxidation of the surfaces when heated. It is
designed to lower the surface tension of the molten solder so that the solder will flow readily and
adhere to the metal. The flux should be readily
displaced from the metal by the molten solder.
mova1 with a flux varies with each base metal.

Aluminum, magnesium, stainless and high alloy
steels, aluminum and silicon bronzes, when exposed to air, form hard adherent oxide films.
Highly active and corrosive fluxes must be used
to remove and prevent the reformation of the
tenacious films during soldering. Copper and
silver, on the other hand, when exposed to air,
form less tenacious films, and at a slower rate, so
that mild fluxes remove them easily and prevent
them from reforming.
THEORIES OF FLUX ACTION

Many theories have been proposed to explain
flux action, and some of these theories have been
useful in the development of new fluxes. The
most widely held view is that the flux removes
the oxide film from the base metal and solder by
reacting with and loosening the film and floating
it off into the main body of the flux, Because of
the refractory nature of many oxide films, it has
been suggested that the flux wets, coagulates, and
suspends the oxide which has been loosened by a
penetrating and reducing action. The molten flux
then forms a protective blanket over the bare
metal, which prevents the film from reforming.
Molten solder displaces the flux and reacts with
the base metal to form an intermolecular bond.
The solder layer builds up in thickness and when
the heat is removed, it solidifies (see Fig. 3.1).
THE NATURE OF
SURFACE CONTAMINANTS
Surfaces to be soldered are often covered with
films of oil, grease, paint, heavy oxides or atmospheric grime which must be removed. Cleaning
methods are outlined in Chapter 5.
Chemical reactions occur on clean metal surfaces at room temperature and deposit fresh surface films. Although nitrides, sulfides, and carbides are formed in some instances, the prevalent
reaction is oxidation. The rate of oxide formation, its structure, tenacity and resistance to re13

14/SOLDERING MANUAL
c- Direction of movement of
soldering iron
A. Flux ove; oxidized metal
B. Boiling flux removes oxide
C. Base metal in contact with molten flux
D. Molten solder displaces molten flux
E. Solder alloys with base metal
F. Solder solidifies
Fig. 3.1
- Mechanism of flux action
TYPES OF FLUX
Fluxes are frequently classified on the basis of
their residues. They are divided into threemain
groups: corrosive, intermediate, and noncorrosive
fluxes. The mildest flux that will perform satisfactorily in a specific application should always
be selected.
Corrosive Fluxes
The corrosive fluxes, consisting of inorganic
acids and salts, are used to best advantage where
conditions require rapid and highly activated
fluxing. They can be applied as solutions, pastes,
or as dry salts and function equally well with all
heating methods, since they do not char or bum.
Corrosive fluxes can be formulated to be stable
over various temperature ranges. They are more
versatile in this respect than the less corrosive
fluxes. Corrosive fluxes are almost always required when the higher melting temperature solders are used.
Corrosive fluxes can be formulated to penetrate the most tenacious of the oxide films. Commercial fluxes are available for specific appiications in the form of dilute and concentrated solu-

tions, as pastes, or as fillers for acid core solder

wire.
The corrosive fluxes have one distinct disadvantage: The residue remains chemically active
after soldering. The residue, if not removed, may
cause severe corrosion at the joint. Adjoining
areas may also be attacked by residues from the
spray or flux vapors. For this reason corrosive
fluxes ate not used to solder closed containers
such as thermostats or bellows nor to solder assembled electrical equipment. Removal of flux
residues is covered in Chapter 7.
The inorganic salts and acids listed in Table 3.1
all have a fluxing action on metals when heated.
If a water solution is used, the water rapidly
evaporates on heating, and the molten salt reacts
with the base metal to produce a protective environmenf which insulates the metal from contact
with the air.
Corrosive Flw Ingredients

Zinc Chloride. The main ingredient in most corrosive fluxes is zinc chloride. It can be prepared
by adding an excess of zinc to concentrated hydrochloric acid or can be purchased as fused zinc
chioride, which is more convenient to use. Zinc
chloride has a melfing temperature well above the
solidus temperature of most commercial tin-lead
solders, which means that if it is used alone,
unmelted salt particles may be entrapped in the
joint. These inclusions will corrode and weaken
the joint. It is good practice, therefore, to mix
other inorganic chlorides with zinc chloride to
lower the melting temperature of the flux.
Ammonium Chloride. A water solution of
ammonium chloride may be used as a flux. When
the water evaporates, the ammonium chloride
sublimes as a white fume. It is less effective than
zinc chloride because the protective action of a
molten sait is not present and the base metal may
reoxidize before it reaches soldering temperature. A combination of one part ammonium
chloride to t h e e parts zinc chloride forms a
eutectic flux mixture which melts at 175" C
(~350"
F). This mixture takes advantage of the
excelient oxide reducing properties of the ammonium chloride and the excellent protective action of the zinc chloride to form a flux which is
considerably more effective than either con-stituent when used alone. A one to nine ratio of
AWS S M * C H * 3
**
0784Zb5 000b3b4 2 E
Fluxes1 15
I s b l e 3.1-Inorganic salts and acids
~~
(a) Zinc chloride

(b) Ammonium chloride
(c) Stannous chloride
(d) Sodium or potassium chloride
(e) Lithium chloride
(f) Aluminum chloride
the salts (1 part ammonium chloride to 9 parts

zinc chloride) is commonly used without fear of
flux inclusionsin the soldered joint.
Stannous Chloride. Stannous chloride is
formed by dissolving metallic tin in hydrochloric
acid. It is commercially available in the anhydrous and hydrated forms. Stannous chloride is a
highly effective flux when used alone in powder,
paste or molten form. It is also effective when
mixed with zinc-and ammonium chlorides.
Sodium or Potassium Chloride. Sodium
chloride is not effective as a flux when used
alone, but is effective in diluting zinc chloride
and lowers its melting point. A low melting flux
can be obtained by mixing nine parts of zinc
chloride with two parts of sodium chloride. A
ternary eutectic mixture, melting at 203"C (397"
F)is obtained by mixing 75 parts zinc chioride, 11
parts sodium chloride, and 14 parts potassium
chloride.
Other Chlorides and Fluorides. Lithium and
aluminum chlorides and fluorides are seldom
used alone, but they are used effectively as fluxes
when mixed with other compounds.
Hydrochloric Acid. Hydrochloric acid has
limited use when used alone as a flux. When
hydrochloric acid is applied to galvanized iron,
the zinc coating is dissolved toformzincchloride,
which acts as the flux, Hydrochloric acid is used
to activate the zinc chloride type fluxes. Mixtures
of inorganic salts and hydrochloric acid are the
basis of stainless steel fluxes.
Hydrofluoric Acid: Hydrofluoric acid is extremely corrosive. It is added to zinc chloride
base fluxes for the purpose of dissolving silicon
inclusions on the surface ofcast iron (see Chapter
21 for safety in handling).
Orthophosphoric Acid. Orthophosphoric
acid is an effective flux for steel, copper, and
brass. It leaves a glassy residue which serves as a
protective coating. A diluted solution is espe-

(g) Sodium or potassium fluoride

(h) Boron trifluoride
(i) Hydrochloric acid
Cj) Hydrofluoric acid
fi) Orthophosphoric acid
(1) Fluoboric acid
cially effective on high tensile manganese

bronze.
Intermediate Fluxes
The intermediate fluxes, as a class, are weaker
fluxes than the inorganic salt types. They consist
mainly of mild organic acids and bases and Certain of their derivatives such as the hydrohalides
(see Table 3.2). These fluxes are active at soldering temperatures, but theperiod of activity is short
because of their susceptibility to thermal decomposition. Their tendency to volatilize, char, or
bum when heated limits their use with torch or
flame heating. They are useful, however, in quick
spot soldering operations and, when properly
used, their rekidue is relatively inert and easily
removed with water.
Table 3.2-Typical intermediate
flux constituents
Organic acids
(a) Lactic acid
(b) Citric acid
(c) Oleic acid
(d) Stearic acid
(e) Glutamic acid
(f) Benzoic acid
(g) Oxalic acid
(h) Phthalic acid
(i) Abietic acid
Organic hydrohalides
(a) Glutamic acid hydrochloride
(b) Aniline hydrochloride or phosphate
(c) Hydrazine hydrobromide or hydrochloride
(d) Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide
(e) Ethyl dimethyl cetyl ammonium bromide
(f) Cetyl pyridinium bromide
Amines and others
(a) Urea
(b) Diethylene di- or triamine
(c) Glycerol
I6/SOLDERING MANUAL
Intermediate fluxes are particularly useful in
applications where small quantities of flux can be
applied and where sufficient heat can be applied
to fully decompose or volatilize the corrosive
constituents. Caution is necessary where undecomposed flux may spread to insulating sleeving
or in soldering closed systems where corrosive
fumes may be deposited on critical parts of the
assembly. When stranded wire is soldered,
caution is necessary to avoid entrapment of the
corrosive constituents.
Noncorrosive Fluxes
Noncorrosive fluxes all have rosin as a common
ingredient. Rosin has unique physical and chemicai properties which make it ideal as a flux. It
melts at 127"C (260"F) and remains active in the
molten stafe up to 315" C ( =600" F). The active
constituent of rosin (abietic acid) is inert in the
solid state, active whed molten,. and returns to an
inactive state when cooled. Thus it is widely used
in the electrical and electronics industries because the flux residue is noncorrosive and nonconductive.
Three types of rosin fluxes are in common use
- nonactivated, mildly activated, and activated
rosin.
Nonactivated Rosin. Nonactivated rosin consists of rosin plasticized with an inert plasticizer
for core solder or dissolved in an inert solvent as a
liquid flux. No additives for the purpose of increasing flux activity are used. This is the mildest
of the rosin fluxes, and only extremely clean and
solderable metals can be soldered reliably with
nonactivated rosin. Federal Specifications
MIL-F-14256 and QQ-S-571 designafe this type
asR. '
Mildly Activated,Rosin. Because of the slow
fluxing action of nonactivated rosin, mildly activated rosin is also used. It contains additives
which improve the fluxing action of the rosin but
leave residues which are noncorrosive and nonconducting. Mildly activated rosin is used in high
reliability electronic assemblies, and removal of
the flux residue is optional. Mildly activated
rosin can be plasticized for core solder or dissolved in an organic solvent to provide a liquid
flux. Federal Specifications MIL-F- 14256 and
QQ-$571 designate this type as RMA.
Activated Rosin. The activated rosin fluxes
are the most active of all and depend on the
addition of small amounts of complex organic

compounds for their increased activ.ity. Hydrohalides of amines such as hydrazine hydrohalide,
glutamic acid hydrochloride, cetyl pyridinium
bromide, aniline hydrochloride and organic acids
such as benzoic and succinic have been disclosed
in patent literature as additives for activated rosin
fluxes to be used in liquid form or as a core
material. Additive amounts varying from 0.2 to
5% have been suggested. Fluxes of this type are
designated RA.
The use of activated rosin as a noncorrosive
flux is based on the theory that the activator is
decomposed by heat and that the residue is not
electrically conductive or corrosive. High
production-line speeds have demanded more
highly active fluxes, but the question of harmful
flux residues is still a mafter of debate in critical
applications where corrosion resistance is the
foremost consideration.
Paste Fluxes
It is sometimes convenient to have the flux in
paste form. Paste fluxes can be more easily
localized at the joint and have the advantage of
not draining off the surface or spreading to other
parts of the work where the flux would be harmful. The paste-forming ingredients may be water,
petroleum jeiiy, tallow, or lanolin, with glycerine
or other moisture-retaining substances. If the
pastes contain inorganic salts, such as zinc or
ammonium chloride, they are classed as corrosive fluxes.
Solder and Flux Pastes
A true paste solder is a stable blend of finely
divided metallic solder with inorganic or organic
chemicals acting as the flux in a neutral vehicle
or carrier. These paste solders are not merely
mechanical mixtures of flux and metal. The
blending agents prevent a drying action and settling of heavy metallic particles. The size and
shape of the particle of the metal ingredient have
a definite bearing on the stability of the pastes.
Paste solders are well suited for preplacement
in oven, radiant heat, resistance and induction
heating applications. Automatic preplacement
methods have been developed for the paste solders and include dipping, brushing or rolling,
point feeding, and line feeding. Corrosive and
noncorrosive paste solders are available com-
-COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

__ .
'
Fluxes I I 7
mercially. The solder composition may vary from
2 5 8 to 60%tin, balance lead.
Reaction Fluxes
Reaction fluxes are a special group of corrosive
fluxes developed for soldering aluminum. Their
action depends on the decomposition of the flux
to form a metallic film on the aluminum (see
Chapter 15).
SELECTING THE FLUX

The following factors influence the choice of
flux:
1. The assembly being soldered
2. Accessibility of the p a t for cleaning after
soldering
3. Solderability of the base metals
4.Rate of soldering required
5. Heating method.
It is good practice to use the mildest flux that
will do the job. (see Table 3.3). The soldering of
complicated electrical equipment requires the
choice of a noncorrosive flux, since corrosive
residues cannot be tolerated and postcleaning is
virtually impossible. Corrosive fluxes can be
used when the parts can be thoroughly washed
after soldering as, for example, in the assembly of
radiators.
Where a small degree of corrosion can be tolerated and removal of the flux residue is impractical, the intermediate fluxes, properly used, are
sufficiently active and fast for soldering the more
difficult-to-solder metals. The more corrosive
fluxes are often demanded, however, because of
increased speed in soldering.
Although the base metal is a big factor in flux
selection, the converse is also sometimes the
case. Thus, in the electrical industry, dfficult-tosolder metals are precoated with metals such as
silver, tin, cadmium and copper to permit the use
of rosin fluxes.
Methods of heating may govern the choice of
flux and, conversely, the flux may determine the
choice of heating method. The inorganic salt type
fluxes can be eifectively used with any heating
method, since they do not char or decompose
readily. The intermediate fluxes and rosin base

fluxes, however, are sensitive to the heating

method. Since they are of essentially organic
origin, they will decompose and become ineffective when overheated. Torch or flame heating
methods, unless carefully controlled, are not
generally recommended for intermediate and
rosin base fluxes.
TYPICAL FLUX COMPOSITIONS

Proprietary flux formulations are available from
solder and flux manufacturers for evexy soldering
application. The following flux compositions
will show some of the formulations which are
used. More detailed information is available from
most manufacturers.
Corrosive General Purpose Fluxes
These fluxes are effective on low-carbon steel,
copper, brass, and bronze. Applications are in the
production of auto radiators, air conditioning and
refrigerating equipment, body soldering, and
sheet metal assembly.
1. Zinc chloride
Ammonium chloride
Water to make
1130g
iog
&oz.
4L
lgal
2. Zinc chloride
Sodium chloride
Ammonium chloride
Hydrochloric acid
Water to make
1020g
280g
15g
30g
3602.
1Ooz
4L
402.
1/2oz.
loz
lgal
3. Zinc chloride
6oog
21 oz.
Sodium chloride
170g
60z.
(Dryjluxfor molten solder cover
in dip soldering)
4. Zinc chlonde
Ammonium chloride
Petroleum jelly
Water
7Og
2502
1OOg 3-1/2OZ.
184Og 6502
180 g 6-LZ OZ.
Corrosive Special Purpose Flwes

These fluxes can be used for soldering stainless
steel, alloy steel, nickel alloys, silicon and
aiunhum bronzes, zinc coated sheet, cast iron
and aluminum.
AWS S M * C H * 3
**
lS/SOLDERING MANUAL
$I
$I
CI
u
m
'e
E:
U
W
.-8
c
c

Fluxes119
2410 g
85 oz.
Diethanol diamine
g
4oz.
i, 'Zinc chloride
Diethanol triamine
285g
1Ooz
18Og 6-1/2 oz
Ammonium Chloride
Stannous Chloride
260g
9oz
(For soldering aluminum)
Hydrochloric acid
6og
202
1280g 45oz.
Water to make
4L
1 gal 9. Potassium chloride
850g
30.0~.
Wetting agent (optiona1)-O. 1% by weight
Sodium chloride
Lithium chloride
4258
15oz.
(For stainless steel and galvanized iron)
Potassium fluoride
200g
70z.
2. Zinc chloride
136Og 4 8 0 ~ .
Sodium
5 OZ.
pyrophosphate
85g
302
Ammonium chloride
140 g
Hydrochloric acid
85g
3oz
(For soldering aluminum)
Water to make
4L
lgal
10. Triethanolamine
710g
25oz
Wetting agent (optional)- O. 1% by weight
8
5
g
302
Fluoboric
acid
(For stainless steel)
Cadmium fluoborate
55g
20z.
4558
1 6 0 ~ . (Chloride-free organic flux for soldering
3. Zinc chloride
455 g
16 oz aluminium. Fluxing range 175"to 275" C[=350"
Ammonium chloride
455 g
16 oz to 525" F). The viscous liquid can be dissolved
Glycerin
0 . 5 ~ 1 pint with water or alcohol fo any desired concentraWater
(For Monel)
tion.)
4. Orthophosphoric
11. Stannous chloride

1250g 44oz.
acid (859)
96Og
34oz.
Ammonium chloride
14og
5oz.
Water
4558 16oz.
Sodium fluoride
30g
loz.
(Forhigh tensile manganese, 6ronZG
(Reaction type flux for soldering aluminum.
copper, brass)
Fluxing range 280" to 380' C [ 4 4 0 " to 720" FI
32 oz or higher. It may be used as a dry powder mixture
9l0
5. Zinc chloride
4 oz. or it may be suspended in alcohol.)
Ammonium chloride
Sodium chloride
225 g
Hydrochloric acid
2258.
Water to make
4 L
(For cast iron)
8OZ.
8oz.
lgal
12. Zinc chloride

125og 4402.
Ammonium chloride
14og
5oz.
Sodium fluoride
30g
loz
(Reaction flux for soldering aluminum. It may be
used as a dry powder or mixed with water or
40 oz
130
flog
4 0 2 alcohol.)
Ammonium chloride
Hydrofluoric acid
35g 1-1/40z Intermediate Fluxes
Water to make
4 L i. 1 gal
These fluxes contain organic compounds which
(For cast iron)
decompose at soldering temperatures. When
7. Stannous chloride
2350 g
83 OZ. properly used, the mildly corrosive elements in
the flux volatilize, leaving a residue relatively
Zinc dihydrazinium
200 g
7 OZ. inert and easily removed with water. They are
chloride*
effective on all materials which are solderable
Hydrazine
1 0 0 ~ . with mild fluxes. Typical compositions are as
hydrobromide*
2858
Water
2858
1 0 0 ~ follows:
(PasteJux for soldering aluminum)
1. Glutamic acid
8. Cadmium fluoboride
14og
5oz.
hydrochloride
5 4 0 g 19oz.
Zinc fluoboride
14og
5oz.
Urea
310g l l o z .
Fluoboric acid
170g
6oz.
Water
41
1 gal
570 g 20 oz.
Wetting agent- 0.2% by weight
Diethanol amine
6, Zinc chloride

20/SOLDERING MANUAL
2. Hydrazine
monohydrobromide*
Water
Nonionic wetting
agent
280 g
2550g
1.5g
3. Lactic acid (85%)

260g
Water
1190g
3g
Wetting agent
(For beryllium copper)
TESTING OF FLUXES
10 oz.
90oz. Laboratory tests on fluxes are of questionable
value as a final indication of the effectiveness of
1/200z. the flux. However, the following tests are used to
902. classify fluxes according to their efficiency and
4202. corrosivity.
1/10 oz. F l w Efficiency
i. Water white rosin: 10-25% by weight

Alcohol, turpentine or petroleum: balance
The test varies fromone laboratory to another, but

the details may be generalized. A circular strand
of solder of known weight is placed in the center
of a one-inch square piece of clean copper sheet
and a few drops olthe flux applied. The copper
sheet is placed on a thermostatically controlled
hot plate at 260" C ( 5 0 " F) for 60 seconds and
then carefully removed. The spread of the solder
is measured with a planimeter. The apparatus can
be improved by eliminating air currents which
may affect the spread or by raising or lowering
the sheet onto the hot plate mechanically fo avoid
disturbing the solder. A control test with a standard flux is made along with each test as a comparison of flux efficiency. Although this test procedure is fairly standard, it must be appropriately
modified for use with base metals other than
copper.
2. Water white rosin: 40% by weight
Flux Corrosivity
Noncorrosive Fluxes
The rosin base fluxes - nonactivated, mildly activatedand activated-belong in thisclass. For all
electronic and critical soldering applications,
water white rosin dissolved in an organic solvent
(item 1 below) is the safest known flux. Activators added to the rosin increase the activity,
but the flux residue from these fluxes should pass
tests for noncorrosivity and nonconductance
when used on electronic applications. These
fluxes are effective on clean copper, brass,
bronze, tinplate, terneplate, electrodeposited tin
and in alloy coatings, cadmium, nickel, and
silver.
Glutamic acid hydrochloride: 2% by weight

Alcohol: balance
Cetyl pyridinium bromide: 4% by weight
Alcohol: balance

Stearine: 4% by weight
Alcohol: balance
Hydrazine hydrobromide 2% by weight
Alcohol: balance
*Stock solution to bewed in concentration of 2-1576 in

alcoho. Hydrazine salts and compounds are highly
toxic, and fluxes containing these should be used with
caution.

One method for measuring potential corrosivity of the flux is the measurement of the resistivity of a water extract. The water extract test is a
means by which the chemica character of flux
residues is determined. As the test is outlined in
theFederal Specification QQ-S-57 1, much care is
required to obtain correct and reproducible results. The specification requires that the specific
resistivity of a water extract of the flux be at least
100 O00 a m for R and RMA and 45 o00 a m
for RA types. Details ofthe test procedure appear
in Federal Specification QQ-S-571. Other corrosion tests for rosin base fluxes are given in
MILF-14256, QQ-S-57 1, and ASTM B284.
CHAPTER 4
JOINT DESIGN
many materiais and solders from consideration.

However, it is very likely that several solder-base
metal combinations will remain after the engineering assessments. The next most important
criterion to consider is cost effectiveness, including relative processing and material costs.
Physical and mechanical properties of the soldered joint are discussed in Chapter 23. As already explained, however, the range of possibilities in configuration variations is such that
some test work is mandatory on a proposed joint
design and soldering procedure if a specific performance requirement is to be met. When joint
designs are compared, the soldering operations
must be performed under carefully controlled and
similar conditions so that the joint itself is under
test and not the method of joining.
Relative thermal expansion of lhe solder and
the base metal are important in processing as well
as in service. In processing, joint overstressing
can lead to solder joint fracture on solidification.
In service, differential thermal expansion or residual stresses from processing can accelerate
joint failure by creep or corrosion mechanisms.
As service stresses increase, attention should be
given to the joint by (1) placing the joint in a
relatively low stress area, (2) supporting the joint
mechanically, say, by a lock-seam, and (3) resorting to a higher strength solder with suitable
strength or creep resistance.
Lap joints are the most widely used and are
usually preferable. Butt joints can be made but
have limited value. Many variations in joint de-
INTRODUCTION
In general, solders have lower strength properties
than thematerials to which they arejoined. Structurally loaded joints must therefore be carefully
evaluated so that they will be capable of sustaining the applied stresses for an adequate lifetime.
Long-term joint properties are more important
than short-time tensile or shear tests in the determination of an appropriate joint cross-sectional
area once the design has been selected. Bulk
solder alloy properties must not be utilized in
design, since they are not reflected in actual joint
strengths.
Electrical conductivity of soldered connections is also an important factor. Solderresistivity
values vary widely and must be considered in
selecting a suitable joint design or connection.
The soldered joint should relate to the maximum
expected capacity of the electrical circuit and be
designed to prevent localized heating or resistance changes that would influence overall circuit
performance.
BASE METAL
The base metal's properties will have.a strong
influence on joint selection. The designer must
have a thorough knowledge of the part or assembly and its intended functions in order to arrive at
the best joint design, material, and solder for the
job. The initial design criteria will eliminate
21

AWS S M * C H * 4
**
0784265 0006373 T
22/SOLDERING MANUAL
sign are feasible, a good number of which are values as an initiai guide to solder and base metal
presented in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2. Dimensions of the selection. Joint design with a simple lap joint is
lap joint may be varied so that the joint can more complex than relating a unit cross-section
adequately sustain service loading or produce stress or shear value to a developed configurafailure in the base metal to which it is attached. tion. Rarely can a solder joint be designed to take
Most reported test data on joint strengths are not a pure shear load. The length and quality of the
useful to the designer, since in solder joints the exposed joint edge is just as important as joint
ability to withstand load to failure in a short-time area in strength determination under shear load.
room-temperature test generally does not bear Perhaps the most definite work on shear loading
much relationship to what that joint can sustain of soldered joints was performed by Maupin and
in service. Often the data are meaningless for Swanger, who fully characterized the loadthe designer because sufficient details of the ac- carrying capabilities of copper tube with sleevetual test performed are lacking. The shear strength type joints or fittings. Their results can be effecof a solder joint can apparently be doubled or tively interpreted, since overall dimensions are
halved depending on the speed of test in tension. known in addition to the loads applied. Typical
Therefore, engineering design must proceed copper tube and fitting sizes are found in Chapon the basis of test comparisons, using book ter 22.
Corner
Angle T
Double lap
Flanged T
Flush lap
Flanged edge
Flat lock seam
Corner
Flanged corner
Flanged bottom
Single strap butt
Flanged butt
Line contact
Flanged bottom
Fig. 4.la - Joint designs frequently used in soldering. Solder joints terminology has not
been standardized

AWS S M * C H * 4
**
07842b5 0 0 0 b 3 7 2 L i
Joint Design123
Solder is placed
here before heating
Single iine of
contact
Fig. 4.lb - Typical socket joint design. Note

flange which holds solder preform and the
single line of contact between inner member
and inner wall. The molten solder flows easily
beneath the contact line to form a fillet on the
other (lower) side
Joint clearance in a lap joint is critical for

optimum performance. Too small clearances frequently lead to flux entrapment, inadequate solder flow, and numerous voids in the joint. Conversely, if joint clearances are too large, capillary
flow of the solder filler metal is impaired; or if the
joint is heated too vigorously, the solder runs out
or leaves only a bridge at the edge or opening.
Correct joint clearance in lap joints is approximately O. 10-0.15 mm (0.004-0.006 in.), which
achieves a balance between competing processes
of flux and solder flow, capillary action, and
solder retention. A good design criterion for lapped solder joints is to consider 70% filled joint to
be adequate provided the voids are small and
discretely dispersed. A practical range for copper
tube joint filling is 70-90%; this can readily be
checked in most situations by X-ray techniques
(see Fig. 4.3).
Jb
Vent
Flattened side
Fig. 4.lc - Venting of closed-end joints can

be done by drilling a hole, as at lefi , or by
crimping or flattening one member, as at right
Fig. 4.ld-Several lock seam designs used in soldering sheet. Sequence of formation is shown by the
sketches

24/SOLDERING MANUAL
Fig. 4.le -Joint showing (left) solder preplacement before soldering and (right) after soldering
Radiators and heat exchangers are among the
commonest applications of soldering. Tubes are
joined by a lock seam and then joined to tank
headers by a lap joint; the remaining joint between the header plate and tank is a trough joint,
shown in Fig, 4.4. These joints arerequired to be
'structurally capable of operating at elevated
temperature and pressure under cyclic conditions. Test work has demonstrated that lap joint
strength data are not applicable to the trough
system, but a peel test provides a quantitative
measure of the comparative merits of solder
fillers for header tank use. Joint design in the
radiator is controlled by the need for rapid assembly, and solder selection is necessarily progressive because.the joints have to be made in
sequence. Success depends on the total concept
in which joint design has an imporfant place but
.cannot be separately considered.
Process selection, details of which can be
found in Chapter 6, can dictate the appropriate
joint design or, coniersely, a particular joint design may be limited to a particular process or
heating method. For example, in sheet metal
work the lock seam has the obvious advantage of
being self-jigging, and parts can be roughly handied and still be joined satisfactorily. The ideal
use ofthe lap joint is in tubing where a sleeve fit is
easy to assemble for subsequent joining. Both
can be hand-soldered or automatically handled
with liquid solder or solid wire feed material
application. The trough system is particularly
useful for rapid automatic production; it does not

require close fit-up, but it uses large quantities of

solder. Quantity production of small parts or
small joints can best be handled with wire or strip
preforms. Joints are designed for solder retention, for example, widening a gap or indenting a
part for precise joint configuration. Parts are
made for automatic sorting and placement.
Capillary action of liquid solder is necessary
for good joint formation in lapped or locked
seams in tube sleeves and in some wire type
connections. The maximum capillary rise
achievable is directly related to joint gap (see Fig.
4.5) and is given by the equation
h =
2ucos0
where h = capillary height,

u = surface tension, dynes
0 = contact angle,
d = capillary gap,
p = solder density,
g = gravity.
J&nt tolerances are critical to proper capillary
action and to the displacement of flux from the
joint by the molten solder. These two requirements are conflicting and result in the known
optimum lap joint gap of O. 1to O. 15mm (==0.003
to 0.005 in.). A smaller gap may produce flux
inclusions; a larger gap reduces capillary flow
and may also produce voids.
Joint design must be adequate for liquid solder
flow. Several factors affect joint design and must
AWS S M * C H * 4
**
W 0784265 0006374 5
Joint Design125
Spot welded
Mechanically
expanded
Hydraulically
expanded
Lock seamed
Staked
Pressed
Crimped
Screwed or riveted
Clipped
Swaged
Countersunk and spun
A Formed
B Pressed
C Peened
Slitting and earing

Pin flange
to tube
Gravity
Staked
Welded
Pinned
.Solder
Expanded
Spun or
swaged
Fig. 4.2 -Twenty-one
Knurled and
pressed fit
Crimped
methods that can be used to make solder joints self-jigging

**
AWS S M * C H * 9
I0789265 0 0 0 b 3 7 5 7 I
26ISOLDERING MANUAL-
8 200-
.-C
.O 150-
A-
-4-
o 100o
50-n
25
75
50
% Solder fill
100
in joints
Fig. 4.3 - Histogram ofjoint areas filled with

soft solder. From collection of 812 fitting
joints considered to have been giving satisfactory service prior to their removal from service due to building demolition
Fig. 4.4 - Section of tank-to-tube plate joint
300
200 150 250
E
E
S
100
50 o
0.05
I
0.1
I
0.15
0.2
I
0.25
0.3
0.35
d mm
Fig.4.5 - Maximum head height versus capillary gap dimension between

parallel plates for 50% tin-50% lead solder with flux present

Joint Design/21
be considered if a sound joint is to be produced:
1. A reservou of molten solder
2. A feed path to the capillary
3. A suitable capillary entrance and exit
4.Controlled gap to provide capillary driving
force
5. A balanced mass for even heating and controlled liquid solder flow
6.A joint suitable for the proposed method of
heating
7. Enough joint freedom to prevent flux entrapment.
A conscious effort is necessary in joint detailing to provide highly reliable optimum joints.
A widely used practical joint is the interlock or
locked seam. From a joint design and ease-ofsoldering standpoint, the joint is also one of the
most difficult. Usually the heating system has at
least three thicknesses to penetrate, and the inner
part of the joint may not be hot enough to provide
the free solder flow. Sometimes interlocked joints
are provided with perforations to assist in observing solder flow.
Soldered joints are widely used in the elec-*
tronics industry (see Tables 4.1 and 4.2). Joint
design for electrical applications has the dual
function of providing satisfactory electrical continuity in addition to permanently affixing components and leads for reliable service. Electrical
joints for wires and more recently joints in the
printed circuit and integrated circuit industries
have increasingly been required to be capable of
withstanding a variety of service conditions.
The three basic types of joint for the wire-totab connection are shown in Fig. 4.6.The lap
joint is useful for many electrical applications,
The through-lead with or without plated
through-holes is widely used but. generally not
suitable for vibrating or high acceleration service
because of soldered joint creep problems. A
wrapped or clinched j d n t i s prefcrable. Several
variations are possible here from the wire-to-wire
wrap joint to aclinched wire onto aprintedcircuit
board (see Table 4.3). Some advantages can be
gained by the use of larger pad areas and longer
leads to increase solder mass. Thinner boards help
in reducing thermal expansion, and a thick plated

through-hole with solder fill will provide a larger

crack propagation path as demonstrated in Fig.
4.7.Component placement is instrumental in restraining movement. Some electrical designs
allow a strain-relieved lead but, conversely, an
offset component can lead to mechanical or
thermal fatigue of the joint if not carefully designed as in Fig. 4.8. See Fig. 4.9 for some
helpful tips on component mountings. Swaged
terminals should not be soldered to both sides of
the joint. A lead wire should be used if a second
joint is necessary.
Wire-to-hole ratio and land spacing are two
other important factors. Again, selection of both
is bound to lead to compromise. A satisfactory
minimum radial clearance in a hole for a wire is
0.1 mm (=0.003 in.). Adequatesolderingin the
hole is more important in the plated through-hole
where this area is probably included in the electrical design. Component densities tend to increase, reducing space between conductors and
allowing less room for adequate land spacing.
Land shape shouId be related to the conductor
shape and size to allow the best fillet formation at
the joint area. Some configurations are presented
in Table 4.4.Safety factors in joint design are
subjective; there are no clear rules because of the
numerous variables and compromises that have
been made during the designing process. The
final tesf must be a verification trial for manufacturing and a test and inspection program for service. Review and modification of new designs
must be included in the cost and time accounting
and should not necessarily be regarded as a mistake. Much remains to be learned, and many
pitfalls can be avoided by proper attention.
High density electronic packaging requires
close attention to joint design to suit the process.
Lead bend angle has profound effects on reported
mechanical strengths. Lead mass can affect optimum time-temperature profiles in joint production. A fiat length or lead pad of 1.5 mm (-0.050
in.) is needed for conductor attachment, and path
widths should preferably be 0.15 mm (-0.005
in.) minimum each side of the lead. Overlapping
the conductor produces lower quality joints. Two
joints are illustrated in Fig. 4.10.
AWS S M * C H * 4
mx
07842b5 0006377 O W
28/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 4.1-Linear thermal expansions of metals and alloys

Coefficient of expansion
(in./in.P F X
Temperature
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
1100
3003
3004
5052
6062.,
............................
............................
............................
............................
..........................
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

Electrolytic (ETP)
...........
Deoxidized (DLP)
Oxygen-fiee (OF)
Commercial bronze. 90 Cu-lo Zn
Red brass. 85 Cu-15 Zn .............
Low brass. 80 Cu-20 Zn ............
Cartridge brass. 70 Cu-30 Zn .........
Muntz metal. 60 Cu-40 Zn ...........
Leaded brass; low. medium and high ...
Naval brass ......................
Phosphor bronze,.8 (Grade C) ........
Cupro.qicke1. 70 Cu-30 Ni
Cupro.nicke1. 90 Cu- 10 Ni ..........
Nickel silver. 65 Cu- 15 Ni ...........
Aluminum bronze. 92 Cu-8 Al .......
.....
..........
IRONS AND STEELS

Ingotiron
Wroughtiron .....................
Gray cast iron ....................
"Ni-Hard:' low-or high-carbon .......
Carbon steel, SAE 1020
Cast alloy steel
Iron-silicon alloy
"Durichlor"
........................
.............
....................
..................
......................
STAINLESS STEELS
301.302.304.309. 310 .............
321. 347 .........................
316. 317 .........................
410, 4 30
414.420
431
.........................
.........................
.............................
446. .............................
"C
"F
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
23.6 13.1
23.2 12.9
23.9 13.3
23.8 13.2
22.2 12.4
o to 100
32 to 212
17.6
9.8
o to 100
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32to212
32 to 212
32 to 212
18.4
18.7
19.1
20.0
20.9
20.3
21.2
18.2
16.2
16.7
16.2
16.2
10.2
10.4
10.6
11.1
11.6
11.3
11.8
10.1
9.0
9.3
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
11.7
12.1
10.8
8.6
11.7
12.1
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.7
6.0
4.8
6.5
6.7
3.6
3.6
20 to 100
20 to 100
20 to 100
20 to 100
20 to 100
20 to 100
20 to 100
68 to 212
68 to 212
68 to 212
68 to 212
68 to 212
68 to 212
68 to 212
14.4
14.9
15.8
9.2
9.9
11.7
10.3
8.0
8.3
8.8
5.1
5.5
6.5
5.7
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
9.0
9.0
o
**
AWS S M * C H * 4
W 07842b5 0006378 2 W
Joint Design129
Table 4.1 -Linear thermal expansions of metals and alloys continued

-
Coefficient of expansion
(in./in./ F X
Temperature
C
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
o to 100
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
32 to 212
13.3
13.0
13.0
14.0
. 12.2
11.5
11.0
10.0
11.3
. 11.0
7.4
7.2
7.2
7.8
6.8
6.4
6.1
5.6
6.3
6.1
17 to 100
20 to loo
20 to 100
15 to 110
20 to 100
20 to 100
o to 100
63 to 212
68 to 212
68 to 212
59 to 230
68 to 212
68 to 212
32 to 212
29.3
24.6
26.6
26.5
23.9
19.6
23.0
16.3
15.4
14.8
14.7
13.3
10.9
12.8
MISCELLANEOUS PURE METALS

near 68
Tungsten . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . near 20
77 to 212
25 to 100
Molybdenum . . . , . .. . . . . . . . . . .
32 to 212
o to IO0
Silver . . . , . . , . , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
68
Gold .......................
.....
20
68
Platinum , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
68
Palladium., . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
near 68
Tantalum . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . near 20
68 to 482
20 to 250
Zinc . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .
20
68
Titanium . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
to
100
68 to 212
Magnesium . . . , . . . . . . . . . , . .
20
68
Chromium .......................
Room Temperature
Cadmium . , . . . . . , . .. . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
4.9
19.6
14.2
8.8
11.9
6.5
29.8
8.5
25.9
6.1
29.9
2.4
2.7
10.9
7.9
4.9
6.6
3.6
22.1
4.7
14.4
3.4
16.6
NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

Nickel (pure) . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nickel (wrought or cast) . . . . . . . . . . .
Low-carbon nickel , . . . ,. . . . . . . .
Monel (wrought) . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
Monel (cast), , . . .
. . . .... . . .
Inconel (wrought or cast). . . . . . . . . .
Hastelloy Alloy A . . . . . . .. . . . .
Hastelloy Alloy B . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hastelloy Alloy C . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hastelloy Alloy D , . .. . , . . . . . . . .
..
..
.. .
. ... .
.
.. .
..
. .
. .
.
. .
.
.
.
TIN,LEAD.AND LEAD ALLOYS

Corroding lead. , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hard lead (4 Sb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8% antimonial lead (8 Sb) . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .. . . .
20-80 Solder (20 Sn)
Lead base babbitt (80 Pb,15 Sb,5 Sn). . .
..
. .
. . .
. .. .
Lead base babbitt (75 Pb, 15 Sb, 10 Sn).

Pure tin . . . . . . .
. . .. . . . . . .
..
.. . ..
.
.
.
..
. .

.
..
.
. .
. .
. .
.
. .
.
.
.. .
.. .
.. .
AWS S M * C H * 4
**
0 7 8 4 2 b 5 000b377 4
30/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 4.2-Data
for electrical-connections design'
.
.
Group I-No mechanical security prior to soldering
Butt
c'onnectipns
Diagram
Fixtures
Current
Round
to
round
ya
Small
Square
to
square
Yes
Small
Rectangle
to
rectangle
Yes
Small
Yes
Large
)ptional
Large
Fat
to
fiat
Iptional
Large
-Wire
to
post
No
Medium
Wire
to
CUP
No
Large
Dptionai
Medium
nections
Round*
to
round
Round
to
flat
DCI
I
Wire
to
hole
'H.H. Manko, How to Design the Soldered Electrical Connection, Prod. Eng., June 12, 1961, p. 57.

AWS S M * C H * 4
**
0 7 8 4 2 6 5 0006380 O
Joint Design13 I
Table
4.3-Data for electrical-connections design
Group II-Partial mechanical security prior to solderhg
Hook
connections
Iq 5 P e
Diagram
Controlling
formu I a
I Conditions I Fixtures
Round
to
round
Large
PCl
Pc2
Aci S A C *
Hook 3 180"
Round
to
?ci\,.
at
I
Group III-Full
Wrap
I
inections I
5Pe
NO
Medium
MJ-J
Round
to
round
Current
mechanical security prior to soldering* *

_ _ _ ~ ~
~
Controlling
ormula
Diagram
Fixtures
Current
PCI a Pcz
Dc1 DC2
N>1
No
Large
No
Medium
No
Large
I
Lj =
%Dei
2
Conditions
I
Pcr 3
PC2
Ac,
Ac2
N= 1
Round
to
post
Dci - Diameter of smaller conductor

Aci - Area of smaller conductor
S -Solder
W -Width
Lj - Length of joint
P C l 3 Pc2
DCI Dc2
N31
T -Thickness
N - Number of Turns
6 - Resistivity Ratio ps
PCI
-Resistivity (Microhm- cm)
*Use only when large conductor diameter is 3 to 4 times larger than small diameter; otherwise use round-toRat lap-joint formula.
**In cases where loosenng or breaking of the joint would result in a hazardous condition, mechanical security
should be specified.

AWS S M * C H * 4
**
I0 7 8 4 2 b 5 0006381 2 H
32/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 4.4
- Configurations of printed- circuit lands
Preferred
direction for
cornnonent lead
Toward
long end
@ Round
Good design.
Enlarged
contact area
round
The
universal
pattern
Uneven
Not
widely used
Toward a
corner or
long end
Rect.
Toward base
Uneven
Not
widely used
Uneven
Delta
[p:::.
Remarks
Even, and
almost round
Any
Toward tip
p
l
Solder fillet
contour will be
Used if
space very
limited
Epoxy fiberglass
/
Lead
Sdder
Stronger
joint
\
Longer
Lead
Plated hole
U
Thickboard
C
Fig. 4.6
joints

- Methods
of making wire-to-tag
Fig. 4.7 -How to improvejoint strength, For

single-sided boards, A, larger pads and longer
leads increase solder mass; a thinner doublesided board, B, is better because it provides a
longer path for crack propagation
AUS SM*CH*rLr
**
Joint Design133
r
I
Organic protective
coating (encapsulant)
Cracked joint
Fig. 4.8 - Restraint of the expanding lead by

protective-coating bridging, mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding, or a hard spacer will
all reduce the thermal fatigue life
Thin
coating
avoids
bridging
Fig. 4.9-For small parts (resistors and diodes)

on uncoated boards, use single-sided boards, A;
on coated boards, use plated through-holes, B .
For moderate-size parts (TO-5cans) on uncoated
boards, provide clearance, C; when coated, D,
use a very thin coating to avoid bridging. For
heavy, side-mounted parts with moderate size
leads, E, use plated through-holes; with heavy
leads, F, weld, braze, or solder on a flexible lead
= 1.5 m m (0.05 in.)
A = 1.5 mm (0.05 in.)
= HA
length
strength,N
B = 44 A 17.8-24.5
= %A
22.2-28.9
15.5-22.2
Fig. 4.10 - 60" and 80" preformed leads

B =% A
B = ?4 A
11.1-17.8
4.5-11.1
AWS S M * C H * 4
**
I0 7 8 4 2 b 5 0 0 0 b 3 8 3 b M
34/SOLDERING MANUAL
REFERENCES
1. Alcoa, 1972, Soldering Alcoa aluminum.
Pittsburgh.
2. Coombs, C.F., Jr. 1961. Printed circuits
handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Jayne, T.D.and Martin, L. 1970. Improving
control of soft soldering in copper piping
joints. In ASME Paper 70-PVP-21.
4. Lampe, B.T. 1973. Reflow soldering of integ-

rated circuit flatpacks. Weldingjournal, 52, 1:

23-30.
5. Manko, H.H. 1964. Solders and soldering
New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Mohler, J.B. 1971. Solder joints vs. time and
temperanire. Machine design, April 15.
7. Rubin, W.,and Allen, B.M. 1965. Soldering
in the electronic industry. British welding
jortrnal, 12, 12.
8. TRI Publication 369, 1965.
AWS S M * C H * S
**
O784265 0 0 0 6 3 8 4 8
CHAPTER 5
PRECLEANING AND
SURFACE PREPARATION
Proper surface preparation is essential to successful soldering. The more frequent precleaning
methods are degreasing, acid cleaning, mechanical abrasion, and etching.
DEGREASING
Organic films such as oils and greases are frequently encountered on the surface of metais to
be soldered. Such oils and greases must be removed because they prevent wetting acfion by
the flux and solder. Degreasing may be accomplished by immersion of the parts in a liquid
or suspension of the parts in vapors of a suitable
solvent.
The halogenated hydrocarbons are the most
widely used solvents because of their range of
solvency power and lack of flash point. Constant
boiling (azeotropic) blends of several solvents
are sometimes employed to remove both nonionic and ionic soils.
Impingement of the solvent upon the surface
significantly improves the efficiency of the cleaning process. Considerable mechanical remova1of
the soil csn be obtained by agitation, ultrasonics,
bmshing, or in any manner impinging the solvent
upon the surface to be cleaned.
With liquid cleaning, there is always some soil
in solution in the cleaning solvent. It is impractical to remove all the liquid cIeaner from the
surface. Any cleaner remaining after cleaning

will evaporate from the surface cleaned. Being
nonvolatile, the soil that was in solution will remain on the object cleaned. To prevent this condition and obtain a higher levei of cleanliness,
vapor degreasing is used. The parts to be cleaned
are suspended in vapors of a boiling cleaning
solvent. Because the parts are colder than the
vapors, the vapors condense to a liquid, dissolve
the soil, and drip off the parts. When the parts
have reached vapor temperature, condensation
ceases and dry parts may be removed from the
vapor degreaser. If a large enough quantity of
cleaner of sufficient solvency strength condenses
on the parts, the result is clean, dry parts.
The effectiveness of the degreasing can be
easily determined by dipping the part in a liquid;
if the liquid uniformly adheres to the surface, the
part is clean.
ACID CLEANING
The purpose of pickling or acid cleaning is to
remove rust, scale, and oxides or sulfides from
the metal to provide a chemically clean surface
for soldering. T h e inorganic acidshydrochloric, sulfuric, orthphosphoric, nitric,
and hydrofluoric-singly and mixed, all fulfill
this function, although hydrochloric and sulfuric
acid are the most widely used.
35
1.

AWS S M * C H * 5
**
07Li2b5 0 0 0 b 3 8 5 T W
36/SOLDERING MANUAL
Hvdrochloric Acid
tent rises to 8%, the pickling solution should
Thecommercial form of hydrochloric acid has

a specific gravity of 1.14 and contains approximately 25% by weight hydrogen chloride, F~~
pickling iron and steel in cold solutions, the
commercial acid is diluted in the range of 1 part
commercial acid to 2 parts water (10% HCI), to 3
parts of acid to 1 part water (21%HCI).
Hydrochloric acid is an effective pickling sohtion at ordinary shop temperatures, and in most
cases no provision is made for heating it. The
acid increases its temperature due to the heat of
reaction or by introducing heated work. The recommended acid temperature, however, is between 30" and 38" C ( ~ 8 5 and
" 100" F) but never
be
Sulfuric acid is a suitabre medium for pickling

steel and copper alloys. For the latter, it is eustomary to add either 1%- by weight of sodium
dichromate or 2% by volume of nitric acid.
Orthophosphoric Acid
A dilute solution of orthophosphoric acid
(specific gravity 1.87 for 100% acid) is used
occasionally for pickling such metais as stainless
steel and manganese bronze. Solutions of 10% to
40% by volume are used.
Hydrofluoric Acid
Hydrofluoric acid is extremely corrosive, and

contact with the skin should be carefully avoided.
A mixture of 5% hydrofluoric acid and 5% sul300 (=85"
Or
ten
at
furic acid by volume is sometimes used on cast
(65" FI. Lightly scaledwork may require 15to30 iron, high silicon alloys, and aluminum (see
minutes, whereas heavily scaled work may re- Chapter 21 for safety in handling).
quire 45 minutes or more. During use, the acid
content will fall and the solution, if not re- Nitric Acid
plenished with fresh acid, will become iess effecacid (70% "o3) is selConcen&ated
tive. When the iron content reaches 12%, the dom
without dilution or mixing with other
pickling solution should be replaced. An in- acids. A simple and effective pickling solution
hibitor is sometimes added to prevent pitting of for copper contains 15% to 20% by volume of
the metal after the scale is removed. A solution of commercial concentrated
acid in water. The
10% HCI is used in some instances to prepare solution is used cold, and h e time required is
aluminum surfaces for soldering.
normally from 2 to 5 minutes.
m.
bright3 annealed stock can be pickled in three minutes at
Over
'O"
'
(= 12'"
''" '
Mixture of Acids
Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid is commercially available in various concentratiofis. The 96-98% acid has a
specificgravityof 1.84,whereasthe77%acidhasa
specific gravity of 1.70. Sulfuric acid pickling
solutions vary from 5 to 10% by volume of the
commercial acid (77%) added to the water. Sulfuric acid does not work efficiently unless it is
heated to temperatures above 70" C (= 160" F).
and best results are obtained at 82" C (180" F).
Bright, annealed or relatively clean work normally requires only 30 seconds to 2 minutes immersion, whereas heavily scaled work normally requires no longer than 15 minutes. A black smut
which forms may be rinsed off with water. Inhibitors, added to sulfuric acid, will help prevent
pitting. The acidity of the solution is maintained
with periodic additions of fresh acid. When the
free acid content falls below l % or the iron con-
Some mixtures of acids give a bright, etched

finish on metals that do not respond to single
acids. Some typical acid mixtbres are listed
here:*
Copper Aoys
Brass
Sulfuric Acid
Nitric Acid
Water
Hydrochloric acid
Njckel&lver
sulfuric acid
Sodium dichomate
Water
+See Chapter 21 for safe
* * ~ ~conversions
b i ~
Xe
_--COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

8L**
4L
1L
0.015 L
2gal.
1 gal.
1 qt.
1/2 fl OZ
8L
2 gai.
0.25 kg
20 L
1/2 Ib
5 gal.
of these materia,s.
approximate for easy mea-
surement.
Precieaning and Surface Preparation 137
Nickel Alloys
Inconel
Nitric acid
Hydroflouric acid
Water
Btainiess Steel
1.Sulfuric acid
Hydrochloric acid
Water
4L
0.5L
8L
1 gal.
1 pt.
2 gal.
4L
4L
32 L
4L
1 gal.
gal,
gal.
1 gal.
2Nitric acid
Hydrofluoric acid
Water
After pickling, if droplets of watershow on the
metal surfaces, there may still be traces of grease
or other contaminants on the surface which
should be removed before proceeding. The articles should be thoroughly washed in hot water
after pickling and dried as quickly as possible.
MECHANICAL PREPARATION
Various abrasive techniques are frequently
employed to clean metallic surfaces before Soldering. They are effective and economical
methods but have one definite limitation: particles of the abrasive may become embedded in the
surface being cleaned (see Fig. 5.1); These abrasive materials - sand, grit, ceramic, steel wool,
etc. -are generally not solderable. Although the
surface may appear to be clean, if sufficient abrasive particles to significantly reduce the anchorage area have been embedded in the surface, the
result is reduced solderability (see Fig. 5.2). A
simple solderability test should be performed following abrasive cleking. An etch treatment following abrasive cleaning may be required to remove sufficient surface material to eliminate the
embedded abrasive.
As mentioned above, a repair of an abraded

surface to remove embedded particles may be
necessary. A surface may appear clean and indeed be platable (will accept electrodeposited
metals), yet not be solderable. Copper surfaces
that are solder plated, such as printed circuit
boards, sometimes exhibit this defect. Repair of
the surface after plating is difficult and costly.
The plating must be stripped and the surface
etched.
The coating of the base metal surfaces with a

more solderable metal or alloy prior to the soldering operation is sometimes desirable. Coatings of
tin, copper, silver, cadmium, iron, nickel, and
alloys of tin-lead, tin-zinc, and tin-copper are
used for this purpose. The advantages of precoating are twofo1d:Soldering is more rapid and uniform, and strong acidic fluxes are avoided at the
assembly. The precoating- of metals which have
tenacious oxide films, such as aluminum,
aluminum bronzes, highly alloyed steels, and cast
iron, is almost mandatory. Precoating of steel,
brass, and copper, although not absolutely essential, is of great value in some applications.
%TCHI WB
The removal of a small amount of material from
the surface to be soldered is a common cleaning
and repair technique. A nonplated copper surface particularly lends itself to this technique.
Copper etchants such as ferric chloride, copper
chloride, and ammonium persulfate are used.

Fig. 9.1 - Intermetallic compound crystals

with inclusions at surface which have formed
during soldering of copper cleaned with fine
abrasive
38/SOLDERING MANUAL
Meta1 surfaces may be precoated by a number

of different methods. Solder or tin may be applied
with a soldering iron, an abrasive wheel, by an
ultrasonic soldering iron, immersion in molten
metal, electrodeposition, or by chemical displacement.
Hot dipping may be accomplished by dipping
the parts, one at a time, in molten tin or soider of
any composition. Small parts are placed in a wire
basket, cleaned, dipped in the molten metal, and
rotated in a centrifuge to remove excess metal.
Hot dipped coatings can be applied to carbon
steel, alloy steel, cast iron, copper and certain

copper alloys and, to a lesser extent, brass and
aluminum.
Precoating by electrodeposition may be done
in stationary tanks, conveyorized plating units, or
in barrels. This method is applicable to all steels,
copper alloys, nickel alloys, zinc base die castings, and aluminum. The coating metals are not
limited to tin and solder; in addition, copper,
cadmium, silver, precious metais, nickel, iron,
and alloy platings such as tin-copper, tin-zinc,
tin-cadmium, and tin-nickel are commonly used.
Fig. 5.2-Effect of conditions of pumice cleaning solderability. Lef-handpair-with water lubrication; right-hand pair-dry abrading; top row-light pressure; bottom row-heavy pressure. Specimens immersed in 60% tin-40% lead solder at 250" C for 5 seconds with activated rosin flux

AWS S M * C H * S
.-. .-
. .
**
0 7 8 4 2 b 5 0006388 5
Precleaning and Sugace Preparation/39

Methods for the electroplating of these metals
or alloys are given in the Metal Finishing
Guidebook(Ref. I). .
Certain combinations of electrodeposited metals, where one metal is plated over another, are
becoming more popular as an aid to soldering. A
coating of 0.005 mm (0.0002in.) of copper plus
0.01 mm (0.0004in.) oftin is particularly useful
for brass. The solderability of aluminum is assisted by a coating of 0.0015 mm (==O.ooOO5in.)
of nickel, followed by 0.01 mm (=O.O003 in.)
of tin or by a combination of zincate (zinc),
copper, and tin. An iron plating followed by tin
plating is extremely useful over a cast iron surface.
Bader & Baker (Ref. 2) have shown that a
solder coating is preferable to a tin coating to
preserve solderability under adverse storage conditions for extended periods of time. A minimum
of 1.5 p m ( ~ 5 pin,)
0 of solder is required. Such
a coating is effective in preserving solderability
under severe industrial exposure for one year.
Immersion coatings or chemical displacement
coatings of tin, silver, and nickel may be applied
to most of the common base metals. These coatings are usually very thin and generally have poor
shelf life.
The shelf life of a precoating is defined as the

length of time the coating can withstand storage
conditions without impairment of solderability,
Hot tinned and flow-brightened electrotin coatings have excellent shelf life; electrotinned
coatings of inadequate thickness have limited shelf life. Coating thicknesses of 0.005mm
(0.0002 in.) to 0.015 mm (=0.0005in.) of tin are
generally recommended to assure maximum solderability after prolonged storage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figures 5.1 and 5.2 are courtesy of Tin Research
Institute, Inc.
REFERENCES
1. Metal jnisking guidebook directory. Westwood N.J.: Finishing Publications.
2. Bader, W.G. and Baker, R.G. 1973. Solderability of electrodeposited solder and tin coatings after extended storage. Plating, March.

CHAPTER 6
EQUIPMENT,
PROCESSES, AND
PROCEDURES
EQUIPMENT
Soldering irons can be broadly divided into six

groups:
Soldering Irons
1, Instrument irons
2. Medium duty industrial irons
3. Heavy duty industrial irons
4. Temperature controlled irons
5 . Transformer type pencil irons
6. Soldering guns
I. Instrument irons are designed for intermittent and continuous light soldering tasks or electrical repair work. They are available in a wide
selection in both copper and iron plated tips to
allow for matching the tip to any soldering operation.
2. Medium duty indusrriai irons are designed
for continuous production operations and ate
built to withstand use in high-speed production
situations. These irons are also available with a
wide tip selection and v?rious handle and case
sizes and configurafions.
3. Heavy duty industrial irons are designed for
continuous use on fast production soldering operations. These irons are avai!able in a number of
sizes and wattages to insure good heat stability
under heavy soldering loads.
4 . Temperaturecontrolled irons are now available with sensors in the tip which react to small
tip temperature changes, actuating solid state circuitry controlling the power to the element.
The soldering iron (see Fig. 6.1) should provide constant heat to parts being soldered, ensuring that the partsare joined using minimal contact
time, thereby safeguarding that components in
close proximity and areas adjacent to the soldering connection are not adversely affected by heat
absorption.
Flame Heated Irons. Flame.heated soldering
irons are chosen where electric power is not readily available (sheet metal work, fQr example).
Eectricay Heated Irons. Electrically
heated irons are more convenient than gas heated
irons for use in manual, high speed, repetitive
operations where weight and ease of manipulation are of primary mportance. The wide assortment of electric soldering irons available and the
lack of definitive performance specifications
make it necessary to exercise care in selection.
Available diagnostic equipment will provide tip
temperature measurements under dynamic conditions whi1.e the soldering is taking place. Such
measurements will insure that the soldering iron
chosen will perform within the required thermal
working zone.
Industrial soldering irons are available with
both plug and screw tips.
41

42/SOLDERING MANUAL
Fig. 6.1-Traditional
Therefore, the iron will be adjusted automatically
to match the. heat sinking requirements of the
work being soldered. These irons provide very
tight femperature control for any soldering task.
5 . Transformer ype pencil irons are intended
for light soldering repair work and production
operations. The pencil iron is available with a
number of different tip sizes. These irons are
designed for low voltage (less than 12 volts AC),
with a rheostat, or voltage taps, or both, on the
transformer to regulate heat output.
6. Soldering guns areused for light, intermitfent soldering of electrical connections and are'
not intended for continuous operation. The
operator does not have control of the heat output
of a soldering gun, which could result in overheating connections, components, and adjacent
areas if the gun is nof used carefully.
soldering iron
1. Copper Tips. Copper has high thermal conductivity and excellent tinning properties. However, copper tips have the disadvantage of high
oxidation and rapid tip erosion. The tip erosion is
caused by the dissolution of copper in tin at
soldering temperatures and removal of tip matefiai. This creates the need for frequent tip shaping
and oxidation removal to maintain original tip
shape and retain the proper heat transfer from the
heating element to the working surface of the tip.
The fast oxidation rate of copper also causes the
tip to freeze in the soidering iron core, making it
difficult to remove the tip without damaging the
heating element.
2. Ironplated Tip with CoatedShank. This tip
is made of copper with iron electrodeposited uniformly over the entire tip. Iron is used because it
dissolves in tin very slowly, thereby ensuring
extended tip life-in most cases 20 to 50 times
that of copper. The front of the tip is selectively
tinned, and the shank is protected from oxidizing
by platings of nickel and chromium. The thickness of the iron plating can be between 0.2 mm
(0.008in.)and 0.6mm (0.022 in.). The greater
thickness extends the life of the tip but will reduce heat conductivity.
3. Iron Plated Tip with Stainless Steel Shank.
Like the iron plated tips described above, this
design resists corrosion and offers all the benefits
of long tip life. Additionally, it does not allow the
shank to freeze in the iron.
4 . Calorized Tip. A calorized coating is
created by diffusing aluminum into a copper tip
to prevent oxidation at high temperatures and
prevent soldering iron shanks from freezing.
Calorizing is used primarily on screw tips in irons
with internal cartridge type elements. Because
calorized coatings resist wetting, the working
area of the tip is iron plated and factory tinned.
Metemids
The properties required for soldering iron tips
are:
1. High thermal conductivity to insure that
heat transfer is rapid and efficient.
2. Ease of tinning to insure a liquid metallic
path through which the heat ofthe tip surfacemay
be readily transmitted to the work.
3. Low oxidation to insure good heat transfer
from tip to work and to prevent the tip from
freezing in the soldering iron.
4. Resistance to corrosion from soidering
fluxes if acid core, acid paste, and water soluble
fluxes are used.
5. Resistance to erosion by the molten solder.
Four basic types of tips can be used:
1. Copper
Design. Although great emphasis has always
2. Iron plated with coated shank
been placed on the selection of the proper solder3. Iron plated with stainless steel shank
ing iron, one must also recognize the importance
4. Calorized

Equipment, Process, and Proceduresl43
of using a tip that is designed properly. The

following factors influence good tip design:
i. Length. Length should always be minimal.
This positions the contact area as close to the
heating element as possible, #insuringg o d temperature stability.
2. Tipsize. Selection ofthelargest tip size will
ensure the greatest thermal reserve.
3.Contact Area. The contact area should
match the soldering connection to insure the
greatest possible heat transfer rate.
4.Shupe. The shape of the tip is chosen to
provide the greatest contact area.
General Guide to Iron and Tip Sizes
Table 6.1 is a general guide for the selection of
soldering irons and tips. The performance of electrically heated industrial irons cannot be measured solely by the power rating. The materials
used and the design of the iron will affect the heat
reserve and temperature recovey of the tip.
governed by the size, mass, and configuration of

the assembly to be soldered.
The flame from a torch will heat large masses
of material rapidly but is likely to cause burning
or carbonization of the flux. This is less likely to
occur when flux core solders with chloridefluxes
are used. One way to prevent carbonization or
decomposition is to preheat the assembly (without causing excessive oxidation) before applying
the solder and flux.
The elevated temperature of the flame from a
torch can cause damage to heat sensitive components or fo areas adjacent to the soldered connection.
Dip Soldering
Dip soldering is useful and cost-effective because an entire unit, comprising any number of
joints, can be soldered merely by dipping the
prefluxed part in a bath of molten solder. It is
necessary to use jigs or fixtures to contain the unit
and keep the proper clearance at the joint until the
Use of Soldering Irons
solder solidifies.
A preliminary treatment of the unit such as
The correct angle to apply the soldering iron
tip to the work is of importance in delivering the degreasing, cleaning, and fluxing is also required
maximum heat. The flat side of the tip should be before dip soldering. Care should be taken when
applied to ensure the maximum contact x e a with immersing the parts in the pot (see Chapter 21 for
the soldering connection. Flux cored solder safety precautions). The molten bath of solder
should not be melted on the soldering iron and supplies both the heat and solder necessary to
carried to the connection .because that destroys complete the joint. The solder pot should be large
the effectiveness of the flux and results in defec- enough so that at a given rate of production the
tive connections. The cored solder should be units being dipped will not appreciably lower the
touched fo the soldering tip to initiate good heat temperature of the solder bath. Pots of adequate
transfer, and the solder should be melted on the size allow the use of lower operating temperawork parts to complete the solder joint. The tip tures while stili supplying sufficient heat for solcan be wiped clean on a wet sponge. The working dering.
surface should be kept tinned. Soldering iron
holders must be selected carefully. Poorly de- Spray Gun Soldering
signed holders may heat sink an iron, causing.
Two types of guns are used to spray solder. The
temperature losses of up to 110C (200" F.),
first uses propane with oxygen or natural gas with
air to heat and spray a continuously fed solid
solder wire of approximately 3 mm( 118 in.)
PROCESSES
diameter. With ordinary procedures about 90%
of the solder wire is melted by the flame of the
Torch Soldering
gun, and contact with the work piece is made by
Torch soldering is commonly used for automo- the solder in a semiliquid form. The workpiece
tive body work, plumbing and structural joints, then supplies the balance of the heat required to
and in locations where electricity is not readily melt and flow the solder. The solder is then wiped
available. Torch selection and gas mixture are automafically or by hand. Adjustments can be

AWS S M * C H * 6
**
0 7 8 4 2 6 5 0006392 7
44ISOLDERING MANUAL
made within the spray gun to deposit completely
liquified solder or a series of fine drops.
The second type of spray gun lias a small,
electrically heated cone into which solid solder
wire approximately 6 mm (1/4 in.) in diameter is
fed. Through an orifice in the small end of the
cone, the molten solder is directed into a compressed a u stream which transmits the solder a
distance of from 25 to 75 mm (=1 to 3 in.).
Table 6.1-General
Induction Heating
Induction heating generally is applicable for
soldering operations having the following requirements:
1. Large-scale production
2. Localized application of heat
3. Minimum oxidation of surface adjacent to
the joint
guide for iron and tip size
Soidering
Critical soldering: flexible circuits, heat sensitive

components, and low temperature solders
Electrically-heated
irons
Choice of
Power
tip diam.
rating
shank'
(watts)
mm
up to 6.4
Printed wiring boards 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) thick,

thin films, wires 30 gage or smaller, lugs
3 -2-4.8
designed for this size wire
Printed wiring boards, O. 8 mm (0.030 in.) wire 24
gage, miniature turrets and relay hooks, small
3.2-4.8
chassis and printed wiring board cup type
connectors
Printed wiring boards 1.5 mm (0.060 in.) wires
4.8-6.4
20 gage, medium turrets, tube sockets, bifurcated
terminals, medium chassis connectors
Production work on medium turrets, tube
6.4-7.9
sockets, terminal strips, wires 16-18
gage, limited ground or buss wire work
High speed production work or radio or T V
6.4-9.5
assembly where twenty or more connections
are made in a minute or less
High speed production work or radio or TV
9.5-15.9
assembly where extra heavy lugs or several
wires on same lug or several ground
connections are soldered
Hermetic sealing of relay, transformer,
15.9-22.2
or condensor cans, light gage sheet metal
Heavy sheet mefal or large transformer cans
25.4-44.5
Intermittent soldering, repair shop, hobby
4.8-6.4
kit, home use
wire tip
iron
group3
in,
114
Temperature
control2
1/8-3116
10-20
1
5
1/8-3116
20-30
1
5
3116- 114
40-50
1
5
114-5116
50-70
2
5
114-318
80- 175
318-518
150-200
518-718
200-300
1-1-314
3116-114
300-800
30-50
100-325
3
1
The tip diameters vary with the manufacturer of electrically-heated irons and sizes used depend upon theworking
space avai1able:Metricconversions are exact because these products areavailable only in U.S.customaj units.
Soldering iron selected must be self-regulating to maintain proper temperature and avoid heat damage to
components.
Refer to selection of soldering irons, page 41.

Equipment. Processes, and Procedures 145
4.Good appearance and consistently high

joint quality
5. Simple joint design which lends itself to
mechanization.
If induction heating is to be used, the following
facts must be considered:
1. Components must have consistently clean
surfaces.
2. Clearances on parts must be maintained accurately
3. Solders having rapid spreading and good
capillary flow properties are generally required.
4.Preplaced solder often affords the best
means of supplying the correct amount of solder
and flux to the joint.
5. induction heating equipment represents a
large capital investment.
6. Design of the induction coil is critical for
efficient heating and operation of the equipment.
The only requirement for a material to be induction heated is that it be an electrical conductor. The rate of heating of the material is depndent upon the induced current flow; distribution
of heat obtained with induction heating is a function of the induced current frequency. The higher
frequencies concentrate the heat at the surface.
There are available today four main types of
equipment which are used for induction heating:
the vacuum tube oscillator, the resonant spark
gap, the motor generator unit, and the solid state
converter.
The vaciium tube oscillator is available in frequencies from 200 kHz to more than 8 MHz. The
most popular units for general use have a frequency of approximately 500 kiiz. These units
are available with power outputs from 1fo more
than 100 kW, but ihe units most often used for
soldering are below 25 kW. The availability of
low power units has made the vacuum tube oscillator the most suitable for soldering operations.
The resonant spark gap unit produces frequencies from 100 kHz to 300 kHz with power
output up to 20 kW. The variations in output may
create problems in maintaining the spark gap.
Motor-generator equipment is capable of producing frequencies up to 15 Wz. The power
available from this type of unit is very substantial, often more than 1000 kW.

Solid state converfers have output power ratings in the range of 100kW to 300 kW at frequencies of 1 kHz to 3 ki-iz. These units convert three
phase line frequency fo single phase high frequency.
To achieve maximum heating efficiency, the
work coil should be kept close to the part. Both
corrosive and noncorrosive fluxes can be used in
the induction soidering operations. In either case
solvent should be used sparingly to reduce the
amount of volatile material being driven off during the heating cycle, as incomplete evolution of
gases sometimes results in porosity in the joint.
When induction soldering dissimilar metals,
particularly joints composed of both magnetic
an$ nonmagnetic components, attention must be
given to the design of the heating coil in order to
bring both parts to approximately the same temperature. Fixtures to be used in the vicinity of the
induction coil are generally made of nonconducting materials in order to prevent them from being
heated by the magnetic field.
Resistance Heating
In resistance heating, the work to be soldered
is connected either between a ground and a movable electrode or between two movable electrodes to complete an electrical circuit. The heat
is applied to the joint both by the electrical resistance of the metal being soldered and by conductance from the electrode, which is usually carbon.
Resistance soldering equjpment consists of a
heavy-duty variable transformer which converts
the normal line voltage to a lower voltage with
correspondingly increased amperage. A wide
variety of accessories can be attached to the iransformer.
In one method of resistance soldering, the
work is attached to a ground lead by either an
alligator clip or Gclamp. The single movable
electrode used in conjunction with the ground
attachment is carbon mounted in a nonconducting handle. A variation may be achieved by fixing the electrode in position and bringing the
grounded work to be soldered into contact with
the eleftrode while simultaneously applying the
solder.
AWS SM*CH*b
O*
W 0 7 8 4 2 6 5 000b374 O M
46/SOLDERING MANUAL
Another method uses a two-circuit soldering
tool consisting of two carbon electrodes mounted
in a nonconductive handle, eliminating the
necessity of a ground lead.
The electrodes may be held with pliers so that
pressure and heat are applied simultaneously.
Production assemblies can b e made with multiple electrodes, rolling electrodes, or special
electrodes depending on which are most suitable
for the job at hand.
Resistance soldering electrode tips generally
cannot be tinned, and the solder must be fed
directly into the joint. The flux and solder must
therefore be in the proper position. Electrodes
and holders are usually light in weight and are
shaped to do a particular job.
A resistance element bridging the electrodes of
a parallel gap welding head provides a method of
pulsing the element, which serves as the soldering tip, to soldering temperatures and back to
ambient in 4-6seconds. The process offers excellent control over soldering time, temperature, and
pressure, depending upon the sophistication of
the control equipment, and is well suited for
automating reflow soldering applications. The
resistance element, usually made of a high nickel
alloy, can be designed to make several solder
connections simultaneously.
Oven Soldering
Ovens have long been used successfully for
high production soldering. Although conveyorized setups normally result in higher productivity than batch type operations, both are
commonly used; in either case large production
NnS are needed to justify the cost of the furnaces
and required tooling.
Several factors to be evaluated when consdering this process are
1. The entire assembly must be designed to
withstand the temperatures required for soldering.
2. Fixtures are required to hold the parts of the
assembly together while heating and cooling.
The parts being soldered must not be able to
move relative to one another - especially during
the cool down cycle - or fractured, weak joints
could result.
3. The areas of the assembly to be soldered
must be prefluxed, and preforms of solder, solder

cream, or something similar must be put in place

before the assembly is placed in the furnace.
4.The heating rate is critical. An excessively
fast heating rate can cause distortion and also
hinder the proper cleaning action of the flux. Too
slow a rate would defeat the purpose of this
process- high production.
5. Good controls are needed on the heat source
to maintain the proper temperature inside the
furnace and guarantee solder connections of consistent high quality.
6. The parts must be at soldering temperatures
for a period of time long enough to allow the
solder to form a good joint.
7. The use of an inert atmosphere inside the
oven does not eliminate the need for a flux but
will prevent further oxidation of the parts.
Ultrasonic Soldering
This soldering method has limited use but vibrating units are available for dip soldering pots.
A transducer produces high frequency vibrations
which break up tenacious oxide films on base
metais such as aluminum, thereby exposing the
base metal to the wetting action of the liquid
solder. Ultrasonic units are useful in soldering the
return bends to the sockets of aluminum air conditioner coils. Ultrasonic soldering is also used to
apply solderable coatings on difficult-to-solder
metais.
Focused Infrared Soldering

Optical soidering systems are available which
are based on focusing infrared light (radiant
energy) on the joint by means of a lens. Lamps
ranging from 45 to 1500 watts can be used for
different application requirements. The devices
can be programmed through a silicon-controlled
power supply with an internai timer.
Hot Gas Soldering

The principie is to use a fine jet of inert gas,
heated to above the liquidus of the solder. The gas
acts as a heat transfer medium and as a blanket to
reduce access of air around the joint.
WAVE SOLDERING
A liquid wave is generated by circulating molten
solder by a pump in an appropriafely designed
soldering machine. The prime functions of the
AWS SM*CH*b
*i
M
07892b5 0006395 2
Equipment, Processes, and Procedures147

wave are to serve as a heat source and heat transfer medium and to supply solder to the joint area.
A properly functioning solder \wave, as a consequence of its geometry, thermodynamics, and
fluid mechanic characteristics, will contribute to
the wetting of the metal surfaces, promote
through-hole penetration, and ensure formation
of reliable solder joints and fillets.
A wave soldering production line includes
fluxing, preheating, and soldering stations and a
means of conveyance of the assembly. In-line
cleaning and drying can also be included in the
operation.
Methods of F l u Application
fluxes, a preheat temperature somewhere above

the boiling point of water may be necessary.
Fluxes with other solvents may require extended
preheat times. Printed wiring boards, when heavily loaded with connector parts, may require
higher preheat temperatures.
Drying and preheating of printed circuit assemblies to required temperatures must be performed rapidly in view of the short time the
assembly spends in the preheating zone. The
dwell time of a moving printed circuit assembly
over a O. 5 m ( =2 ft) preheating zone is 2 minutes
at a speed of 0.3 mlmin. (1ftlmin.) and only 7.5 s
at 5m/min. (= 16 ftlmin.).
Radiant heating has proven to be the most
efficient method for preheating printed circuit
assemblies at practical conveyor speeds. Heat is
commonly provided by a radiation panel (hot
plate) or sheathed (rod, flat) type heater element.
Other sources include tubular quartzlamps, fused
quartz heaters, infrared lamps and panel heaters.
A combination prefieating process is sometimes employed. The first stage is low intensity
radiant heat in combination with warm forced air
flow. The latter serves as a supplementary heat
transfer medium and as a ventilation means, continuously eliminating the solvent vapors. The
second stage consists of a high intensity panel
preheater to elevate the printed circuit board to
the appropriate temperature. The heat output of
both stages can be adjusted for different conveyor
speeds. The total output of these combination
preheaters varies from 7 to 14 kilowatts.
The method used for wave fluxing is the application of flux using the liquid wave principie to
form a wave of flux which touches the workpiece while the assembly passes through it. By
this method the flux Coats the areas to be. soidered.
Foam Fluxing. The flux foam is generated
from liquid flux by means of a porous medium
immersed in the flux. Low pressure air is forced
through the pores of the diffuser and generates
fine bubbles of foam. These are guided to the
surface by a nozzle to form a foam hea or wave
through which the assembly is passed.
Blush Fluxing. A rotating brush partly immersed in flux is used as a means to transfer flux
to the workpiece.
Spray Fluxing. Flux is applied to the workpiece by means of jets or spray nozzles. One
method of spray fluxing employs a drum with
fine stainless screen partially immersed in flux Soldering Station
and rotated in it. The flux wets the screen, and air
The essential feature of the soldering machine
jets inside the dnim blow off the flux as minute is the generation of a wave of molten solder.
droplets in the direction of the assembly. The Modern systems are capable of pumping wave
amount of flux transferred in unit time is con- widths (or lengths) from 50 to 600 mm (2 to 24
trolled by the rotational speed of the drum and the in.), and wave heights to 20 mm (3/4 in.). They
air pressure.
have relatively large solder capacities to maintain
soldering temperature and provide satisfactory
Preheating
flow patterns. An automatic solder feed
The essential function of preheating is the mechanism is used on high production units to
evaporation of the flux solvent. Proper preheat maintain a constant solder level without affecting
will also promote wetting and reduce thermal fhe thermal balance of the pot.
Some machines utilize an oil intermix feature
shock.
A preheat temperature of 75" to 80" C (=170" to reduce the incidence of solder bridges and
to 180"F) is usually employed for evaporation of icicles in printed circuit assemblies. A layer of oil
the solvent in rosin base fluxes. For water-soluble floating on the solder surface is continuously fed

481SOLDERING MANUAL
to the input end of the solder pump. The ratio of
oil to solder is controllable. The oil is sucked in
by the pump, intermixed with the solder, and the
mixture then driven to the wave surface. There is,
however, the possibility of oil inclusions and
entrapments in the solder joints. Recirculation of
the oil results in its degradation, requiring
changes to maintain the basic properties for
which it was introduced and to limit sludge and
carbon deposits around the pump. The oil must
be replaced approximately every 4 to 8 hours
of operation.
Wave Shapes
A solder wave is characterized by its width, a
dimension perpendicular to the direction of travel
(also called length); height from nozzle edge to
apex or top; geometrical contact length between
workpiece and wave, referred to also as the width
of the contact band or the width of the area of
contact. The contact length and speed of travel
will determine the dwell time: the time during
which a printed circuit board or other workpiece
is in contact with the solder. Width and size of the
wave are limited by the capacity of the pump and
usually do not offer a contact length greater than
75 mm (=3 in.).
Solder waves with a parabolic shape offer a
relatively narrow contact length between printed
circuit board and solder without excessive depression of the workpiece in the wave, thereby
limiting conveyance speeds to 0.5 to 1 d m i n
(=2 to 4 fdmin).
Wide waves offer a relatively flat, elongated
contact rea in the direction of travel, permitting
conveyance speeds of 2 to 2.5 d m i n (=6 to 8
ft/min) or higher.
A recent development combines a controlled
wide wave with an inclined conveyor. With the
use of supporting plates, an inclined planar wave
has been developed that can be controlled to
generally parallel the angle of incline of the conveyor. As a result, conveyor speeds up to 5.5
mlmin are possible.
Cascade soldering machines employ an inclined plane with ridges perpendicular to the direction of solder flow. Solder flows down the
incline and produces multiple small waves. This
system permits high conveyor speeds.

Conveyance
Conveyors move parts through the soldering
station and are frequently designed to be integrated with component assembly, fluxing, and
preheating and cleaning operations to form one
continuous production line. Conveyors are designed to provide a smooth, vibration-free
movement of the printed circuit assembly at fixed
or adjustable slopes ranging from horizontal to 8
degrees and speeds to 6 m/mh (20 fdmin).
Thereare basically two types of conveyor. One
is a chain conveyor which requires the use of
board holding carriers to secure the workpiece or
pallets. The other is an adjustable width finger
type conveyance for use when a large variety of
different size printed wiring boards are to be
wavesoldered. The fingers are usually made of
titanium to resist flux, high temperatures, and
prevent solder adherence. Multitrack systems are
a variation of the finger type, which permit soldering printed circuit assemblies of two different
sizes simultaneously.
Flux Removal
Adequate cleaning is particularly important in
printed circuit applications. The techniques for
flux removal can be divided into two basic
approaches: batch type cleaning, in which the
operation is separated in time and space from
soldering, and in-line cleaning, where the cleaning positions fllow immediately after the soldering position, forming one continuous system.
Batch cleaning includes the use of dishwasher
type cleaners, ultrasonic dip tanks, and vapor
degreasers. These methods are generally used for
small parts and low volume processing systems
as part of a hybrid process. In-line cleaning,
particularly where a production volume exists,
has become the generally accepted method.
Cleaning stations utilize liquid waves, immersion tanks, forced sprays, rotating brushes, ultrasonic tanks, vapor immersion, and combinations of the above with the appropriate solvent for
the flux to be removed. Drying stations following
cleaning employ air knives, infrared, and air
blasts.
The lastest development for high production
cleaning is the use of biodegradable water detergent solutions in combination with multiple stage
in-line spray cleaning systems.
AWS S M * C H * 7
**
I0 7 8 4 2 b 5 0006337 b
CHAPTER 7
FLUX REMOVAL
After the joint is soldered, flux residues that are

liable to corrode the base metal or otherwise
prove harmful to the effectiveness of the joint
must be removed or made noncorrosive. It is
especially important to remove flux residues if
joints will be subjected to humid environments.
Corrosive flux residues contain inorganic salts
and acids and should be removed completely.
Intermediate, or self-neutralizing, fluxes may be
composed of very mild organic acids such as
stearic, oleic, and ordinary tallow; or of the corrosive combinations of urea and various organic
hydiochlorides. Those composed of the mild organic acids can receive the same treatment the
noncorrosive fluxesreceive. On the other hand, if
the composition includes some of the more active
acids, the flux residue should be removed completely. Where no indication of the compositionof these intermediate or self-neutralizing fluxes is
given, the safest procedure is to treat them as if
they are corrosive.
The noncorrosive flux residues, generally having a rosin base, need not be removed unless
appearance is the prime factor or the joinf area is
to be painted or otherwise coated.
The activated rosin fluxes have a rosin base
into which haue been incorporated small amounts
of complex, usually self-neutralizing, organic
compounds. These can generally be ireated in the
same manner as the noncorrosive fluxes.
CORROSIVE FLUX RESIDUES

Where flux residue removal prokedures are not
practical and the nature of the soldered assembly
is such that the flux corrosion would either interfere with its operation or substantially shorten its
life, corrosive fluxes must not be used. Corrosive
fluxes can be used in precoating operations where
flux residue removal can be accomplished before
the parts are assembled.
Zinc chloride fluxes leave a fused residue
which, if not removed, will absorb water from the
atmosphere to the extent that droplets of a highly
corrosive water-zinc chloride mixture will form
around the soldered joint. Removal is best accomplished by first thoroughly washing the part
in hot water containing 2% concentrated hydrochloric acid.
This acidified water removes the white crust of
zinc oxychloride (which is insoluble in ordinary
water) but retards removal of the residue beneath.
As a further precaution, the work should then
be washed in hot water containing some crystals
of washing soda (sodium carbonate) followed by
aclear waterrinse. Occasionally some mechanical
scrubbing may be required to further insure the
removal of all traces of flux residue.
Acidified rinse water, if used on copper articles, such as a radiator core, may build up in
49

f---------7.
AWS S M * C H * 7
**
0784265 00063 8 W
SO/SOLDERING MANUAL
copper salt content and cause unsightly darkening of the soldered joints. When this occurs, the
acidified rinse may be regenerated with a small
amount of potassium ferrocyanide which precipitates the copper salts from solution.
The residues from reaction fluxes, which are
described in the chapter on aluminum (Chapter
15), usually respond to a rinse in warm water. If
difficulty is experienced, the joint on aluminum
may be scrubbed with a brush and then immersed
in 2% sulfuric acid followed by immersion in 1%
nitric acid. A final warm water rinse removes ali
acidic compounds.
The residue from intermediate or selfneutralizing organic fluxes is usually quite soiuble in hot water. Doubie rinsing in warm water is
always advisable.
OILY OR GREASY
FLUX PASTE RESIDUES
Residues of oily or greasy flux pastes are generally removed with an organic solvent. Soldering
pastes are usually emulsions of petroleum jelly
and a water solution of zinc-ammonium chloride.
Because of the corrosive nature of the acids contained in the flux, residues must be removed
where good electrical properties are required and
no corrosion can be tolerated.
NONCORROSIVEFLUX RESIDUES
Nonactivated rosin residues are soluble in alcohols, petroleum spirits, turpentine,
trichlorethylene, cyclohexanol, and most common organic solvents.
Mildly activated rosin and activated rosin
residues require different treatment for the complete removal of the residues. The abovementioned solvents will remove the rosin but in
most cases will leave behind the additives. The
additives are generally polar in nature and cannot
be entirely removed by nonpolar organic solvents. For complete removal a second treatment
with water is necessary to remove the additives.
Certain proprietary solvents which contain polar
and nonpolar solvents are available which will
give complete cleaning in one operation.
Rosin flux residues may b e removed by
mechanically scrubbing the assembly with the
appropriate cleaner or by complete immersion or
vapor degreasing, provided the assembly will not
be damaged by these methods.
The extent of removal of ionic residues following a cleaning procedure can be measured by
several means. Measurement of insulation resistance of printed wiring assemblies is one method
in use. Qualitative measurement of the presence
of halide ions using silver nitrate test solutions or
silver chromate tesf paper may also be used.
Other methods based on measuring theresistivify
or conductivity of reused water are in use. Instruments developed for removing residue contaminants and measuring the amounts are available. See Fig. 8.14 of Chapter 8 for example.
o
AWS SM*CH*
**
W 07842b5 0006399 T W
CHAPTER 8
INSPECTION AND
TESTING
Requirements for inspection and testing of soldered joints are entirely dependent upon the application. Soldering operations are so diverse that
many detailed test programs have been developed. Numerous industrial and military standards apply to electronic and electrical component and connection manufacture. Plumbing fittings are covered by careful dimensionalcontrol.
Inspection and testing for soldering commences with analysis of materials, of geometric
accuracy, of uniformity of fluxes, and assessment
of surface conditions. In-process monitoring of
joining parameters is next for consistent quality
in any good inspection program. Finally, after the
joint is soldered, a wide variety of test procedures, including mechanical and environmental,
may be required for verification of joint performance.
Precoating of base metals is used extensively
for production of more solderable surfaces to
facilitafe longer storage or increase subsequent
environmental resistance. Required thicknesses
and types of coating used are covered in Chapter
5 . Inspection techniques depend upon the base
and coating materials. Thickn'ess measurements
are made by magnetic gages on ferrous base
metals or by electrochemical test devices. Adherence of coatings may be determined by wrapping the test specimen around a specific mandrel
diameter and examining it microscopically for
cracking and flaking of the plated or coated surfaces. Visual inspection, by itself, is not
sufficient to determine the adherence of the coating since it is possible to plate over dirty or
contaminated surfaces. Other ways to determine
the adherence of coatings include heating the part
to a predetermined temperature and examining it
for evidence of blisters, Another heat test uses an
adhesive tape.
Solderability is probably the most difficult
factor to define. Perfect surface condition and
cleanliness are impractical, so soldering is always performed on an imperfect surface. Normal
precautions in cleaning and preparation are essential, and yet the criteria of solderability remain somewhat subjective. A number of tests for
solderability have been developed. Some of these
tests ultimately rely on experienced visual
examinations; more recent tests provide quantitative data.
The earliest tests probably were the direct
spread tests and the capillary tests. In the spread
test specially prepared solder samples are placed
on specific-sized specimens of the material to be
tested, and both are placed in an oven for a prescribed length of time at temperature. After removal, areas of spread for the standard amount of
solder and final height of specimen plus solder
are used to evaluate solderability on a comparative basis. Capillary tests have long been used to
evaluate the flow characteristics of bulk solder.
Two general methods are used. One method
utilizes a twisted wire, at one-inch pitch, which is
dipped into a liquid bath of solder for a prescribed
51

52ISOLDERING MANUAL
time, say 15 seconds. Results are measured by
examination of the height of rise achieved. A
second method is to use a specially drilled block
of metal with two or more hole diameters; again,
comparative heights of rise of molten solder are
measured after a prescribed exposure period.
method specifically designed for component
leads and wires is the solder globule test, as
shown in Fig. 8.1 (IEC Publication 68-2Test T
Solderability). The technique is to measure the
wetting time of a wire immersed in a molten
globule of solder. Volume of solder is dictated by
wire diameter under test. The test is a good discriminator, as shown by Fig. 8.2, in determining
solderability variations.
The solderability test standard (ANSI-EIA
RS-178) is widely used in U.S.industry and was
adopted in MILSTD-202 as Method 208. Provided to test wire up to 1.2 mm (-0.045 in.)
diameter, the test uses the device shown in Fig.
8.3. Evaluation is made on the basis of the uniformity of the resulting solder coating.
Larger surfaces, such as printed circuit boards,

may be examined using three essentially very
similar tests wherein the material to be tested is
lowered into a molfen solder bath under controlled conditions, removed, and then the specimens are. examined for uniformity of the solder
film achieved. These tests are the edge dip test,
the rotary dip test, and the meniscus test.
The edgedip test (ANSI-EIA RS 319, IPC 8l)
is intended to provide a mutually agreeable quality determination of the stock or surface coating
to be soldered and to ensure that no in-process
procedure results in deterioration of the materials
to be joined. An Sn 60 or Sn 63 solder is designated, together with a specified flux type. Test
samples must be at least nominal 15 mm (il2 in.)
wide. After fluxing, the sample is immersed in
molten solder edgewise, with an insertion rate of
25 mm/s (1 in./s), a dwell time o f $ s, and then
slow withdrawal. A uniformly adherenf coating
is required to cover a minimum of 95% of the
specimen area.
Fig. 8.1-Globule solderability test for round component terminations. A, commencement of globule
solderability test for round component terminations. Timing is commenced when the wire bisects the
molten globule. B,end of globule test showing solder completely encasing wire, when time is
stopped, The time in seconds to achieve this is an indication of solderability of the wire

Inspection and Testing153
ao
Test temperature 235"C

Activated flux
1
As received
Soldering time, seconds
Fig. 8.2-The
effect of accelerated aging for 16 hours at 155" Con the distribution of soldering times
of a single batch of resistor terminations tested by the globule method. An activated rosin flux was
used in the tests. Note the significant proportion of wires having times above 3 seconds indicating a
probable serious loss of solderability under normal storage conditions
The rotary dip test is used in Europe. The

apparatusis shown in Fig. 8.4. The test technique
requires subjecting a number of specimens to
progressively longer times in contact with molten
solder and, by visual examination, defermining
the time for complete wetting to be attained.
Typical results are presented in Fig. 8.5. In addition, the test may be prolonged to induce dewetting action. Although the test is qualitative-in
relying on visual exahination, it does produce
more information than the direct edge-dip test as
Fig. 1.3-Suggested
bility test
specified. However, the edge-dip test can be

made to perform similarly.
Fig. $.$-Rotary
dip solderability test for
printed circuit specimens and tags, designated
the TRI-Moore test. A ptfe (Teflon-like plastic)
paddle immediately precedes the specimen to
clear the solder bath surface of oxide and flux
dipping device for soldera- residues. Solderability of plated through-holes
may also be determined

**
AWS SM*CH*
H 0 7 4 2 6 5 00061102 6
M/SOLDERING MANUAL
13.
Resin
m m
0% si
0% P
0%
si
a
=
- - - 9
Sn, Ni
- o. 8
7.5
O. 5
O. 5
5. O
5. O
5. O
-
acquei
Sn
Au
- -Roller
Immersion
Roller
osbp
Sn
Au
Sn;Ni
+ Au
.5Sni
).2Ai
ElectroDlaied
Fig. 8.5-Minimum wetting time as determinedby rotary dip test of several coatings tested both fresh
and afterdifferent types of aging.Thickness: 5pm( ==0.0002in.). Shortblack columns representgood
solderability,and shaded regions indicate very variable wetting time; points on top of columns indicate
no significant wetting after 10 s.

Inspection and Tesring155
Spring arm
Fig. 1.6-A surface tension balance device, using solder bath which can be automatically raised and
lowered by the test mechanism. No mechanical coupling exists between specimen and measuring
system
A recently developed technique monitors the

kinetics of wetting action by measuring surface
tension forces between specimens and molten
solder during the critical initial wetting stages.
The apparatus used is shown in Fig. 8.6. The
solder bath is moved upward towards the specimen carefully mounted above and connected to a
sensitive transducer. As the molten bath covers
the specimen, an upward thrust equivalent to.the
displaced material is produced which lessens as
wetting of the specimen commences, proceeding
under good wetting conditions until a downward
force is produced by the meniscus acting on the
specimen. Illustrated in Fig. 8.7 are the three
possible conditions: good wetting, slow wetting,
and no wetting. The test method can be appliedto
a wide range of samples including printed circuit
laminates, component leads, and other solder surfaces that may be suspended on the tension balance. A timer allows selection of a specificdwell
period, temperature is carefully controlled, and
the results are presented on an X-Yrecorder.

So far no single solderability test has proved

capable of providing an overall assessment of this
important factor. The number of tests developed
is partly attributable to the complexity of the
subject, to the considerable efforts made to understand the wetting process, and to the need to
describe certain specific acticns by a viable test
procedure. Clearly, the user now has a better
choice of suitable tests for his particular production situation, and the development engineer
has a continuing challenge to produce more quantitative test criteria for solderability assessment.
IN-PROCESS MONITORING
Descriptions of soldering requirements for various materiais and products in other sections of
this book illustrate the progression of soldering
technology. Success in manufacture arises from
knowledgeable control. In manual operations,
the necessary process control may be a simple
**
AWS SM*CH*B
U 078q2b5 O O O b 4 O Y T
56/SOLDERING MANUAL
Rise due to
withdrawn meniscus
I
I
o
u)
2 -
s
%
Y
Fluctuating force
duetodewetting
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
J//
II
I
II
I I
II
&
l
Wetting
time
- A T
I
-B
...
Wetting
time
'O-
immersion
I
l
I
I
II
II
-7
I
I
I
I
I
I
-1
II
II
i
I
I
+-i
Withdrawal
Fig. 8.7-Typical recorder trace obtained from surface tension balance during a solderability test.
CurveA represents a material of high solderability, whereasB has a much slower rate of wetting. With
material C , the forces only just reach zero and wetting is never achieved. Note fluctuating withdrawal
force when dewetting occurs due to breakdown of the meniscus
check on the heating rate of solder torches and
the pH value of the flux. To ensure an adequate
product in large quantity production, a complete
process control system with digital and analog
modules may be reqyired using sensing from
thermocouples, tachometers, photocells, etc.,
and converting the information to direct on-line
control of vaIves, actuators, power controls and
motors, etc.
The first ,steps in providing monitoring systems should be seriously considered. Continuous
temperature measurement of solder alloys for
critical operations really is essential for quality

confrol. On-stream pH sensors now are available to provide a constant check on fluxes, with
immediate response if pH values fall outside a
prescribed limit. Photocells can perform a number of information-gathering tasks which assist
in ensuring adequate process control. Monitoring the number of parts, the rate of travel, and
the positioning of components on a line can
readily reduce possible defects and provide
direct evidence of process changes. The ease
with which a soldered joint is made should
not reduce the effort needed to make consistently good soldered joints. Monitoring the
AWS S H * C H * &
**
M 078L12b5 000b405 L
Inspection and Testing157
process can be simple or complex. The importance of the exercise is to assign values to the
critical factors controlling production. Costeffectiveness must be considered. However,
when probrems do occur, information monitoring
can be the tool to quickly return the quality to its
original level. Coupled with other inspection and
testing techniques, the monitoring program is a
vital link between materials and the final product.
FINAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES

Nondestructive
Visual examination is probably the most
widely used method of nondestructive soldered
joint examination. Primarily the experienced inspector will work from workmanship samples
and design drawings to facilitate overall judgment of joint quality. Visibility of the joint from
Table 8.1-Solder
Solder ground
Insufficient solder
'
(Fig. 8.8f)
Rosin joints
(Fig. 8 . 8 ~ )
Solder short
Sharp point in high
voltage circuit
Dewetted joint
joint defects
Amearance of oint
Classification
Bare-no solder
Cold solder
(Fig. 8.86)
Disturbed solder
(Fig, 8.8d)
Excess solder
(Fig. 8.8e)
both sides obviously is advantageous for the inspector to properly execute his task. Factors considered in examination are geometry and general
design conformance, wetting, quality and quantity of solder and, finally, cleanliness of the product for its intended service.
Table 8.1 and Fig. 8.8 summarize some potential soldering defects. Additionally, Fig. 8.9
shows an example of nonwetting and dewetting
on the same component. Bridging between component terminations is illustrated in Fig. 8.10,
where leads were too close for the soldering conditions. Finally, Fig. 8.11 shows an example of
vapor entrapment producing a large void in the
fillet.
Wetting defects arise from incomplete coverage of a surface to be soldered. Nonwetting is
identified by the original surface finish. The
problem can arise from insufficient heating of the
joint, poor fluxing activity, or contaminated surfaces.
Connection not soldered

Sharp demarcation at solder interface with poor flow .
caused by lack of heating
Connection displays a chalky or crystallized appearance caused by
movement of the joint during solidification
In general, the solder should be one-third the thickness of the wire
attached to the terminal with the outline of the wire still visible. Joints
with solder exceeding this amount fall into this classification
Connections grounded by solder drips or overhangs
Insecure union of the wire to the terminal
A portion of the terminal and the wire are separated by a thin coat of
rosin flux caused by insufficient heat or poor solderability
The solder forms an undesirable electrical path
Solder points may cause potential arcing or corona effects
Large angle between solder and base metal. Globules or residue on
base metal

58ISOLDERING MANUAL
Fig. 8.1-Properly and improperly made sbldered joints. A, properly made joint; B , cold solder; C,
rosin joint; D , disturbed joint; E, excess solder; F, insufficient solder
Deivetting and nonwetting look alike to the

untrained eye. Dewetted parts are characterized
by a residual solder colored film with discrete
globules or beads where the solder originally
flowed, then refracted. Contaminated surfaces,
dissolved surface coatings, or overheating prior
to soldering can produce this defect. For repair
purposes, recleaning of nonwetted or dewetted
surfaces is essential for good joint production. In
large area lap jointsit is not unusual to have up fo
a 20% void area usually comprising a collection
of small voids.
Joints that have moved excessively during
solidification have a frosty appearance.
Pressure testing of soldered joints is applied to

tube and piping systems, radiators, cans, and

other vessels fabricated by soldering. Service
duty of the component dictates the type of pressure test applied. For example, in high-pressure
water or sprinkler systems, astatic pressure test at
aload value that is a specific percentage in excess
of service duty loads is applicable. Automotive
radiators are pressure tested in the same manner
and then, in addition, subjected to a dynamic
pressure cycling program that reflects their use in
service. Pressure tests on soldered joints are usually by purchaser agreement because of the varied products subject to the test.
Dye penetrant and fluorescent dye examinations are sometimes appropriate for the detection
Inspection and Testing/59
Fig. 8.9-Example
of faulty joint showing

&wetting of solder on land and nonwetting on
component termination
of surface defects. Radiography is applicable to

uniform, relatively large area joints such as pipes
and tubes or lapped joints in sheet or plate. Views
through fwo walls are more difficult to assess
since, as previously stated, up to 20% void area is
considered to be good quality.
Electrical measurements are made on individual joints but generally are more applicable to
the examination of systems. Usually soldered
joints are designed with up to 300% electrically
excess material, which is satisfactory provided
no joint cracks are present. Electrical systems
analysis is more definitive in locating the difficult
joint through simulated job performance. on soldered circuitry, for example. Here, repetitive
testing soon clarifies whether defects are arising
in specific design areas or are caused by a general
materiais problem. For high volume production,
manual observation techniques cannot compete
with such sophisticated inspection systems.
Mechanical Testing
Fig. 8.10-Bridge of solder between component

terminations due to incorrect spacing or incorrect
soldering conditions
Fig. 8.11-Cavity
within solder fillet in joint
probably due to entrapment of flux vapors. This
may not be considered as cause for rejection for
certain applications

Mechanical tests serve two functions: first, to

evaluate alternative designs, soldering parameters, and materials; and secondly, to verify the
quality of joints made in production. The three
main classifications -tension, shear, and peel are illustrated in Fig. 8.12. Most solder joint data
in the literature are obtained on lap-shear sampies. Testing procedures should be in accordance
with ASTM Standards. In butt tensile joints the
diameter-to-width ratio of the soldered area directly influences the actual measured strength
values. Joint strength first increases and then
decreases as diameter-to-width ratio is increased.
Lap-shear tests can give a wide range of apparent
strengths depending upon the width, depth, and
cross section of the specimen. Preferably, tests
should be performed on joints at least a nominal
15 mm (1/2 in.) wide with all dimensions clearly
stated. Peel tests are applicable in certain instances; here results are quoted in terms of load
per linear inch of joint, and two values are
utilized - load to initiate fracture and load to
propagate the fracture. In all three cases it is
imperative, if data are to be meaningful, to state
the strain rate at which tests were made.
Mechanical testing of solderjoints made with a
formed flat-pack lead and the basis board depend
for strength on the fillet formed at the heel or
bend. Together with the pull angle, these are the
AWS S M * C H * 8
**
0 7 8 4 2 b 5 O006408 7 W
60/SOLDERING MANUAL
Tension
Shear
Peel
Fig. 8.12-Main
of solders
classifications of joint testing
chief determining factors in a lead pull test (see

Fig. 8.13).
Results of solder joint mechanical tests should
be handled statistically. Reference should be
made to ASTM Standards for appropriate
methods. inherently, a range of strength values
6.0 -
45/30
7.0
5.0
h
0
v
c
--3
p!
v>
4.0
will be obtained in ostensibly the same joint.

Recognition of this fact is important to the successful application of the soldered joint in service. Quoting an average joint strength will not
suffice if 10%of the product is useless because
the natural spread in joint strength is wider than
the safety factor ascribed to an average value.
Frequency distributions of joint strength tend
toward less deviation during long term stressrupture or creep strength determinations.
Engineering test data for soldered joints are
derived from creep, stress-rupture, and fatigue
tests. Creep tests are performed by stressing the
joint at a specific load to determine the rate of
strain obtained. Stress-rupture tests are usually
performed under constant stress at the solder
joint and record the time to joint failure at a given
load. Fatigue tests may be required at high stress
with relatively low cycle failure or at low stresses
under highly cyclic or vibrational conditions.
Lead-tin solders are subject to a frequency dependency on the number of cycles to failure;
therefore, testing rate must always b e stated
when data are reported. Hardness tests are sometimes used for quality control purposes.
45/45
6145
60160
1 13!30
45/30
2.0 -
3.0
90/904160
60190
1.0
Plating thickness = 1.O8 mils

Plating thickness = 1.66 mils
(Numbers indicate lead bend/pull test angle)
Fig. 8.D-Effects of lead bend angle and pull test angle on pull strength (test data were reported in
U.S.customary units)
I-
CI
Inspection and Testing16 I
Conductivitv
cells
-c- Flow
Spinbars
II
II
Srn- 1
I ICIVI\
stainiess steel\
Plastic tank
1
Recorder
Conductivity
monitor
I
Fig. 8.14.- Setup for quantative measurement of ionic contaminants on printed wiring boards and
components
Contamination Checks
Environmental Tests
A number of tests have been developed to
evaluate systems which include soldered joints.
These include salt spray corrosion, temperature
cycling to induce stresses, humidity tests for residue corrosion, moisture resistance in circuit
packages, life tests under simulated service conditions, high impact shock resistance for rough
handling, vibration effects on transportation
equipment, and acceleration effects such as aircraft operations. A comprehensive catalogue of
fest methods is compiled i n .MILSTD-202 for
electronic and electrical parts, which in principle
can be readily applied to other areas of solder
joint usage. The main objective is to provide in
the laboratory a reasonable means of closely
simulating actual service conditions existing in
the field and, by so doing, provide a uniform
basis of acceptance of systems. Environmental
testing of newly designed systems or for full
assessment of new alloys is' strongly recommended.

The soldering operation almost always involves the use of a fluxing material designed to
be aggressive to the surface material at least sufficiently to allow the solders to flow freely at
temperature. These fluxes range from strong
acid chlorides and fluorides to very weak organic
acids and salts or completely acid radical-free
materials such as rosins. Normally, soldering
fluxes are washed away from the surfaces adjacent to the solder joint area. If not, these fluxes
can leave residues that become corrosive to the
solder and the connecting materials. Tests used
on electrical products for flux activity are the
copper mirror test, which specifies that a flux
must nor penetrate a mirrored copper coating 800
A thick on a surface after 24 hours at 50%relative
humidity; a chloride and bromide radical check; a
pH test according to ASTM E70; and a solder
spread test, which indirectly gives a measure of
corrosivity since better spread is generally obtained with the more corrosive fluxes. A setup for
quantitative measurement of ionic contaminants
AWS S M * C H *
**
0 7 8 4 2 6 5 0006410 5 W
62/SOLDERING MANUAL
on printed circuit boards after soldering is shown
in Fig. 8.14.
Automotive engineering limits the
chloride content in the rinse water after postcleaning or flushing radiators, since hightemperature fluxes usually contain inorganic
chlorides. Other industries rely on the natural
flushing (in piping or plumbing systems, for
example) to clear from the joint area any residues
that may cause corrosion.
As soldering technology develops and joints
are subjected to increased structural requirements
or stringent corrosion codes, inspection and fest-

ing become all the more important. In addition,

the inspection programs must be carefully
molded to accommodate new products and
technology and be responsive to change.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figures 8.1, 8.4, and 8.8 are courtesy of Tin
Research institute, Inc.
REFERENCES
Bud, P.J. 1973. Procedures for production line
solderability testing. Evaluation engineering,
Jul y/August .
CHAPTER 9
COPPER AND
COPPER ALLOYS
Copper and copper alloys are among the most

frequently soldered engineering materials. Soldered copper is used in such diverse applications
as plumbing, aerospace hardware, automotive
radiators, and printed circuits. Solders are usually
filler metals of tin alloyed with lead, antimony, or
silver. The general families of wrought and cast
copper metais are described in Tables 9.1 and 9.2
with pertinent information on conductivity and
composition.
The solderability of copper alloys, as described in Table 9.3, ranges from excellent to
poor. In order of their decreasing solderabilities,
copper alloys may be roughly classified as follows: copper, copper-tin, copper-zinc, coppernickel, copper-chromium, copper-beryllium,
copper-silicon, and aluminum bronzes.
There are no serious problems in soldering
most of the copper base metais. However, those
alloys with beryllium, silicon, and aluminum require special fluxes.
The high thermal conductivity of copper and
some of its alloys requires that a high rate of heat
input be used if localized heating is necessary.
considered include maximum allowable soldering temperature, cost of the solder, joint strength,
and other physical properties.
The most widely used solders are alloys of tin
and lead. Tin, the active component, readily
reacts with and diffuses into copper, and an intermetallic phase Cu6Sn5is created during soldering operations. This intermetallic is formed at the
interface while the solder is still liquid; however,
aging of the soldered joint promotes the growth
of Cu6Sn5 and formation of Cu3Sn. Elevated
temperature accelerates the aging. The effect of
time and temperature on the intermetallic is discussed on p. 140.
FLUXES**
Limitations on the use of any particular solder are

generally imposed by production methods and
final performance requirements. Factors to be
The noncorrosive fluxes are excellent for the

coppers and may be used with some success on
copper alloys containing tin and zinc, depending
on initiai cleanliness. The flux should be applied
to clean surfaces and only enough should be used
to lightly coat the areas to be joined.
The intermediate fluxes are used on copper,
copper-tin, copper-zinc, copper-beryllium, and
copper-chromium alloys. Some of the more active fluxes may be adequate for the coppernickels and the silicon bronzes, but a generalization in this respect could be misleading.
*See Chapter 2
**See
SOLDERS*
63

Chapter 3
cci
AWS S M * C H *
*X
9 0784265 0006412 9 9
4/SOLDERING MANUAL
'
The corrosive fluxes can be used on all the Chromium-Copperand Copper-Nickel

copper base mefals, but they are really needed
Immerse in hot 5 volume percent sulfuric acid.
only on those that develop refractory oxides such
as the silicon and aluminum brnzes. The Copper-SiliconAlloys
aluminum bronzes are especially difficult to solImmerse in hot 5 volume percent sulfuric acid,
der and require special fluxes or copper plating. then in a mixture of cold 2 volume percent hyChloride fluxes are useful for soldering the sili- drofluoric and 5 volume percent sulfuric acid.
con bronzes and copper-nickels.
Oxide films may reform quickly on copper and Brass and Nickel-Silver Aiioys
copper alloys after they have been cleaned.
Immerse in cold 5 volume percent sulfuric
Therefore, the flux should be applied as soon as
acid.
possible after cleaning.
The fluxes best suited to the use of 50% tin- Copper
50% lead and 95% tin-5% antimony solders on
immerse in cold 5 to 15 volume percent sulcopper plumbing tube systems are mildly corro- furic acid.
sive liquid or petrolatum pastes containing
Mechanical cleaning is used on the arsenicil
chlorides of zinc and ammonium. Many liquid and antimonial brasses rather than pickling to
fluxes for plumbing applications are self- avoid the development of surface contamination
cleaning, but. there is a risk of corrosion in their (slimes). These contaminants may interfere with
use. Thereis no doubt that a strong corrosive flux soldering and produce brittle joints. After heat
can remove some oxides and dirty films. How- treatment, copper-beryllium exhibits an oxide
ever, when highly corrosive fluxes are used as an coating which requires pickling in a one-to-one
alternative to proper cleaning, there is always an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid at a temperature
uncertainty as to whether uniform cleaning has of 65' to 75" C(=150 to 170" F). The original
been achieved and whether corrosive action con- oxide is changed to a reddish oxide which may be
tinues after soldering. It is always best to use a removed in a solution of 8 liter (=2 gal) sulfuric
clean surface and the minimum amount of least acid, 4 liter (i gal) nitric acid, 1 liter (-1 qt) of
active flux.
water and 14 g (=1/2 oz.) of hydrochloric acid.
Following this treatment, it is possible to solder
SURFACE PREPARATION
the beryllium-copper with a plain or activated
rosin flux. Mechanical cleaning is also recomSolvent or alkaline degreasing procedures are mended as an alternative cleaning procedure for
suitable for cleaning copper base mefals; beryllium-coppers.
mechanical methods, wire brushing, sanding,
etc. may be used to remove oxides. Chemical HEATING METHODS
removal of oxides requires proper choice of a
pickling solution followed by thorough rinsing. With few exceptions, rapid heating and cooling is
Typical procedures used for chemical cleaning desirable. The reasons for this are as follows:
are as follows*:
1. Flux tends to degrade when hot and could
lose
its effectiveness before soldering is comAluminum Bromes
pleted.
Successive immersions in two solutions is
2. The base metal surfaces may oxidize and
needed:
become difficult to solder.
1. Cold 2% hydrofluoric and 3% sulfuric acid
3. Prolonged contact with molten solder could
mixture.
cause unacceptable changes in the base metal
2. A solution of 5 volume percent sulfuric acid through intermetallic compound formation, eroat 25" to 5O"C(=8O0 to 120F).
sion, and solution.
Repeat until clean.
4. Degradation of desirable characteristics.
(such as electrical properties of electronic devices) may occur.
*See safety precautions in Chapters 5 and 21.

Copper and Copper Alloys/65
All the heating methods described in Chapter 6

can be used on copper and copper alloys. The
types of soldering equipment most commonly
used are soldering iron, solder pots (including
baths, waves, jets, cascades), torch, oven, induction, hot oil bath, electrical resistance, and elecfromagnetic radiation (infrared). An example of a
rapidly soldered component is the wave soldered
pin in a circuit board shown in Fig. 9.1. Process
parameters of approximately 270" C (-515" F)
wave temperature and about i-i/4 seconds immersion time are typicai.
In the dip soldering of copper and brass, contamination of the solder bath with copper and
zinc is always a problem, and the degree to which
this is controlled has a direct bearing upon the
quality of the joint being soldered. The lowest
bath temperature which will bring the parts to
soldering temperature rapidly will minimize contamination. The bath should have sufficient heat
capacity to bring the parts to temperature rapidly,
with the solder temperature no more than 65C
(-1500 Rabove its liquidus for printed circuit
boards and as much as 175C(=350" F)for heat
exchangers such as automotive radiators. Solder
baths are commonly held to less than 0.3 weight
percent copper for wave soldering of electronic
components.
Fig. 9.1-Wave-soldered

COATED COPPER BASE ALL0998

The mosf commonly employed coatings are tin,
lead, tin-lead, nickel, chromium; and silver. The
soldering of copper base metais coated with any
of these mefals is done considering only the
characteristics of the coating, except that the
thermal conductivity of the base metal will govern. Except for chromium plate, none of the coatings offers any serious problem. For chromium
plated copper, the chromium should be removed
before soldering.
POST SOLDERING TREATMENT

Whenever there is any possibility that flux residues may adversely affect the service life or performance of the soldered joints, the appropriate
treafment described in Chapter 7 should be
applied.
Manufacturers of soldering fluxes can provide
guidance as to the aggressiveness of their flux
products and can usually provide appropriate
chemicals for removal of flux residues.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 9.1 is courtesy of Tin Research institute,
lnc.
printed circuit board
._
~
.-
AWS SM*CH*
**
E 078Y2bC OOObILI 2
66/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 9.1-Wrought coppers and copper alloys

Number
series
Descnotion
i01 to 107
109 to 142
145 to 147
150 to 194
Oxygen-free
Tough-pitch and deoxidized
Free-machining
High copper alloys
205 to 240
250 to 298
310 to 385
405 to 485
502 to 529
Red brasses
Yellow brasses
Leaded brasses
Tin brasses
Copper-tin alloys
(phosphor bronzes)
Leaded phosphor bronzes
Aluminum bronzes
Silicon bronzes
Alloy brasses
Copper nickels
Nickel silvers
.
532 to 546
606 to 642
647 to 661
665 to 697
701 to 720
732 io 798
Comwsition ranees
99.95% Cu or better
Contain oxygen or deoxidizers
Small additions of S, Te, etc.
Neighborhood of 1 or 2% additions of Cd,
Be, Cr, Co, Fe, Ni, Zn, andor Sn
Up to 20% Zn
From 25 to 50%Zn
From 10to 45% Zn and up to 4.5% Pb
To 5.5% Sn, to 48% Zn
From 1 to 11% Sn
=- 100
i to 4% Pb, about 5% Sn, some with additions of Zn

From2.6 to 13% Al, to 5% Fe, some with additions of Si or Ni
From 1to 3.5% Si, some with Mn, Si, or Sn
Zinc-containing alloys with additions of Ni, Sn,Mn, AI, and Si
From 2 to 40% Ni, additions of Fe, Be, Mn,or Cr
From about 43 to73% Cu, from7 to 23% Ni,
some with Pb or Mn,balance Zn
10-20
10-20
7-12
20-25
4- 10
5-10
NOTE F o r q w S i c compositions and properties see Standards Handbook No. 2,

Copper Developmenf Association, N.Y.

Representative
electrical
conductivities,
% IACS
80 to 100
>90
20 to 85
35 to 60
25 to 35
25 to 45
25 to 30
10-50
-_-
..
AWS S M * C H *
**
- .
..
-.
0 7 8 4 2 b 5 000bqL5 4 I'
Copper and Copper Alloys/61
Table 9.2 -Cast coppers and copper alloys

Number
series
801 to 8 11
813 to 828
833 to 838
842 to 848
852 to 858
861 to 868
872 to 879
902 to 945
947,948
952 to 958
%2 to 966
973 to 978
Description
Coppers
High copper alloys
Red brasses
Semi-redbrasses
Yellow brasses
High-strength
yellow brasses
Silicon brasses and silicon
bronzes
Tin bronzes
Nickel-tin bronzes
Aluminum bronzes
Copper nickels
Nickel silvers
Representative
electrical
conductivities,
% IACS
Composition ranges
Minimum of 9.70% Cu and remainder Ag
Additions of up to about 2.5% Be, Co, Si, Ni, andlor Cr
83 to 93% Cu, to 12% Zn with lesser amounts of Sn, Pb
76 to 80% Cu, 8 to 15%Zn with lesser amounts of Sn, Pb
57 to 72% Cu, balance primzuily Zn, 1to 2% Sn, Pb, Ni, or Al
55 to 67% Cu, additionsof Fe, Ni, Mn, Ai, balance Zn
65 to 90% Cu, about 3 to 5% Si, some with large amounts of Zn

3 to 19% Sn, some with large amounts of Pb, less Zn, Ni
About 5% Sn and 5% Ni, to 2.5% Zn, Alloy 948 has 1% Pb
7 to 11% Al, at least 71% Cu, balance Ni, Fe, Mn, andor Si
10 to 31% Ni, about 1% additionsof Fe, Cb, Si, Mn andor Si
55 to 65% Cu, Pb and.Sn additions, 12 to 25% Ni, balance Zn
92-100
20-80
115-40
15-20
18-28
7-22
6-15
7-15
12
3-13
4- 11
4-5
NOTE:For specific compositions and propertiessee StandardsHandbook No. 7,

Copper Development Association, N.Y.

AWS S M * C H * S
**
M 0 7 8 4 2 6 5 000641b b
S/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 9.3-Solderability
Type
Coppers
(Includes tough-pitch, oxygen-free,
phosphorized, arsenical,
silver-bearing, leaded, tellurium,
and selenium copper.)
Copper-tin alloys
Copper-zinc
alloys
-Copper-nickel
alloys
..
Copper-chromium and
copper-beryllium
Copper-silicon alloys
Copper-aluminum alloys
High-tensile manganese bronze
of copper and copper alloys
Solderability and remarks'

Excellent. Rosin or other noncorrosive flux is used when
properly cleaned.
Good. Easily soldered with activated rosin and

intermediate fluxes.
Good, Easily soldered with activated rosin and
intermediate flux.
Good, Easily soldered with intermediate and
corrosive fluxes.
Good. Require intermediate and corrosive fluxes
and precleaning.
Fair. Silicon produces refractory oxides that require use of
corrosive fluxes. Should be properly cleaned.
Difficult. High aluminum alloys are soldered with help of
very corrosive fluxes. Precoating may be necessary.
Not recommended. Should be plated toensure consistent
soiderability.
9efinitions of descriptiveterms for fluxes are given in Chapter 3.

CHAPTER 10
STEEL
INTRODUCTION
SURFACE PREPARATION
Steel can readily be soldered if the proper procedures and techniques are employed and if special
attention is given to surface preparation and the
selection of fluxes. Precoating with more solderable metals is often required.
The precleaning and surface preparation

techniques recommended in Chapter 5 should be
carefully followed. Owing to corrosion or oxidation, steel readily forms films and scales which
must be completely removed before soldering.
Because of this strong tendency to corrode, surface Protektion is required up to the time that the
solder flows over the surface. The protection may
SOLDERS
be afforded by painting, hot-dip coating, or elecThere are few limitations on the types of solders troplating.
Steel coated with other metals is generally
that may be used on steel. Tin-lead solders containing 20 to 50% tin are widely employed for used for applications involving soldering. A
joining steel, with the 40% tin-60Q lead solder comparatively small amount of steel is soldered
without precoating. Terneplate, which is one of
predominating.
The choice of a solder is governed somewhat the commercially coated sheet steels, has a film
by the intended end use of the assembly. The of a tin-lead alloy applied on its surface. Ternesoldering process and speed ofthe operation also plate can readily be soldered with the mildest
affect the selection. For example, all other factors noncorrosive fluxes. Tinplate, or tin coated
being equal, it is often more economical to use a steel, has a film ofTure tin applied on the surface
more expensive lower melting temperature sol- by hot-dip or electrolytic methods. Tinplate is
der, since the higher melting temperature low-tin also very easy to solder at high speeds with nonsolders require higher soldering temperature and corrosive fluxes. The coated steels are treated in
more detail in Chapter 11.
usually a longer processing time.
A tin-lead solders ability to wet steel increases
with tin content. For leak-proofjoints, therefore,
it may be more advantageous to use a 40% tin- HEATING METHODS
60% lead solder than a 5% tin-9$% lead composition. It may often be desirable to try various All soldering processes and techniques are used
solders until an optimum combination of proper- to solder steel. For small jobs soldering irons are
usually adequate. Torches may be required, howties and soldering conditions is reached.
69

AWS SM*CH*KLO
**
07842b5 000b283 2
70/SOLDERING MANUAL
ever, for the manual soldering of larger pieces
which dissipate heat more rapidly. Induction and
resistance soldering are particularly adaptable to
steel, and oven soldering may be the most suitable for certain applications (for further details on
processes and procedures see Chapter 6).
FLUXES
JOINT TYPES
The conventional types of joints covered in
Chapter 4 are all used for steel. The strongest
joints are obtained when O. 10 to O. 15 mm (0.004
to 0.006 in.) clearances are used. Joints with
greater clearances are less dependable, while
joints with clearances of less than 0.1 mm
(==0.003in.) may be weak due to poor joint
penetration and flux inclusions. Refer to Chapter 23 or mechanical properties of joints.
After preliminary cleaning, fluxing is necessary.

The stronger corrosive fluxes are necessary, since
the residual oxide of iron is not easily dissolved
by mild or noncorrosive fluxes. The zinc- POST SOLDERING TREATMENT
ammonium chloride liquid fluxes, either alone or
dispersed in petrolatum pastes, are suitable. For The corrosive nature of the flux residues requires
certain types of work, mixtures of powdered sol- a rigid cleaning schedule after soldering. Washder and dry or paste flux may be found useful, ing with dilute hydrochloric acid (1% HCl), folThese mixtures are used to precoat dents and lowed by a clear water rinse, removes the zinc
irregularities in automobile bodies prior to filling oxychloride. After drying, the final assembly
them with solder.
may be painted or electroplated.

CHAPTER 11
COATED STEELS
ALUMINUM COATED STEEL
Mill-finished low and medium carbon steels find

use in many manufactured products. Soldering is
a useful method for joining mili-finished low and
medium carbon steels. Solderable metallic coatings on steel normally applied at the mills include
tin (tinplate), tin-lead (terneplate), zinc (galvanized steel), and aluminum (aluminum coated
steel). In addition, many fabricated steel parts are
coated with metals to improve solderability, or to
protect the steel by providing sacrificial or anodic
coatings that corrode in preference to steel.
Protective metal coatings used on steel and the
method by which these coatings are applied are
given in Table 11.1. In addition, this table lists
some of the uses for the different coated steels.
The surfaces of ail coated steels must be clean
and free of soils, dirt, passivation films, and rust
before soldering. Specific cleaning schedules are
required for each metal coating. Joint design recommendations for coated sheet steels should be
followed for maximum joint strengths. Joint
clearances of 0.025 to 0.150 mm ( a O . 0 0 1 to
0.005 in.) are usually satisfactory for coated
steels. Lap joints or interlocking joints are used
where practicable to provide optimum joint
strength. Choice of solder composition largely
depends on the coating or the intended application of the finished assembly.
Chemical or mechanical cleaning methods

should be used to remove or modify the oxide
film on aluminum coated steel before soldering.
A dip in 5% trisodium phosphate solution, followed by water rinsing and drying, will assist in
the preparation of the aluminum coating for soidering.
Heating of the aluminum coatings must be
rapid, and electric or ultrasonic soldering irons
with sufficient heating capacity to raise the work
to soldering temperature should be used.
Some aluminum coated steels may be soldered
without fluxes by heating the metal surface sufficiently to melt a small amount of solder touched
to the hot surface to form a molten pool. The
aluminum under the solder pool is then abraded
using the stick of solder, the tip of the soldering
iron, or by use of specially designed brushes
which assist in displacing the oxide films.
Specially formulated fluxes are commercially
available or soldering aluminum coated steel
sheets. These fluxes should be applied sparingly
with a fine brush, and soldering should be performed quickly to avoid excessive oxidation of
surfaces, oxidation of the solderedjoint, and also
to prevent alloying of the aluminurncoating with
71

7ZhOLDERING MANUAL
the base steel to an undesirable extent. Suitable
solders for making joints in aluminum coated
steel are listed in the chapter on aluminum. Usually these soIders are supplied in the form of
sticks, but flux cored aluminum solders and
pastes are available.
CADMIUM COATED STEEL

Cadmium is most frequently plated on steel parts
fhat have been formed or machined prior to
plating operations. Electrodeposits are usually
0.0015 to 0.010 mm (-0.00005 to 0.0003 in.)
thick, and it is extremely important that the steel
base underlying the coating be clean before plating to avoid the risk of wrinkling or blistering of
the coating when soldered joints are made.
Clean, fresh cadmium coatings offer good solderability with rosin base fluxes and tin-rich solders. However, solderability decreases rapidly
with time, and stronger fluxes may be required
toremove thickened or adherent films which
may interfere with the soldering process. Torch
soldering is not recommended for soldering
cadmium coatings because of the evolution of
volatile and toxic cadmium compounds during
heating. Soldering irons are used most effectively in soldering cadmium coated steel.
CHROMIUM PLATED STEEL

Soldering is not recommended for joining
chromium plated steel.
NICKEL AND COBALT PLATED

STEEL
Nickel plated steel is produced by flashing the
steel with copper to a thickness of 0.0015 mm
(=0.00005 in.) or less and then plating nickel to a
thickness of 0.0015 mm to 0.010 mm (O.ooOo5 to
0.0003 in.).The higher tin solders (Sn 50, Sn 60,
Sn 63) are generally used for making the joint,
and activated rosin fluxes can be used successfully if the surface of the plating has been
1.

adequately cleaned. Often thickened or passivated nickel oxide films can be removed before
fluxing and soldering by a dip in a 10% solution
of hydrochloric acid. Electroless nickel and
cobalt coatings on steel can be difficult to solder
because a high percentage of phosphides is often
present in the coating. A maximum of 5 to 7%
phosphorous in the electroless nickel coatings is
preferred for solderability. Corrosive fluxes are
required to solder these coatings.
COPPER COATED STEEL

Copper coated steel usually offers no soldering
difficulties if the surface is clean and free of
heavy oxide films. The type of flux used depends
on the condition of the coating and the application. A full range of tin-lead, antimony and
silver-containing solders may be used. As in the
case of soldering pure copper and its alloys, the
joints should be made quickly to avoid excessive
buildup of intermetallic copper-tin compounds
when tin base solders are used.
TERNEPLATE [LEAD -TINCOATINGS)

AND LEAD COATED STEEL
Terneplate is low carbon steel with an alloy coating of 10 to 25% tin, balance lead. The lead-tin
coatings assist in the soldering of the steel. Terne
and lead coatings do not require further preparation other than the removal of oil, grease or atmospheric grime. Long term storage may cause
surface discoloration, and a light abrasion may
sometimes be necessary before soldering to insure the highest solderability possible.
Although gas heated soldering irons or heavy
duty electric heated irons are used to an advantage in joining terneplate or lead coated steel, any
of the heating methods outlined in Chapter 6 can
be used. The selection of the best method is based
on the application and design of the product.
Rosin fluxes are satisfactory in most instances for
soldering terneplate or lead coated steel. Corrosive fluxes are used where joint design and assembly allow for removal of any residues remainingonthejoinisurfaces.
AWS S M * C H * l L
**
07BL1265 0006286 B
Coated Steel173
TIN COATED STEEL

Tin coatings, used in the manufacture of tinplate,
are commercially available in thicknesses of
O.OOO1 to approximately0.0025mm (0.000004in.
to approximately O.oooO9 in.). Over 809 of the
material is used in the manufacture of food and
beverage containers. In addition, many steel parts
are coated with tin to improve solderability during assembly, or provide corrosion resistance to
the steel base. Tin thickness in these applications
may be from 0.0025 to 0.025 mm (0.OOOi to
0.001 in.).
Except for the removal of the surface contaminants, such as forming oils or atmospheric
grime, the tinplate usually needs no special preparation for soldering. Rosin base fluxes are satisfactory for soldering to tinplate and tin coated
steels.
Soldering irons, induction and dip soldering
units, as well as controlled torch soldering are
used in joining tinplate and tin coated steel parts.
Tin-lead solders are used as filler metais with
solders containing 40, 50, and 60% tin, balance
lead, being most useful because of ease of application, low melting temperatures, and excellent
wetting and spreading properties.
In the manufacture of sanitary cans, tinplate is
cut into body blanks which are notched and
formed into cylinders. After the bodies are made,
the interlocking side seams are formed and
fluxed. The can body then travels along a soldering horn over the top of a rotating roller which
delivers solder from the melting pot to join and
seal the can side seams.
Some can si& seams are soldered by passing
the bodies, which.have been notched and have
their interlocking seams already formed, through
a high frequency electromagnetic field to preheat
the seam area to approximately 315" C (=615OF)
in about 0.3seconds. The hot seam is then sealed
with a thread of molten solder which is injected
under pressure through a fine orifice into the can
side seam. A post heating station, in line with the
soldering horn, has another high frequency heating coil which maintains seam temperatures sufficiently to allow the molten solder to uniformly
fill all voids. Normally, 2% tin-98% lead solders
are used in making side seams in cans, but some

special purpose cans use pure tin as well as solders containing small amounts of antimony or
silver.
TIN ALLOY COATINGS ON STEEL

Electrodeposited coatings of tin-cadmium, tincopper, and tin-zinc on steel should have a thickness of 0.0065 mm (=0.00025 in.) minimum to
provide solderability and extended shelf life.
These alloy coatings are soldered, with activated
rosin fluxes and tin-lead solders with tin contents
of 40,50, or 60%. Sometimes corrosve fluxes are
used when speed of operafion is required and flux
residues can be removed from the assembly.
Tin-nickel coatings on steel usually have a thin
(0.0025 mm [O.OOOl in.]) undercoat of copper.
Tin-nickel coatings 0.01 mm (0.0003 in.) thick
are usually soldered after fluxing with corrosive
fluxes.
ZINC COATED STEEL

Zinc coated steel is available in a variety of coating specifications. Hot dipped sheet may be
temper rolled, wiped, oiled, chemically treated
(either for painting or corrosion resistance) or
heated to produce an alloy coating (galvannealed
sheet). The sheet may be brightly spangled or
unspangled. Electrogalvanized sheet is also
commercially available. Galvanized sheets are
sold on the basis of coating weights nominal 0.04
to 0.08 kg/m2 (1.25 to 2.75 oz/ft2) and in steel
gages between 8 and 30.
It has been shown that electrogalvanized steel
offers better solderability than hot dipped zinc
coatings. Minimally spangled hot dipped coatings interfere slightly with solder wetting, but are
solderable with acid or organic type fluxes. In
general, chromating treatments, used to prevent
humid storage staining, interfere with solder
flow. The effect of chromate treatments on solderability is complex. However, some of these
treatments may improve the soldering of heated
surfaces or have negligible effects.
74/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 11.1-Metal
coatings on steel
Coating process
I
Aluminum
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Tin
- X
X
X
- X
Tin-cadmium
Tin-copper
Tin-lead (teme)
- - - X -
Tin-nickel
x - - - - -
Tin-zinc
Zinc
x x x -
x - - - - x - - - - x - - - X
- X
- -
x x x - - X
X - X
X X -
x - x x - X
- X
- -
x X
Signs, automotive parts, storage bins

Radio TV chassis, electronic hardware
Decorative parts, hardware
Substitute coating for nickel
Housewares,conductors,electronicparts
Chemical apparatus, coffins
Appliances, electrical goods, hardware
Containers, electricalparts, foodhandling,
equipment
Electricparts,hardware
Electronic parts
Gasoline tanks, caskets, flashing, gutters,
roofing
Electrical parts, power plugs, connectors,
hardware
Electrical parts, chassis
Gutters, downspouts, furnacepipe,
ductwork, storage bins
Phosphated galvanized surfaces are difficult to prevent penetration of solder into narrow joint
solder. The phosphate films must be removed clearances. Aged galvanized sheet is soldered
prior to soldering unless strong mineral acid more easily than freshly produced sheet.
fluxes or corrosive acid fluxes containing sodium
bifluoride are used. Galvannealed surfaces are
extremely difficult to solder, but some success REFERENCES
can be achieved if fluxes similar to those used in
soldering stainless steel are used. However, vig- Helwig, L.E., and Carter, P.R. 63, 1969. Solder
orous gas evolution occurs when these fluxes are flow on galvanized surfaces. Metal finishing,
used, and this creates enough back pressure to February.
i.
i>
CHAPTER 12
STAINLESS,STEELS
INTRODUCTION
Since stainless steels are used in a wide variety

of applications and may be subjected to environments of various degrees of corrosiveness, the
solder must be chosen for compatibility with both
the environment and the stainless steel. Tin and
high-tin alloys provide a good color match with
stainless steel and do not darken as noticeably in
service as do high lead content solders. Because
of their relatively low melting point and rapid
loss of strength as temperatures increase, solders
must be carefully selected and joints properly
designed to minimize mechanical loading of the
solder if moderately elevated temperatures are
expected in service. Solders are quite weak at
even moderately elevated temperatures and are
subject to creep if directly loaded.
If articles of stainless steel are fabricated for
food or beverage processing, solders containing
cadmium or lead should not be used.
Ali stainless steel alloys contain chromium and

many contain nickel. Other elements, such as
manganese, molybdenum, columbium,.titanium,
aluminum, and copper, may also be present to
provide certain metallurgical characteristics. In
the standard grades, chromium ranges from
something in excess of 11% to values approaching 30%. Nickel content vanes within the range
of O-22%. There are four basic types of stainless
steel: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and precipitation hardening. There are also freemachining and stainless clad products.
The corrosion resistance of stainless steels is
attributable to the formation of a thin, impervious, surface layer of chromic oxide which
spontaneously forms on stainless steels in the
presence of oiygen. This surface layer also hinders the wettingeand flow of solder on stainless
steel. Hence, the successful soldering of stainless
steel requires the use of a corrosive flux.
SURFACE PREPARATION
SOLDERS
Standard shop practices suffice for preparhg

stainless steels. Appropriate procedures include
vapor, solvent, or caustic degreasing; acid
pickling; grit or shot blasting; wire brushing or
abrading with stainless steel wool or emery cloth.
The method chosen should be appropriate to the
type of foreign material to be removed. Shot or
wire brushes, if used, should be stainless steel to
Commercially available solders can be used to

join stainless steels. In general, thehigher the tin
content of the solder, the better the wetting and
flow on stainless steel. It is generally recommended that tin contents be at least 50% in order
to provide good bond strength.
75

76/SOLDERING MANUAL
avoid rust spots. If surfaces are highly polished,
it is best to roughen them slightly before cleaning
and soldering by using an emery cloth, file, or
other suitable means.
Soldering should, if possible, be done immediately after cleaning. if soldering cannot be
done promptly, the parts should be precoated with
solder or tin immediately after cleaning. An acid
flux should be used, and the assembly should be
thoroughly washed to remove flux residues.
Many joint designs have recessed and hidden
surfaces that makes post 8oldering cleaning to
remove flux residues difficult. Furthermore,
these recessed or blind areas represent problems
in soldering because it is not possible to visually
verify that solder has flowed into these areas to
completethe joint. Therefore, it is offen desirable
to precoat with solder or tin the specific areas
involved in the joint before assembling the pieces
for final soldering. Precoating is done by the use
of acid fluxes which can be more readily removed
before the individual pieces are assembled, or
suitable electroplating coatings usually may be
applied. Final soldering of the joint can then be
accomplished with a rosin type flux, the residues
of which are innocuous and cause no serious
corrosion problem even if not completely removed.
HEATING METHODS
Stainless steel assemblies can be heated by ali the
techniques commonly used in production. Because stainless steels have low thermal conductivity, the rate of travel along the joint should be
slow enough to permit all parts of the joint to
reach a temperature which will permit the solder
to flow into ali areas to be joined. Attempts to
increase the rate of travel by using higher temperatures are not recommended inasmuch as there is
danger of destroying the flux and generating excessive oxidation of the solder and base metal. In
general, soldering temperatures on the order of
approximately 30" to 85" C ( 4 0 " to 150"F) over
the melting point of the solder are desired.
Ausfenitic stainless steels have high coefficients of thermal expansion, which may cause
buckling and warpage. Jigs and fixtures may be
required to obtain and maintain proper alignment
and fit-up. On long seams, it is helpful to tack the

joint at intervals before soldering. If warpage

becomes a serious problem, it is often helpful to
complete a joint by soldering short lengths of the
seam at a time and alternating positions along the
joint so that the heat is spread more uniformly
over the joint length.
FLUXES
Fluxes suitable for soldering stainless steel are
corrosive and care must be exercised in their use
to prevent damage to eyes, skin, and clothing.
Orthophosphoric acid and hydrochloric acid
fluxes are satisfactory as are aqueous solutions of
zinc chloride along with other compounds. if
molybdenum, titanium, columbium, or
aluminum are present, the flux should contain
some hydrofluoric acid. There are also commercial fluxes which do a satisfactory job. Rosin
fluxes are not satisfactory for soldering stainless
steel but can be used if the parts are first precoated with solder using an acid flux. All residues
of the acid flux should be removed by neutralizing and washing prior to final assembly with the
rosin flux. Flux cored solders containing 'acid"
cores are also useful, but it may be necessary to
supplement the flux core by the addition of extra
flux externally applied.
Residues of fluxes, except rosin, used on stainless steel are hygroscopic, and in the presence of
moisture are corrosive to stainless steels. Similarly, fumes generated during soldering can condense on colder parts of the assembly, leaving a
flux residue that is corrosive in the presence of
moisture. Therefore, it is imperative that these
residues be thoroughly removed after soldering,
preferably immediately after.
Stainless steels are passive under almost all
conditions of service in which they are normalty
used; however, if passivity is destroyed locally
and prevented from being restored, local corrosion (pitting) may cause rapid penetration at the
point of initiation. This is because a local electrolytic cell is formed between the large cathodic
(passive) area and the small anodic (active) area.
Oxygen acts as a depolarizer and pitting occurs.
Solutions containing chlorides are especially
troublesome in that they promote the formation
of such cells. Other halide salts and some sulfates
Stainless Steels177
may also be a source of attack. Cracks, crevices,
and gasketed areas are also troublesome in that
they may lead to stagnant conditions and
localized attack. Elimination of stagnant pockets,
cracks, crevices, and thorough removal of acid
soldering flux residues will minimize possibilities for corrosion.

The only post soldering treatment required is the
removal of the.flux residue if a corrosive flux has
been used. Rosin flux residues are noncorrosive
and need not be removed except for appearance.
Detailed instructions for removing various flux
residues are given in Chapter 7. If desired, excess
solder can be removed from the joint area with a
stainless steel scraping tool. The tool should be

softer than the base metal to avoid scratching.

Water spots or other minor surface discoIorations
can be removed by scrubbing with a powdered
cleanser or buffing with metal polish.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Soldered stainless steel articles are found in a
wide variety of applications. These include roofs,
roof drains, flashing, gutters, ornamental trim,
and other architectural items. Seams in buckets,
pails, and other types of containers are often
solder sealed. Since stainless steels are chosen for
corrosion resisfance and heat resistance, it is imperative that soldered joints be employed oniy in
those applications where the presence of a soidered joint would not detract from the serviceability of the part.
CHAPTER 13
NICKEL AND
HIGH-NICKEL
ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION
Solder can be employed to join nickel and highnickel alloys either to themselves or to any other
solderable metal. Table 13.1 gives the chemical
composition and solderability of some highnickel alloys. In designing a solder joint in any
high-nickel alloy, however, it is advisable to take
into consideration some of the special characteristics of the base metal.
Many times, the high-nickel alloys are used for
a given application because of their resistance to
corrosive attack. When corrosion is a factor, the
corrosion resistance of the solder must also be
considered. In some cases it is necessary to locate
the joint so that the solder will not be exposed to
thecorrosive environmenf. The higher tin content
solders, such a s 9 5 9 tin-59 antimony, may result
in a better color match if appearance is important.
However, the solder may oxidize in a different
manner than the base metal and the joint may
become noticeable after exposure.
anickel, K Monel, and Inconel X which have

been fully age-hardened.
The high-nickel alloys are subject to e m b d tlement at high temperatures when in the
presence of lead and many other low melting
metaIs. This embrittlement will not occur at
normal soldering temperatures; however, overheating should be avoided. If welding, brazing,
or other heating is to be done on an assembly, it is
imperative that these operations be done before
soldering.
SOLDERS
Any of the common types of solders may beused
to join the high-nickel alloys. It is usually desirable, however, to choose a relatively high tin
solder such as the 60% tin-40% lead or 50%
tin-50% lead composition.
SURFACE PREPARATION
Nickel and nickel alloys heated in the presence of
sulfur become embrittled. These alloys should be
clean and free from sulfur bearing materials such
as grease, paint, crayon, and lubricants before
If soldering is to be done 6n any of the age- heating.If the surfaces of the high-nickel alloys to
hardenable materiais, the soldering should be be soldered are adequately precleaned as outlined
done after aging. The temperature involved in in Chapter 5, it will be possible to produce a
soldering will not soften such metais as Dur- sound joint.
PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING NICKEL

ALLOYS
79

80ISOLDERING MANUAL
Table 1 3 , l P h e m i c a l composition and solderability of high-nickel alloys

~~~
Alloy
Monel
Nickel
Permanickel
Duranickel
K Monel
Inconel
Incoloy
Nimonic 75
Inconel X
Ni-Span-C
Ni
67
99
98
94
66
77
34
75
73
42
Cu
Composition (%)
Cr
Fe
29
30
15
21
20
15
5.25
Joints with long laps, and joints which will be

inaccessible for cleaning after soldering, should
be precoated prior to assembly. Precoating is
generally accomplished using the same alloy to
be employed for soldering. The parts may be
dipped in the molten solder or the surfaces may
be heated, fluxed, and the solder flowed on. Excess solder may be removed by wiping or brushing the joint. High-nickel.alloys may also be
precoated by tin plating or hot tin dipping.
EQUIPMENT, PROCESSES,AND
PROCEDURES
The equipment, processes, and procedures listed
in Chapter 6 may be used for soldering nickel and
the high-nickel alloys. Some minor differences in
procedure may be required because of the lower
thermal conductivity of these alloys.
FLUXES
Generally, rosin fluxes are not active enough to
be used on the high-nickel alloys. A chloride flux
is desirable for soldering nickel or the nickelcopper alloys, such as Monel. Fluxes containing
hydrochloric acid are required for the
chromium-containing alloys, such as Inconel,
Many of the proprietary fluxes used for soldering stainless steel are satisfactory for use on In-

7
45
1.75
7
49
Ti
Al
0.40
0.50
0.25
2.50
2.00
Solderability
4.5
2.75
0.35
0.75
0.50
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Fair
Fair
Fair
Fair
Fair
conel as well as other nickel base alloys (see

Chapter 3 for a more thorough discussion of
fluxes).
JOINT TYPES
The low strength of soldered joints is apparent
when compared to base metals, such as the
high-nickel alloys which have relatively high
strength. Therefore, the precautions outlined in
Chapter 4 concerning joint design are of the utmost importance when dealing with nickel base
alloys, The strength of the joint should never
depend on the solder alone. Lock seaming, riveting, spot welding, bolting, or other means should
be employed to carry the structural load, whereas
the solder is employed only to seal the joint.
POST TREATMENT
Because corrosive fluxes are required for soldering the high-nickel alloys, it is necessary to
thoroughly remove lhe residue after soldering.
This subject is dealt with in Chapter 7.
Illustrations of solder fabrications of nickel alloys are the transistors shown in Figs. 13.1 and
13.2.
Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys/ i
Fig. 13.2-Several transistors soldered on

printed wiring board
Fig. 13.1-Trnsistor having nickel alloy leads

CHAPTER 14
LEAD AND LEAD

ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION
SOLDERS
Lead and lead alloys are easily soldered when

proper care is taken not to melt the relatively low
melting temperature base metal. Lead pipe and
sheet are widely used in the pumbing, architectural, and chemical construction fields. Power
and telephone transmission lines use lead as a
cable sheathing material. Soldered joints in lead,
however, are generally confined to the plumbing
field, some architectural uses, and joining lead
sheathed cables. The use of soldered lead joints
in the chemical construction field, or where
highly corrosive chemicals are confined or transported, is not generally recommended. Joints
should be welded for such applications.
Wiping is a technique unique to lead soldering

and requires special solders to yield a smooth,
gas tight joint (see Fig. 14.1). Wiping solder for
lead contains between 30 and 40%tin, up to 2%
antimony, and the balance lead. These solders are
solid up to approximately 182" C (360" F) and
completely liquid at approximately 238" C
(460" F) providing a pasty or working range of
approximately56" C (100" F). Solder containing
34.5%tin, 1.25%antimony, 0.11% arsenic, balance lead, is widely used in cable joining. A 50%
tin-50% lead solder is widely used for joining
lead sheet.
SURFACE PREPARATION
PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING LEAD
Pure lead melts at 327" C (621" F) and certain of
the antimonial-lead alloys start to melt at 232"C
(450"F). Solders for joining these metals should
@ chosen so that they can be worked without
melting the base metal. Careful preparation of the
areas to be soldered and close tolerances on the
joints will alleviate most of the problems connected with soldering lead. However, its relatively low tensile strength (1 1 to 28 MPa), with
elongations from 25 to 60% and Brinell hardness
of 4.5 to 10.0, should be carefully considered in
designing a joint in lead and lead alloys.
83

The areas that are to be joined should be

thoroughly cleaned by wire brushing or shaving.
Tallow or stearic acid flux should then be applied
promptly to prevent reoxidation of the cleaned
areas, A very thin flat film is advisable, so that it
will not spread out beyond the area of the joint
upon application of heat.
Excessive use of the cleaning tools should be
avoided. Their overuse may cause fatigue failures due to chatter and thinning of the lead near
the critical section of the joint. Gummed paper
strips and plumber's soil are often useful to limit
the flow of solder beyond the area of the joint and
to help form and build a bead at the joint.
84/SOLDERING MANUAL
Fig. 1 4 . 1 ~-Wiping
solder is poured on the joint
.
Lead and Lead Alloys/85
Pig. 14.18 -Wiping begins

0 7 8 4 2 6 5 (3006277 2
861SOLDERING MANUAL
Fig. 1 4 . 1 ~
-Wiping

near completion
, , -
HEATING METHODS
the two lower surfaces in contact in the lock (see

Chapter 4 for illustrations of joints).
The low melting point of lead and its alloys limits Butt Joints
the choice of heating methods. Soldering irons
Butt joints are the least desirable type for joinare usually used for soldering sheet lead joints.
When joints are wiped, the heat for soldering is ing lead sheets. Their use should ,@ confined to
supplied by the molten solder poured over the those situations where it is impractical to use
parts until the base metal is wetted, and the bulk other joint designs.
The abutting edges of the lead sheets are bevof the solder is in a pasty, workable condition.
eled with a shave hook so that they make an angle
of 45 deg or more with the vertical. The edges to
FLUXES
be joined are placed firmly together and tacked at
intervals of 100 to 150 mm (=4 to 6 in.). GumThe soldering of lead and its alloys can be ac- med paper strips pasted paralIel to the seam and 6
complished without the use of the corrosive to 10 mm (i/4 to 3/8 in.) away aid in building up
fluxes. Tallow and rosin fluxes are generally the solder and reflowing it in the finishing operation. Additional flux, as described in the lap joint
used.
section, is advisable.
Solder is fed into the joint and melted by the
soldering
iron as it is drawn along the seam.
JOINT TYPES
Sufficient solder should be applied to build up a
slightly convex surface.
Lap Joints
Lap joints are more satisfactory than butt joints
and should be made with a minimum lap of 10
mm (3/8 in.) for sheet lead up to and including 3
mm ( l / S in.) thick (3.5 kg [81b.]). The contacting
areas ofthe two sheets that form the lap should be
cleaned and fluxed with tallow. The cleaned and
fluxed area of the bottom sheet should extend 3
mm (1/8 in.) beyond the leading edge of the lap.
The edge and upper side of the top sheet, to a
distance of approximately 10 mm (3/8 in.).
should also be cleaned and fluxed. The sheets are
then fitted together and dressed down with a
wooden or rubber mallet to fit snugly. They are
then tacked at intervals with solder.
The application ofadditional flux is often advisable. Flux may be applied by using rosin cored
or Stearine cored wire solder. When bar solder is
used, Stearine or powdered rosin may be applied
to the joint.
Soldering is usually done with an iron and 50%
tin-50% lead solder.
Lock Joints
Lock joints provide considerably more
strength and are preferred whenever the joints are
to be in tension. They are made in much the same
manner as lap joints, using locks of 15mm (=1/2
in.) or more. The solder should flow in between

Pipe Joints
Preparation of the joint is as important to successful results as the actual soldering. The joint is
made in a bell and spigot manner with the flared
end made in the pipe into which the water or
liquid will flow. The inlet or spigot end is beveled
to fit snugly into the flared end.
The area.encompassing the entire wiped joint
is lightly shaved clean as is the contacting area
within the joint. A thin coat of tallow is then
applied. The area beyond the joint on both sides is
then coated with plumber's soil or paper to prevent the solder adhering at these points. The joint
is assembled, the flare end is dressed down
tightly (swaged with a wooden tool), and the
entire assembly is braced so that it will not move
during the subsequent soldering operation.
In horizontal pipe, the joint is then wiped by
slowly pouring solder at the proper temperature
(approximately 315" C [ =600" FI) on top of the
joint while the operator manually directs and
holds the solder. For this purpose he uses a
tallow coated cloth and wipes or forms the joint
while the solder is in its pasty stage. When completed, the joint should be chilled.
In vertical pipe, joints are prepared and wiped
in much the same manner except that the solder is
88/SOLDERING MANUAL
applied around the pipe at the top of the joint and
the cloth held directly under the ladle at the bottom of the joint. The ladling or splashing on of the
solder is continued around the joint.
Branch joints in lead pipe are made by cuttinga
small oval shaped hole in the main line and drawing up sdficient lead to form a collar or hub into
which the beveled branch line is fitted sungly.
Preparation and wiping are essentially the same
as previously described.
Cup joints are similar to bell and spigot joints
except that the flared end is not dressed down,
and a soldering iron is used rather than wiping.
These joints can only be made in the vertical
position although they can be used in any position. Preparation of the joint includes beveling of
the inlet or spigot end, flaring the bell, cleaning
and fluxing with tallow only those areas that are
to become a part of the joint. Plumber's soil or
paper should be applied beyond these points. The
pipes are then fitted together and spot soldered.
With a sharp pointed iron, solder is then flowed
around until the joint is filled about haIf way. The
rest of the cup is filled with solder using a blunted
iron.
Cable Joints
Joints in lead sheathed cable, because of the
increased bulk of the spliced conductors, are of
greater diameter than the cable itself and require
the use of a lead sleeve encompassing the joint
area.
A lead sleeve of the proper diameter is first
selected to contain the spliced cgnductors and
have sufficient length to overhang the lead sheathing several inches on both sides of the joint.
The inside of both ends of the sleeve are then
scraped clean back approximately 25 mm (1 in,)
and are immediately fluxed with tailow or stearic
acid. The outside of the slewing, back approximately 50 to 75 mm (=2 to 3 in.) depending on
the diameter, is also scraped clean and fluxed and
the sleeve placed around either end of the cable.
Splicing of the conductors is then completed.
The areas on the cable sheathing that are to
become part of each joint are scraped clean and
fluxed. The sleeve is then ceniraiiy located over
the joint and both ends are dressed or drawn down
with a wooden tool until they fit snugly against
thecleaned and fluxed areas of thesheathing. An

additional thin coating of flux is applied. Gummed paper or plumber's soil is applied to prevent
adherence of solder at points beyond the joints.
The joints are then wiped in a manner similar to
that used for lead pipe.
As a precaution against porosity of wiped
joints .in cable sheathing, the use of a sealing
solder melting at approximately 95" C (=200" F)
is recommended. The sealing solder, in the form
of a thin stick, is applied aver the entire joint as
soon as possible after the wiped solder has solidified. The residual heat melts the sealing solder
which is then smoothed out over the joint with the
wiping cloth. One sealing solder contains 52.5%
bismuth, 32% ead, and 15.5% tin.
SOLDERING OF LEAD ALLOYS

The soldering of lead alloys, with the possible
exception of two per cent or higher antb"lial
leads can be performed in the same manner as
described for lead itself. Ornamental castings of
two per cent or higher antimonial lead alloy are
also frequently soldered. These alloys have a
solidus temperature under 315" C ( 4 O " F) and,
as a result, the temperature factor is more critical.
Therefore, in soldering, it i s necessary to use
extreme care to avoid melting the base metal.
SOLDERING LEAD TO OTHER

METALS
All metals that can be precoated can be joined to
lead pipe or sheet by means of the wiping cloth,
torch or soldering iron. The precoating should be
confined to those areas of the other metal that are
to become an integral part of the joint. The lead
should be prepared just as described for joining
lead to lead.

Ordinady, no post soldering treatment is required.
.-
soldering iron, are also used to join lead pipe to

copper fittings for connecting the lead piping to
piping made from other metals. Lead sheathed
Soldered lead pipe is used to convey water un- cables for telephone, telegraph, and electrical
derground from the water main to theconsumer's power transmission also use solder extensively.
property line and also serves a multitude of pur- Sheet lead for waterproofing, such as shower
poses in the plumbing, drainage, and venting sys- pans and safe pans, also utilize soldering for
tem. Joints, made either by wiping or with a makingjoints.

**
A W S S H * C H * x L S-____
H 078YZb5JOOb301
~
O
_=_=
CHAPTER 15
ALUMINUM AND
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION
The soldering of aluminum differs from the soldering of copper, brass, steel, and most other
common metals in several ways. Perhaps the
most important difference is that aluminum
forms a more tenacious and refractory oxide,
which in most cases necessitates the use of active
fluxes that are specifically designed for
aluminum. Noncorrosive fluxes cannot be used.
A second difference is that special techniques are
required to produce flow into certain types of
joints. A third important difference is that the
corrosion resistance of soldered aluminrim joints
is much more depqdent upon the composition of
the solder than it is for similar joints in copper,
brass, or steel.
Because of these differences, the soldering of
aluminum is not as well understood, and it has not
been as extensively used as soldering of other
metais.
PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING
ALUMINUM
The difference between the melting point of the
aluminum alloys and the liquidus temperature of
some solders can be as low as approximately
26OoC(470"F).This is substantially less than the
780" C (1400" i?) differential for soldered copper.
This in turn means that greater care must be taken

in heating, especially in heating complicated assemblies. Since the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion is greater for aluminum than for most
other common materials, greater distortion can
be expected in aluminum assemblies than in
comparable assemblies of copper and steel. The
coefficient of expansion of some aluminum alloys is found in Table 4. l
The oxide film that forms on aluminum and
aluminum alloys is tenacious and chemically
resistant; corrosive fluxes or special soldering
techniques must be used to remove this oxide.
Because most of the fluxes used on aluminum
contain fluoride, the usual precautions should be
taken (see Chapter 21 for safety in handling). To
minimize corrosion, scnipulous flux residue
removal is also mandatory for most applications.
The use of solders containing a high
percentage of zinc is usually recommended. The
tin-lead solders are not recommended because
the resulting joints have poor corrosion
resistance. Lead-bismuth solders provide greatly
improved corrosion resistance over the tin-lead
solders.
The corrosion resistance of soldered aluminum
joints may depend upon the choice of solder,
degree of flux residue removal, and the environment to which the joint is exposed. Soldered
joints made with tin-lead or other tin-bearing,
low melting temperature solders must be protected by a suitable protective coating in any but
91

92/SOLDERING MANUAL
ally soldered using ultrasonic or mechanical abrasion techniques for oxide removal.
Aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys (60616063 series) are less susceptible to intergranular
penetration than the binary aluminummagnesium alloys and more solderable than the
binary aluminum-silicon alloys.
The aluminum alloys that have copper (ZXXX
series) andzinc (7XXX series) as the major alloySELECTION OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS ing elements are generally complex, high
strength, heat-treatable alloys containing
FOR SOLDERING
appreciable quantities of other elements. During
heat treatment films that hinder soldering form on
While aluminum and all the aluminum alloys can
these alloys, and chemical surface pretreatment
be soldered, alloying elements influence the solis usually necessary to remove such films before
derability, as shown in Table 15.l . The commonly
soldering. Since most of these alloys are subject
soldered aluminum alloys are 1060, 1100, 1145,
to intergranular penetration by solder, they are
3003,5005,6061,7072, and 8112.
not generally soldered.
Aluminum alloys containing 0.5% or more
Aluminum castings are generally alloys conmagnesium suffer intergranular penetration by
taining
substantial quantities of copper, silicon,
molten tin solders. Zinc will also penetrate the
aluminum-magnesium alloys intergranularly, but magnesium, or zinc. As a group, they have poor
the extent of penetration is usually not significant solderability by virtue of their composition. In
until the magnesium content of the base metal addition, castings are likely to exhibit surface
exceeds 0 . 7 9 . The intergranular penetration by conditions that are detrimental to soldering.
molten solder of aluminum-magnesium alloys is
aggravated if the part is prestressed by cold working, but this can be significantly reduced if the SOLDERS
assembly is stress relieved by heating the part to
370" C (700" F) before soldering. If the solder Solders for aluminum can be grouped convenbeing used is 9 5 8 zinc-5% aluminum, which has iently into low temperature, intermediate tema melting temperature of 382"C (720" F), the part perature,and high temperature solders. Low
will be stress relieved before the molten solder temperature solders for aluminum, which melt
will actually contact the surface of the aluminum. below approximately 260" C (500" F), are comTherefore, a stress relief treatment will not be posed primarily of low melting temperature metrequired in this case. The addition of 4% or more ais such as tin, lead, cadmium: and bismuth.
aluminum to a solder also tends to reduce the They may also contain higher melting temperaextent of intergranular penetration or general dis- ture metais such as zinc, aluminum, copper,
nickel, and silver. intermediate temperature solsolution of all aluminurn alloys.
The addition of up to 1% magnesium to ders, which melt between 260" C (500" F) and
aluminum does not significantlyreduce the effec- 370" C (=700" F), contain appreciable amounts
tiveness of the flux in preparing the surface of the of both lower melting and higher melting temperaluminum alloy for soldering. However, in gen- ature metals. High temperature solders, which
eral, the surface of alloys containing greafer than melt between 380" C (=720 F) and 425" C
1%magnesium cannot be satisfactorily soldered ( 4 0 0 " F), have zinc as the major constituent,
using chemical fluxes, and alloys containing along with small amounts of high melting temgreater than 1.59 magnesium are difficult to perature metals,such as aluminum,copper, nicksolder using reaction fluxes.
el, and silver. The properties of a number of
The addition of silicon to aluminum (4XXX typical solders for aluminum are discussed in
series) also reduces the effectiveness of fluxes. Chapter 2.
Alloys containing 5 9 or more silicon are gener- *See Chapter 21 on Safety
dry indoor environment. Unprotected assemblies

joined with zinc base solders, on the other hand;
exhibit long service life even in marine exposure.
In most cases corrosion is accelerated by the
presence of electrolytes. It is important, therefore, that the residues of sait type fluxes be completely removed after soldering.

AWJSM*CH*IS
**
- -
07&42h5 OOOb303 4
__I
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys/93
Low temperature solders for aluminum are

generally tin-zinc alloys in which tin is present in
the larger amount. Lead-bismuth solders are also
used to solder aluminum at low temperatures.
One low temperature solder is the tin-zinc eutectic containing 91% tin and 9% zinc. Another
solder contains 78.5%. lead, 18.5% bismuth and
3% silver. These alloys melt at about 205" C
(=4O" F), wet aluminum readily, flow easily,
and have high resistance to corrosion. Tin-lead
solders, in general, forma highly anodic interface
between the aluminum and solder and have poor
corrosion resistance. Although the tin-lead solders are not recommended for aluminum, the
addition of even afew percent zinc or cadmium to
such solders improves both their soldering
characteristics and their resistance to corrosion.
The lead-bismuth solders exhibit the best corrosion resistance of the low temperature solders. in
general, assemblies made with low temperature

solders have poorer corrosion resistance than assemblies made with high temperature solders and
should not be used in corrosive environments
unless some protective coating is applied to the
solder joints.
Intermediate temperature solders are usually
either tin-zinc or cadmium-zinc alloys containing
from 30to W%zinc. They may also contain other
metais, such as lead, bismuth, silver, nickel,
copper, and aluminum. Among the more common of these solders are the 70% tin-30% zinc,
70% zinc-30% tin, and 60% zinc-40% cadmium
solders. Because of their higher zinc content,
these intermediate temperature solders generally
wet aluminum more readily, form larger fillets,
and give stronger and more corrosion resistant
joints than the low temperature solders.
Table 15.1 -Solderability

Typical
alloy
of aluminum alloys
Solderability
Recommended
flux
1xxx
(Commercial
purity or
higher)
1060
1100
Good
Good
Chemical or reaction
Chemical
or reaction
2xxx
(Al-CU)
2014
Fair'
Reaction
3xxx
3003
Good
Chemical
or reaction
4043
POOP
None
5xxx3
(Ai-Mg or
AI-Mg-Mn)
5005
5050,s 154
5456,5083
Good
Fair'
Poor'
Chemical or reaction
Reaction
Reaction
6XXX
(Al-Mg-Si)
606 1
Good'
Reaction
7xxx3
(Al-Zn)
7072
7075
Good
Poor
Reaction
Reaction
8XXX3
(Al-other)
81 12
Good
Reaction
(AI-Mn)
4xxx
(Al-Si)
Susceptible fo intergranularpenetration by solder.
* Solderable only with abrasion or ultrasonic techniques.

Solderability greatly affected by composiJion.

94/SOLDERING MANUAL
The high temperature solders contain 90 to
100% zinc, along with small amounts of such
metals as silver, aluminum, copper, and nickel.
These additions are made to lower the soldering
temperature, to obtain a wider melting range, and
to improve wetting of the aluminum. The high
temperature solders are the strongest solders for
aluminum. They also produce joints which have
corrosion resistance properties markedly
superior to those of low and intermediate temper.ature solders. To assure the best possible corrosion resistance, the high temperature solders
should be as free from lead, tin, cadmium, bismuth, and other low melting metals as is practicable. High purity zinc (99.99% at least) should be
used in the preparation of these solders.
All solders for aluminum can be prepared in
either cast or wrought forms. The wrought forms
of low and intermediate temperature solders
should not contain aluminum because it embnttles them and makes them difficult to extrude
without cracking.
FLUXES
Fluxes for soldering aluminum may be divided
into two general classes: the chemical and the
reaction fluxes. Both types are corrosive.
The chemical fluxes are composed of a boron
trifluoride-organic addition compound such as
boron trifluoride-monoethanolamine, a flux vehicle such as methyl alcohol, a heavy metal
fluoborate such as cadmium fluoborate, and a
plasticizer such as stearic acid. They may or may
not contain other modifiers such as zinc flouride,
zinc chloride, and ammonia compounds. The
chemical flux compositions originally proposed
did not contain chlorides, but some subsequent
commercial formulations have incorporated
metallic chlorides to act as accelerators.
Chemical fluxes are most often used where the
soldering temperatye (actual temperature measured at the joint) is less than 275" C ( 4 2 5 " F).
However, in some applications the maximum
temperature can be raised successfully to 325C
( ~ 6 2 0F
"). At temperatures in excess of 275C
(-525" F), the chemical fluxes tend to decompose, and at temperatures in excess of 325C
(=620" F), the rate of decomposition is so rapid

that it is usually impractical to use this type of

flux. For this reason the chemical fluxes are generally used with the low melting temperature
solders. For best results, the magnesium content
of the aluminum alloy being soldered should not
exceed 1%, and the silicon content should not
exceed 5%. In general, it is recommended that
the flux residue be removed, especially if the
assembly is used in electrical equipment.
The reaction fluxes usually contain zinc
chloride, tin chloride, or both, in combination
with other halides. The metal halides are the
primary fluxing agents. Other chemical compounds, such as ammonium chloride and metal
fluorides, are added to impro've fluidity, reduce
the melting point, improve the wetting characteristics, and provide a flux cover that prevents
reoxidation of the cleaned surface.
These fluxes penetrate the oxide film, allowing
the flux to contact the underlying aluminum. At
the reaction temperature of 315-382" C (600-720"
F), the metal chloride is reduced by aluminum to
form the metal (tin or zinc) and gaseous
aluminum chloride. The rapid formation of
aluminum chloride breaks up the oxide film, and
the freshly deposited film of zinc or tin facilitates
wetting by the solder. No significant fluxing occurs below the reaction temperature of the flux,
and solder will not flow below this temperature
even though it may be above its liquidus temperature. Fluxes containing tin chloride generally
react at approximately 315-340" C (=600-640" F)
and are used primarily with tin-zinc solders of
similar melting characteristics. The zinc chloride
base fluxes, which react at approximately 340380C (2640-720" F), are used with pure zinc
and other zinc base, high melting temperature
solders. Fluxes containing tin chloride should not
be used with the high melting temperature solders, since the presence of tin in the solderedjoint
can seriously reduce i.ts corrosion resistance.
JOINT DESIGN
The joint design used in a soldered assembly
determinesto someextent the strength, corrosion
resistance, and ease of fabrication of the assembly. The designs used for soldered aluminum
assemblies are basically similar to those used
Aluminum and Aluminum AlIoysI95
with other metals. The most commonly used designs are lap, lock seam, and T type joints. Joint
clearances will vary with the soldering method,
base metal composition, solder composition,
joint design, and flux composition. However, as
a guide, clearances of from 0.15 to 0.40 mm
(-0.005 to 0.015 in.) are maintained when a
chemical flux is used and from 0.05 to 0.25 mm
( ~ 0 . 0 0 2to 0.010 in.) when a reaction flux is
used (for further information on joint design, see
Chapter 4).
SURFACE PREPARATION
A prerequisite for soldering aluminum is careful
surface preparation. Surface preparation treatments designed to remove lubricant, dirt, and
oxide from the surface of aluminum prior to soldering are described in Chapter 5. The use of
strong caustic cleaners should be avoided because they attack aluminum rapidly.
When fluxes formulated specifically for soldering aluminum are used, no further surface
preparation is necessary. There are a number of
surface preparation techniques, however, that are
often used to facilitate soldering with ordinary
fluxes. Other techniques make possible fluxless
soldering of aluminum. These surface preparation methods can be divided conveniently into
three groups: electroplating, solder coating, and
cladding.
Electroplating aluminum with a metal, such as
copper or nickel, produces a surface that can be
soldered in the same manner as copper or nickel.
The deposition of copper is generally preceded
by a zincate or stannate treatment in which
aluminum oxide is removed from the surface and
zinc or tin is deposited by galvanic displacement.
Solder coatings can be applied to aluminum by
mechanically abrading the surfaces in the presence of molten solder. The solder wets and
bonds with the aluminum as the oxide is removed. Among the best abrasion tools are fiber
glass brushes, fine-strand stainless steel brushes,
and stainless steel wool. Ordinary carbon steel
brushes should be avoided because strands that
are lost from the brush into the solder will accelerate corrosion.

Some solders in rod form, called abrasion solders, have melting characteristics that enable
them to perform as both the solder and the abrasion tool. The aluminum surfaces are heated by a
torch or other method until they will melt the
end of the solder stick. The stick breaks the oxide
and allows the solder to flow beneath it and
loosen it. The oxide can then be brushed aside
with the solder stick exposing the surface wet
with solder. Additional solder may now be
applied to surfaces wet in the manner described to
form a strong, stable joint. The process cannot be
applied to close-fitting joints where capillary
flow is necessary. Ultrasonic soldering is another
method of obtaining a solder coated aluminum
surface.
FLUXLESC SOLDERING
There are a number of methods by which
aluminum can be fluxlessly soldered to itself, to
copper, or to steel. These methods are primarily
used on tubular components. The methods may
be broken down into either coated or bare types.
In the coated methods, the parts may be prepared by electroplating, abrasion, or in an ultrasonic solder pot. The components are designed
to include an interference (0.25 to 0.65 mm
[ =0.010 to 0.025 in.] on the diameter) prior to
coating. After coating the parts are preheated to
solder melting temperature and pressed or
twisted slightly together. The joint may be either
a straight or tapered design, but tapered is preferred when only one component is coated.
Ultrasonically coating the components is better suited for production applications than is abrasion soldering with a solder stick. In this
method the degreased parts are heated, crazing
the oxide and permitting the agitation of the solder pot to remove the oxide and deposit a coating
of solder on the metal surface. One or both components may be coated; however, if only one
member is coated, then the greater interference
0.65 mm (=0.025 in.) is suggested.
For multiple joints such as air conditioning
condenser or evaporator coils, two ultrasonic
processes can be employed, one requiring pretinning of the return bends, the other not requiring
AWS -- S M-* C~
H * L--~~
S__
~
**
0784265
__O006306 T
96/SCLDERING MANUAL
pretinning. In the first case, a tapered joint is HEATING METHODS
suggested to facilitate alignment and insertion of
the return bends. The return bends only are me heating methods described in Chapter 6 are
coated, inserted into the coil, heated, then pressed applicable to aluminum assemblies. At solderwith a pressing platen into the joint at the proper ing temperature, aluminum is much closer to its
temperature. The units being free of any flux melting point than other commonly soldered
contaminant residuais are then ready for testing. met&. Greater c m must be taken, therefore,
In the second case, the immersion approach, nib- to provide uniform, well controlled heating.
bed return bends are forced into the coil bells, the Long, unsupported spans should be avoided to
unit is preheated in the inverted position, and preventexcessivesag, torch or iron so&.hg,
immersed in the Ultrasonic solderpot. The retuni the heat source should be applied away fro'm the
bends are nibbed to permit passage of heated air joint area to avoid overheating the flux. Because
out of the joint area so solder can fill the joint. d u h u m is soluble in most solders, especially
The unit is then withdrawn and ready for testing. those that c o n t h large quantities of zinc and
The bare fluxless soidering methods also tin, excessive dloyhg may occur unless heatUtilize UltraSOniC soldering equipment. h Single- ing is discontinued as soon % the
h% been
joint applications,the one member is belled with soldered.
approximately 1.5 mm (~0.060
in.) diameter
clearance and a solder ring placed at the joint. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
The joint area i s then heated to solder melting
temperafure and subjected to uitrasonics via a ~ ~ b e -consmction,
fi~
light bulb bases, and telsmall hand gun. The bottom ofthe joint must be lular products are some of the assemblies that
relatively tight fitting lest the solder flow through have been soldered. In addition, motor and transthe joint and restrict the tube passageway. For former windings can be added to the list of applidissimilar joints the steel Or copper n ~ m b e r cations. Heat exchanger coils for air conditioners
should be Precated as Previously described represent a large application of the aluminum
under coated methods.
soldering process. The soldering of copper tubing
The solder used for fluxless soldering is gener- to aluminum ceiling panels is another large-scale
ally 95 zinc-5 aluminum. This solder has excel- application.
lent strength and corrosion resistance. ReplenishWith improvements in the design and maning the pot is frequently done with commercially ufacture of ultrasonic soldering pots, it is now
pure zinc since some aluminum will be dissolved possible to perform soldering operations with the
from the component parts during the coating or high temperature (95% zinc-5% aluminum) solsoldering operation.
ders at 425"C(80O0 F).This method is particulady applicable to the soldering of return bends to
heat exchanger coils.

CHAPTER 16
MAGNESIUM AND
MAGNESIUM
ALLOYS
1NTRODUCTION
Magnesium tends to form a highly refractory
oxide film when heated in air. This oxide film
must be removed or disrupted to allow the solder
to bond to the magnesium. Because no satisfactory flux has as yet been developed to remove this
oxide film, bare magnesium surfaces are soldered
by the friction (mechanical abrasion) or ultrasonic methods (see Chapter 6 for a discussion
of ultrasonic soldering). All magnesium alloys
can be soldered in this manner, but such soldering
is usually confined to the filling or repair of surface imperfections in magnesium printing plates
and in noncritical areas of magnesium sheets and
castings. Soldering is not recommended if the
soldered area is required to withstand significant
stress because the soldered joint is of low strength
and low ductility.
The difficulties associated with soldering bare
magnesium surfaces are overcome by application
of a coating of an easily solderable metal such as
copper, tin, zinc, or silver.
SOLDERING TECHNIQUES
ting characteristics toward magnesium is a

prime necessity. Precoating by the friction
method is accomplished by rubbing the surface
with the solder stick, soldering iron, or some
other tool to abrade and break up the oxide film
under the molten solder. Pure tin and tin-zinc
solders containing 70 to 90% tin possess the best
wetting characteristics on magnesium. Once the
surface is precoated, any other solder composition can be used to complete the job.
SOLDER COMPOSITION
Solders based on tin, zinc, and cadmium: as
listed in Table 16.1,are most generally used on
magnesium. Solders that contain lead, suchas the
standard 50% tin-50% lead solder, can be used
but they cause severe galvanic attack in the presence of moisture. The tin-zinc solders generally
have lower melting points and better wetting
Characteristics than the tin-zinc-cadmium solders
but form less ductile joints. The high-cadmium
solders, especially the 60% cadmium-30%
zinc- 10% tin solder, form the strongest and most
ductile joints.
The most widely used soldering practice for
bare magnesium consists of precoating the joint
Since only the friction or ultrasonic soldering

methds can be used on bare magnesium, careful
precleaning of the surface, followed by precoating with a solder composition having good wet- *See Chapter 21 on Safety
91
i>
98/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 16.1-Solders for magnesium
Temperafure
Solidus
Liquidus
"C "F
"C O F
Composition (5%)
60Cd-30Zn-lOSn
90Cd- 1OZn
72Sn-28Cd
91Sn-9Zn
60Sn-4Zn
70Sn-30Zn
50Sn-50Pb
80Sn-20Zn
4Sn-33Cd-27Zn
157
265
177
199
199
199
I83
199
315
509
350
390
390
390
361
390
- -
288
299
243
199
341
311
211
270
550
570
470
390
645
592
421
518
- -
Use
Low temperature-below 150" C

High temperature-above 150" C
Low temperature-below 150" C
Precoating solder
Filler solder on precoated surface
Precoating solder
Filler solder
area with 70% fin-309 zinc solder and following the tip contacting the underside of the area to be
with the 09 cadmium-30% zinc-10% tin solder soldered. A gas flame or torch can also be used to
to maximize strength. In the repair of photoen- gently heat the surface from the top to bottom. An
graving plates, the standard 5 0 5 tin-50% lead electric hot plate used either with or without a
solder instead of the cadmium base solder is soldering iron is ais0 a very effective heating
applied over the precoated surface even though method, and heat is more easily maintained.*
susceptibility to corrosion is greater. For this
application, however, the workability of the solder outweighs this consideration, especially FLUXES
since the normal use and storage of engraved
plates is tinder low or cpntrolled humidity condi- Flux is not used in soldering bare magnesium
tions nof conducive to corrosion.
surfaces because no suitable flux has as yet been
developed. None of the fluxes described in Chapter 3 is applicable.
SURFACE PREPARATION
Surfaces to be soldered should be mechanically

cleaned to a bright metallic lustre immediately
before soidering. This may be accomplished by
mechanically abrading with a stiff wire bmsh,
stainless steel wool, file, aluminum oxide abrasive cloth, or with a routing tool.
HEATING METHODS
Conventional heating methods can be used satisfactorily on magnesium. However, because of its
high heat conductivify, irons of adequate heat
output - a 350 watt iron for thicknesses up to
nominal 1.5 mm (O.O@ in.) and a 550 watt iron
for heavier thicknesses - are required. The heating may be accomplished with the hot tip directly
in contact with the surface to be soldered or with

TYPES
The joints used in the fluxless soldering of bare
magnesium are limited to the fillet and defect
filling types due to the absence of capillary flow.
Lap joints are used only to a limited extent. Joints
on plated magnesium can be the same as normally used if the plated metal were the base
metal.

No special post soldering treatments are required
for magnesium. However, unprotected soldered
joints should be avoided on bare magnesium because the marked difference in solution pofential
*See Chapter 21 on Safety, Hazards from Fumes
Magnesium and Magnesium AlloysI99
between the magnesium and the solder can lead

to severe galvanic attack in the presence of an
electrolyte. Therefore, it is common practice to.
apply a suitable protective coating to soldered
magnesium assemblies to prolong their life and
serviceability.
use on magnesium electronic parts because it

provides excellent protective value and ease in
soldering. Soldering of eIectroplated magnesium
is then carricd out the same as if the entire part
weremade of the electroplated metal.
SOLDERING PLATED MAGNESIUM
Electroplated coatings of copper, tin, or silver
applied to magnesium offer an excellent soldering base. Fused tincoatings obtained by immersing thin tin electrodeposits (O. 1-0.15 mm
[ =O.Oo3-0.005in.]) in a hot oil bath also offer an
excellent solder base. This coating is in common

Soldering is used primarily for the repair of

magnesium printing plates and for filling surface
defects in noncritical areas of wrought and cast
magnesium products. Significant amounts of
magnesium are also electroplated with copper or
tin for easier soldering and hermetically sealing
electronic equipment cans and covers.
AWS S M * C H * 1 7
**
0 7 8 4 2 6 5 0006310
CHAPTER 17
TIN AND TIN

ALLOYS
Tin is a metal with low strength properties and is

usually alloyed with other metals to provide
materiais of adequate structurai strength.
Wrought tin materials which are soldered include
sheet for lining tanks, foil, and pipe for conveying pharmaceuticals, beer, and carbonated beverages. Tin alloys used in making modern pewter,
condensers, and some organ pipes are also soldered.
PROBLEMS IN SOLDERING TIN

When tin or tin alloys are soldered, careful control of the heating method is necessary to avoid
melting areas which are not at the joint. Only
solders having a liquidus temperature below
232OC(450"F), the melting point of tin, are recommended.
SOLDERS
The 63% tin-37% lead eutectic solder or the 60%
tin-40% lead solder have been used satisfactorily
on tin and pewter. These solders melt at about
50" C (90"F) below the melting point of tin, and
the color match with tin is good. Fusible alloys
(see Chapter 2) with liquidus temperatures below
183"C (362OF) are also used as solders in joining

tin and tin alloys, although other considerations
may limit their use.
SURFACE PREPARATION
Tin and tin alloys seldom need any surface preparation other than degreasing treatments. However, light abrasion of the surfaces to be joined is
sometimes helpful in providing fresh surfaces for
soldering.
HEATING METHODS
Since tinand tin alloys have a low melting point,
the heat source used during the joining process
should be weil controlled. A torch with a small
pointed flame will provide a localized source of
heat which should be applied only a short time. In
adjusting gas heated torches, the tip and gas mixture should be adjusted so that the flame does not
deposit unburned carbon (soot) on the surfaces to
be soIdered, since this will prevent the flow of
solder to the joint interface.
A mouth-held blowpipe is often helpful for
directing the gas flame to joint surfaces. Electric
soldering irons are used as heat sources for sol101

,-;
IOZ/SOLDERINGMANUAL
Fig. 17.1-Torch
soldering pewter beer mug handle
denng tin, but care must be exercised to avoid fluxes may also be used. Usually no flux is reoverheating or melting the metal adjacent to the quired when the 5 0 9 tin-509 indium fusible
joint surfaces,
alloy is used on clean tin surfaces.
FLUXES
JOINT TYPES
Tin and tin alloys have a thin nafural oxide film

which may be removed with plain rosin or rosin
base fluxes. Stearine or mildly activated rosin
The lap jonf with a minimum lap of 10 mm

(3/8 in.) is the preferred type of joint for soldering sheet tin withthicknesses up to and including
o
Tin and Tin Alloys/ 103
3 mm (1/8 in.). An interlocking type of joint

affords greater strength and is used in lighter gage
sheet. Butt joints are used to join abutting edges
of beveled sheet or wherethereare broad surfaces
(Le., attachmentof precast handles, feet, hinges,
etc. on pewterwares).
Tin pipes are joined using bell and spigot
joints. Steel and brass pipes, lined with tin, are
best joined using pipe fittings, which are soldered
with 50% t i n - 5 0 9 lead solder around fhe
periphery of their flanges to provide leak-tight
joints.
$OLDEG(INQTREATMENTS
Rosin base flux residues may be removed with
suitable solvents. Additional details are found in
Chapter 7.
ders of the same composition as the pewterware

being joined are used, but there is considerable
risk of melting the base metal if proper heating is
not maintained. Often a dam of molding clay or
solder resist is necessary to prevent the spread of
the solder to other parts of the assembly.
Organ pipes are made by soldering suitably
shaped pieces of cast tin alloy sheet (see Fig.
17.2). The flat rectangular pieces are formed to a
tubular shape on a wooden mandrel and a
V-shaped seam is made to form the joint interface. Solder is run continuously into the seamat a
uniform rate of about 25 mm/s (1 i d s ) . The heat
source, usually a soldering iron, should be
just hot enough to melt the solder filler metal.
Solidification of the solder should occur within
approximately6 mm(114 in*)from thesoldering
iron tiP. R e j o i n t usually requires two soldering
passes: The first pass places the solder and the
second pass smooths and completes the seam.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figures 1%1 and 1%2arecourtesy of Tin Research

Sheet tin, when used to line podable or high Institute,nc.
punty water storage tanks, is formed into inter- -locking joints or butt joints with beveled edges.
The joints are filled with pure tin, paying special
care to apply the heat source sparingly. A brushing motion is often helpful in the distribution of
the heat when a gas fired torch is used.
In the manufacture of capacitors which have
frequencies over 2000 Hz, two strips of tin foil
are wound with a paper or mica dielectric enclosed within the pack. The use of tin foil makes
possible the soldering of connections to terminais
and the soldering together of the foil packs. Tin
foil and noncorrosive rosin base fluxes are used
because the use of corrosive fluxes might cause
the impairment of the insulating properties of the
impregnated paper dielectric and because tin foil
can be easily soldered with the eutectic tin-lead
solder,
Attachments such as feet, hinges, or ornamentals are joined to cast or spun pewterwares by use Fig, 1'7.2-Soldering together a mitered joint in
of noncorrosive rosin base fluxes and 60% fin- an organ pipe made of specially shaped cast tin
40% lead solder (see Fig. 17. i). Sometimes sol- sheet

CHAPTER 18
CAST IRONS
methods. One proprietary electrochemical surface cleaning method produces a surface essenIn general, cast irons are difficult to solder but tially free of carbon, silicon, sand, and oxides.
with proper surface treament gray, malleable, The process employs a catalyzed molten salt bath
and nodular cast iron may besoldered. White cast operating at 455" to 510" C(=850" to 950" F).
iron is rarely soldered. Normal soldering temper- Direct current is passed through the bath using
atures do not cause any structural changes or the work as one electrode and the steel tank as the
other. The direction of current flow is occasiontransformations.
ally reversed to producereducing, oxidizing, and
again, reducing conditions. A water rinse comPROBLEMS IN SOLDERING CAST
pletes the surface preparation.
IRONS
Other methods of cleaning include searing
with an oxidizing flame, grit blasting, and chemGraphitic carbon present in cast iron cannot be ical cleaning (see Chapter 5).
wetted by molten solder and may cause inSmall areas of cast iron may be coated with
adequate bonds. The problem is most pro- solder using steel wool dipped into a dry mixture
nounced with gray cast iron.
of powdered solder and flux. Preheating the casting and rubbing with the solder-flux impregnated
steel wool usually is sufficient to clean the surface by abrasion and allow the solder to wet the
SURFACE PREPARATION
surface.
Surfaces to be soldered should be free of oil, dirt,
and other extraneous matter. The as-cast surface
is difficult to solder without proper preparation. i t HEATING METHODS
is usually desirable to machine or file the surface
of a casting to secure proper fitting and remove Cast iron can be soldered by any of the standard
sand inclusions that interfere with wetting.
techniques. Care should be exercised in heating
When the wetting of cast iron becomes a prob- so that localized overheating will not cause the
lem, it is necessary to resort to special cleaning casting to crack.
INTRODUCTION
I05

IM/SOLDERlNG MANUAL
FLUXES
Corrosive fluxes similar to those used for solder- The majority of the soldering done on cast iron is
in repairing of broken or worn castings. Surface
ing steel are used.
cracks and depressions caused by inclusions or
other metal-mold reactions can be filled with
solder if the defects are superficial and the application is not critical.
Due to the poor heat conductivity of cast iron, it is
necessary to cool the soldered joint uniformly to
prevent tearing of the solder.

CHAPTER 19
PRECIOUS METAL
COATINGS AND
PRECIOUS METALS
SOLDERS
Two problems are encountered when soldering to

precious metal coatings. The fist is that some
precious metais dissolve rapidly in molten tin-
Solders that are used for solderng to precious

metalcoatings with their applications are given in
Table 19.1,
107

108/SOLDERING MANUAL
Ifible b.1-Solders for precious metal coatings

Nominal solder
composition (%)
Sn Pb Ag In Zn Bi
- - - - -
6236 2
53 29 60 40 -
17 0.5
- -
95
Coatingsused
Silver coatings
Goldcoatings
Platinum,
palladium,
rhodium
coatings only.
Goldcoatings
heating after the application of the paste to a

surface. Normal cleanliness of the coating surface should be maintained.
Temperature OC
HEATING METHOD
Heat for soldering is obtained by all of the

Fig. 19.l-Dissolu!ion rates at various temper- methods of Chapter 6.
atures for a number of metais in %tin-40% lead solder
POST SOLDERINGTREATMENT
FLUXES
Removal of rosin flux residues is accomplished

by washing with solvents such as alcohol, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.
Rosin type fluxes are used for these applications

where cleanliness and freedom from corrosive
and conductive residues is a necessity.
REFERENCES
JOINT TYPES
1. Bader, W.G. 1969. Dissolution of Au, Ag,
Pd, Pt, Cu and Ni in a molten tin-lead soldei.

Welding jourml research supplement, December. pp. 551-s to 557-s.
2. Braun, J. D., trans. 1964. A.S.M. quarterly
57,568.
SURFACE PREPARATION
3. Thwaites, C.J. 1973. Some aspects of soldering gold surfaces. Electroplating & metal
Precious metal coatings are applied by plating,
finishing, AudSept.
evaporation, or by the use of special pastes in 4. Tin Research Institute. Soft soldering gold
which the volatile binder may be removed by
coated surjaces. Publication TRI-431.
The joints used are usually simp1e lap and butt

joints.

AWS S M * C H * 2 0
**
078426C 0006327 i
CHAPTER 20
PRINTED
CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
Printed circuitry is comprised of printed wiring
boards on which separately fabricated components are attached. Component side and solder
side of three typical printed circuit assemblies are
shown in Fig. 20.1. Printed wiring provides a
conductive pattern, usually of copper 0.036 mm
(0.0014 in.) or greater in thickness on one or
both sides of an insulating substrate. The conductive pattern can be formed by chemical etching,
electroplating, or electroless deposition.
TYPES OF PRINTED WIRING

There are two types of printed wiring boards:
rigid and flexible. Rigid boards are manufactured
from the following materials:
1. Paper impregnated with phenolic resin
2. Paper impregnafed with epoxy resin
3. Fiber glass with epoxy resin
4. Epoxy coated steel.
Flexible boards are manufactured from the following materials:
1. Ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid
2. Polyimide.
The three forms of rigid boards are single side,
double side, and multilayer. Simple products
such as radios, switch controls, and power
supplies use a single-sided circuit pattern; the
electrical path is on one side and the components

are mounted on the other side. More complex
circuits, such as computers, utilize double-sided
circuit patterns. Additional plating or assembly
steps are required to allow the connection of the
circuits through the insulating substrate. These
steps may consist of plating the holes (plated
through-holes), using eyelets, staking of pins, or
inserting bus wire at the time the board is assembled with components. The extremely complex
circuits, such as those used for memory applications, employ multiple layer boards. These
boards utilize the methods of circuit connection
as described above, but are manufactured with
both single- and double-sided boards laminated
together into a single board. Assembling of the
printed circuit follows a common procedure. The
components are mounted on one side and the
leads are passed through the insulating material
to the circuit pattern on the other side of the board
where they are soldered by a hand-held soldering
iron or an automatic soldering machine.
Flexible circuits have their circuit patterns on
or imbedded in the film. The components are
carefully positioned so that flexibility is not affected and the leads pass through the film where
they are soldered to the exposed areas, or pads, of
thecircuit patterns. Flexible circuits are designed
to meet special requirements such as trimline
telephones and connector cables.
I09

i IOISOLDERING MANUAL
Component side
Fig. 20.1-Three
Soldered side
typical printed circuit assemblies
PRINTED WIRING BOARDS
bility, empty component holes, slow speed of the

conveyor, low solder temperature, and low solderingairontip temperature.
2. Webbing is solder that adheres to the insuThe most common problems and their corresponding causes in soldering printed wiring lated surfaces between the metalliclands. Causes
of webbing are noncompatible protective coatboards are as follows:
1. Icicling i s an exfessive amount of solder ing, poor curing of the laminate material, high
that forms a conical shapeat freezing and ends in nonmetallics, and contaminants in the solder
a sharp point. Causes of icicling are poor soldera- bath.
o
3. Pinholes and blowholes are holes in the pad

or land solder formed from gases or oils entrapped as the solder freezes, Causes are organic
contamination, moisture, and plating residues.
4. Oil entrapment occurs when the soldering
oil used in automatic soldering machines is
locked in the solder fillet as the solder freezes.
Causes are slow conveyor speeds that extend
soldering time and low solder temperature.
5. Bridging is a short circuit which occurs
when two or more land or pad areas are connected
by excessive solder. Poor design, poor alignment
of components, excessive dross, high nonmetallics, and contaminants in the solder may cause
bridging.
SOLDERS
Solders used in printed circuit soldering are chosen for their melting and wetting characteristics.
Due to the speed, intricacy of pattern design, and
nature of the material used in printed circuits,
high tin solders are used. The eutectic 63% tin37% lead or near eutectic 60% tin-40% lead solders are most commonly used in military and
industrial applications. Soldering iron soldering
requires a high-tin alloy of 50-639 tin with a
medium diameter (1.0-0.8 mm, 0.040-0.032 in.).
The flux percentage is usually 2.5%-3.5% by
weight.
Printed Circuits1 I i 1
tuners, and variableresistors; it permits soldering

when complete cleaning after soldering is not
practical and when long-lifereliability is desired.
Organic fluxes are used when the printed circuit
assembly is designed with sealed componenfs
and stand-Offs and the total assembly can be
thoroughly washed in water. Fluxes may be
applied by wave, spray, or foam. Refer to
Chapter 6.
JOINT DESIGN
Joint and circuit design are critical factors. Component placement and hole size shbuldbe as close
in tolerance as mechanically and electrically possible. The pattern should be designed to run in the
same direction that it travels over the solder wave
machine. Refer fo Chapter 4.
SURFACE PREPARATION
Solderability is the most important factor to

maintain in the assembly and soldering of printed
circuitry. Items of importance are the land areas
and pads, the component leads, and the
operators tools, hands, and work habits. If a
solder resist is used, care must be taken to insure
its complete drying and setting.
Careful attention to printed wiring boards and
component leads prior to and during assembly
will result in a higher percentage of acceptable
FLUXES
soldered connections and a much lower rejection
rate. The circuit patterns should be chemically
The principal fluxes used in printed wiring boards cleaned. Mechanical and abrasive cleaners may
are rosin, activated rosin, and organic. Rosin leave unwanted foreign particles or residues
fluxes which consist of water white rosin and a which cannot be removed and will affect solderasolvent are extremely mild and are seldom used bility. It is imperative to maintain an oxide-free
in automatic soldering. Rosins modified with a surface by protecting the freshly cleaned copper.
chemical additive to make them mildly active or Rosin base organic coatings are used for short
fully active rosins are most often used in automa- periods of storage. To ensure the solderability for
tic and soldering iron soldering. Additional in- extended periods, hot solder coating or fused
formation on these fluxes may be found in Chap- electroplate provides the best surface. Due to the
ter 3. Activated rosin fluxes are most commonly properties of laminate materials, they must be
used and are considered the safest due to the kept dry. If the moisture is not removed from the
nature of rosin. This characteristic permits sol- laminate, gas evolution may occur, causing
dering of open components such as trimmers, blowholes and pinholes during soldering.

I IZ/SOLDERING MANUAL
METHODS OF SOLDERING PRINTED POST SOLDER CLEANING

WIRING BOARDS
Hand-held soldering irons and soldering
machines are both used in the soldering of printed
wiring boards. The hand-held soldering iron
yields the best results if a small quantity of
printed circuits is being manufactured and if
iabor costs are low.
REPAIR, REWORK, AND TOUCH-UP

There is little that can be done to repair printed
circuit boards. Minor circuit design correction
can be made with copper wire. Land or pad areas
that have lifted from the laminate cannot be properly repaired. For more details on printed circuit
board repairs, refer to IPC Manual 'IOA.

The degree of cleanliness required of a printed

wiring board must be determined by the end use
of the board. Once this is determined, the method
and cleaner can be established. In general, rosin
and activated rosin fluxes, if they must be removed, are cleaned by a chemical solvent system. Proprietary solvents throughouf the industry
have varying degrees of solvent strength. Testing
of the materials to be cleaned is of prime importance to provide solvent component compatibility and the proper degree of ceanliness of the
printed circuit assembly. Organic and inorganic
flux residues must beremoved. The usual method
of cleaning is to use a neutralizer, then a detergent
wash, followed by a water rinse, ending in either
an alcohol dip or a circulating hot air dryer.
CHAPTER 21
SAFETY AND
HEALTH
PROTECTION
I
INTRODUCTION
Soldering is a safe operation when proper practices and procedures are followed. It is essential
that soldering operators be informed of potential
hazards and instructed in how to guard against
them. It is recommended that each operation be
studied carefully, preferably by a competent
safety or industrial health engineer, and necessary precautions taken for the particular job.
Where applicable, reference should be made to
the requirements given in the Occupational
Safety and Health Standards (OSHA), part 1910.
The possible sources of injury are heat, fumes,
chemicals, and electrical hazards. Efficient ventilafion of the soldering area, protection of the
operators from bums, and training in the handling.of materials, fluxes,and chemicals will b e
instrumental in making the soldering operation
safe. One hazard which cannot be covered by any
text, that of personal carelessness, can be combatted only by constant care and vigilance.
HAZARDS FROM HEAT

AND HEAT SOURCES
Since soldering requires heat, the usual precantions should be taken for the handling of hot
objects to prevent the occurrence of burns to
personnel. American National Sfandard (ANSI)
249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting, published
by the American Welding Society, discusses in
detail elements of safety which are common to
welding, brazing, and soldering. Proper clothing

and face protection should be provided.
Dip or immersion solder pots may contain solder in amounts varying from a few ounces to
several tons. At the operating temperature, water
introduced below the surface of the solder becomes superheated steam, and its very explosive
expansion will cause the molten solder to be
expelled in all directions. This molten solder will
not only cause burns to operators but may ignite
combustible material. Solder pots, if not properly
maintained, can develop leaks or cracks which
permit the molten solder to flow onto the floor.
Solder pots should be covered during each initiai
heating operation.
Parts on which fluxes dissolved in water have
been used should be immersed in a solder pot
cautiously to provide an opportunity for the excess water to evaporate above the surface of the
solder. If the parts p e large, it may be more
desirable to dry the excess water out of the flux
before introducing the parts into the pot. The
configuration of parts should be such that water
willnot be trapped in pocketswhere steam can be
formed. When fluxes dissolved in alcohol,
acetone, or toluol are used, care should be taken
to avoid ignition.
A new pot should be thoroughly dried before
molten solder is introduced. When new solder is
added to a heated pot, it should be placed on the
edge of the pot and allowed to preheat sufficiently to drive off any moisture which may be
I13

I 14/SOLDERING MANUAL
present. Solder which has been stored out of
doors in winter will have considerable condensation present when brought into the workroom.
After the solder is dried, it should be slipped into
the pot slowly to avoid splashing. when electrical immersion heaters are used, they should be of
the proper voltage rating, and the pot should b e
thoroughly grounded. Thermostatic control
should be employed on solder pots to avoid overheating.
In buildings equipped with automatic water
sprinklers, solder pots should be suitably hooded
so that the water will not be sprayed onto the pot
in case a sprinkler opens.
Electrically heated soldering irons should have
their exposed metal parts grounded. They should
be placed in a fireproof holder and never allowed
to lie on a floor, chair, or table where they can
come in contact with combustible material or be
touched accidentally by any person. They should
not be left unattended without being disconnected. Excess solder should be wiped off the tip
rather than flipped off the molten solder can
cause bums or may even cause a fire.
GASES AND GAS-HANDLING

EQUIPMENT
Cutting Containers That Have Held Combustibles. AI1 tanks and similar containers should be
vented. Entering tanks or confined spaces requires extreme precautions.
ELECTRICALHEATING
When using resistance heating with carbon
blocks for soldering, the voltage should not exceed 24 volts. It should be obtained from the
secondary of a dual-winding transformer with the
secondary isolated electrically from the primary
winding.
When soldering in resistance heated furnaces,
care should be taken that neither the operator nor
the parts can come in contact with the currentcarrying elements.
In induction soldering, one should not contact
the coil or the conductors or come close enough
to them to draw an arc.
All electrical heating wiring should be in
accordance with the National Electrical Code and
local requirements.
HAZARDS FROM FUMES
Fumes often arise from the foreign materials on

the surface of the parts to be soldered. Examples
The handling and use of gases and gas equipment are lubricants or drawing compounds which have
is covered thoroughly in ANSI 249.1 and re- not been completely removed prior to soldering.
During soldering of these parts, these residues
quirements are specified by OSHA.
Equipment should always be kept in good evolve clouds of smoke which may be irritating,
operating condition. Hose clamps should be annoying, or toxic.
Ali soldering fluxes give off fumes or smoke
used, and the hose should never be allowed to
become excessively worn. Worn hose should while soldering heat is applied. Some fluxes,
either be replaced entirely or the worn portion such as the rosin, petrolatum, and reaction type
should be cut off and the connections replaced in fluxes, give off considerable smoke depending
the sound portion of the hose. The hose should be on the soldering temperature and the duration of
kept away from the flame ahd out of contact with heating. The American Conference of Govheated metal and away from sources of physical emmental Industrial Hygienists has established a
damage. The use of pliers or pipe wrenches on threshhold limit value for pyrolysis products of
torch parts or on regulators should be discour- rosin core solder of 0.1 mg/m3 aliphatic aldehydes, measured as formaldehyde. This value
aged.
A torch should never be used to solder on a has not been incorporated by OSHA.
Other fluxes give off fumes that are harmfulif
tank or container which has contained flammable
material until the tank has been emptied and then breathed in any but small quantities. Prolonged
thoroughly cleaned using the cleaning procedure inhalationof halides and some of the newer orrecommended by the American Welding Society ganic fluxes should be avoided. The aniline type
in AWS A6.0, Safe Practices for Welding and fluxes and some of the amines also evolve fumes

Safety and Health Precautions/ I i 5

which are harmful and can cause dermatitis.
Fluorine in a flux may create still another undesirable health condition.
Cadmium, lead, zinc, and other metals as well
as their oxides are toxic when present in the
atmosphere as fumes or dusts. Since they may be
present in the base metal as coatings or as constituents of solders, the solderer should take care
to minimize the evolution of fumes by avoiding
overheating the solder or base metal. Threshold
limit values have been promulgated by OSHA for
cadmium, lead, zinc oxide, zinc chloride, and
other toxic fumes, gases, and dusts.
In ali soldering operations, the potential
hazards from smoke and fumes should be
evaluated. Adequate ventilation is an absolufe
necessity to avoid fume and smoke hazards.
HAZARDS FROM CHEMICALS

Acids, alkalis, and other chemicals are used daily
in all soldering operations, and precautions

should be taken in their handling and use to avoid

getting them on the skin and eyes. These chemicais, which are commonly used both in fluxes and
cleaners, can produce bums, irritation, and dermatitis if allowed to come in contact with eyes
and skin. Prompt washing of the exposed parts
will reduce the effects of the acids and alkalis.
Several chemicals deserve special attention.
Zinc chloride may produce severe bums and
dermatitis if allowed toremain on the skin for any
length of time. Carbon tetrachloride had long
been used as a cleaner and degreaser, but it has
been found to be one of the most dangerous
materials in common use. The safest rule is not to
use this material. Parts which have been degreased with other organic solvents should be
completely dry before soldering, as their decomposition products may be toxic.
Solders, fluxes, and cleaners contain materials
which should not be ingested. Operators should
be cautioned to wash their hands thoroughly before eafing after handling solders or fluxes.
CHAPTER 22
THE SOLDERING
OF PIPE AND
TUBE
i
INTRODUCTION
Soldered tubular joints are widely used for
plumbing, heating and cooling applications in
both domestic and commercial service, and
in industrial applications for services such as
compressed air, hot and cold water, and some
processes.
The most common use of soldered joints is in
copper tube for plumbing, heating, and cooling
services. Aluminum, steel, and stainless steel
tubular members are also joined by soldering.
Very few other materials are joined commercially by soldering. The basic rules of cutting,
sizing, fluxing, heating, and cooling are the same
for ali the soldered joints, the only variation in the
process being a choice of flux and solder.
CUTTING AND SIZING

Pipe or tubing must be cut square to seat evenly
on the shoulder at the bottom of the fitting socket,
and all uneven or burred surfaces formed by the
cutting operation should be removed. Hack saws
or abrasive cut-off discs are suitable for cutting
lengths of pipe and tubing. Smaller size tubing,
such as copper water service tubing, can be cut
with a roller cutter. Duringany cutting operation,
the tube ends should not be severely clamped to
cause distortion in the wail diameter. Care should
be exercised to insure that the ends for joining are

true and round. Both fittings and tubing are sized
to provide joint clearances for capillary flow of
the solder and joint strength.
Tables 22.1 and 22.2 show thestandard dimen-,
sions of copper tube and copper and cast bronze
socket type fittings. Table 22.3 provides the dimensionsfor stainless steel pipe. The dimensions
given in these tables generally allow approximately O. 10 mm (0.04 in.) clearance between the
outside wall of the tubing and the inner wall of the
solder cup. The overall difference in diameter
between the male end (tube end) and the female
end (solder cup) is approximately 0.23 mm
(0.009 in.). Usually a clearance of 0.10 mm
(0.004 in.) will assure a sound metallurgical
joint. Joint clearances of less than 0.1 mm
(=;.0.003
in.) may produce flux inclusions or poor
solder penetration, and clearances larger than
0.15 mm (-0.005 in.) may reduce capillary
flow and produce voids.
After cutting, the tube should be reamed to
remove burrs or uneven cut edges which will
interfere with the flow of the solder or the
alignment of the mating parts. A half-round file
can be employed to remove surface burrs and
irregularities. Care should be exercised to prevent distortion or excessive flaring of the tube
ends or increasing the joint clearance by overreaming of the fitting sockets.
117

**
AWS S M * C H * 2 2
078q265 0006335 b M
I 18/SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 22.1-Sizes
Outside
diameter
Types
Nominal size K-L-M-DWV
mm
in.
mm in.
and weights of copper water tube

Inside diameter
Type K
mm in.
Type L
mm
in.
Type M
mm
in.
Type DWV
mm
in.
- -
II2
SI8
9.5
12.7
15.9
19.1
0.375
0.500
0.625
0.750
7.75
10.21
13.39
16.56
0.305
0.402
0.527
0.6S2
8.00
10.92
13.84
16.92
0.315
0.430
0,545
0.665
8.00
11.43
14.45
17.53
0.325
0.450
0.569
0.690
19.1
25.4
31.8
38.2
93.8
.314
I
I I(4
III2
2
22.2
28.58
34.93
41.28
53.98
0.875
1.125
1.375
1.625
2.125
18.92
25.27
31.62
37.62
49.76
0.745
0.995
1.245
1.481
1.959
19.94
26.0.1
32.13
38.23
50.42
0.?85
1.025
1.265
1.505
1.985
20.60
26.80
32.79
38.79
51.03
0.811
1.055
1.291
1.527
2.09
63.5
76.2
88.9
101.6
127
2 il2
3
3 112
4
5
M.68 2.625
2.435
2.90?
3.385
3.857
4.805
62.61
74.80
87.00
99.19
123.83
2.465
2.945
3.425
3.905
4.875
63.37
75.72
87.86
99.94
124.64
2.495
2981
3.459
3.935
4.907
3.125
3.625
4.121,
5.125
61.85
73.84
85.98
97.97
12205
79.38
92.08
IM.78
130.18
77.09
3.035
101.83
126.52
4.009
4.981
I52
155.58
6.125
145.82
5.741
148.46
5.845
149.38
5.881
151.36
5.959
203
254
305
8
IO
I2
206.38 8.125
257.18 10.125
307.98 12.125
192.61
240.00
287.40
7.583
9.449
11.315
196.22
244.48
293.75
7.725
9.625
11.565
191.74
246.41
295.07
7.785
9.701
11.617
200.84
7.907
6.4
9.5
12.7
15.9
114
318
32.89
39.14
51.84
2.041
1.295
1.541
-*Slightvanat% from these weights must be expected in practice.
Table 22.2-Dimensional
Nominal size
mm
in.
6.4
9.5
12.7
15.9
i9.J
25.4
31.8
38.2
50.8
63.5
76.2
88.9
101.6
127
152
203
254
305
data, solder joint fitting ends
Tolerances-solder joint fittings

Female end
Male end
. (Fitting connection)
(solder cup)
O D max
O D min
I D max
I D min
mm
in.
mm
in.
mm
in.
mm
in.
I 14
318
I 12
SI8
314
9.55
12.73
15.90
19.08
2225
0.376
0.501
0.626
0.751
0.876
9.50
1267
15.85
20.19
22.20
0.374
0.499
0.624
0.749
0.874
9.65
12.83
16.00
19.18
2235
0.390
0.935
0.630
0.755
0.880
9.60
1278
15.95
19.13
22.30
0.378
0.503
0.628
0.753
0.878
28.61
34.%
41.33
54.03
66.73
1.1265
1.3765
1.627
2.127
2627
28.54
34.89
41.22
53.92
66.62
1.1235
1.3735
1.623
2.123
2.623
28.71
35.06
41.44
54.14
66.84
0.1305
1.3805
1.6315
2.1315
2.6315
28.66
35.01
41.38
54.08
66.78
1.1285
1.3785
1.629
2.129
2.629
79.43
92.13
IW.8
IM.2
155.6
3.127
3.627
4.127
5.127
6.127
79.32
104.7
130.1
155.5
3.123
3.263
4.123
5.123
6.123
19.54
92.25
130.4
13.4
155.8
3.1315
3.632
5.132
5.132
6.132
79.48
92.18
1W.9
130.3
155.7
206.4
257.2
308.0
8.W7
M6.3
lO.l27
257.0
Un.8
8.123
10.119
12119
206.6
251.4
308.2
I 114
I 112
2
2 112
3
3 112
4
5
6
IO
12
'For general plumbing use.

**For copper drainage use.

I2127
92.02
8.132
10.132
12132
206.5
257.3
308.1
3.129
3.629
4.129
5.129
6.129
8.129
10.129
12129
The Soldering of Pipe and Tubel 1 19
Wall thickness
VpeK
in.
mm
0.035
0.89
1-24
1.24
1.24
0.049
0.49
0.49
O.O5
0.065
0.065
1.65
1.65
1.6)
1.83
0.072
0.083
2.11
241
2.77
3.05
3.40
4.06
0.095
Spey
' W L
mm.
in.
mm
in.
0.76
0.89
1.02
1.07
0.030
0.035
0.064
0.040
0.042
0.71
0.76
0.025
0.025
0.028
0.030
1.14
1.27
1.40
1.52
1-78
0.045
0.050
0.81
0.89
0.055
0.060
1.07
0.064
1.24
1.47
0.070
0.080
0.090
0.109
0.120
0.134
0.160
2.03
2.29
2.54
2.79
3.18
0.100
0.110
0.125
277
4.88
0.192
3.56
0.140
3.10
6.88
8.59
10.29
0.271
5.08
4.32
0.338
0.405
6.35
7.11
0.200
0.250
0.280
1.65
1.83
2.11
2.41
5.38
6.45
Solderjoint fittings;
cast bronze, wrought copper
Fitting
end length
mm
in.
31s
9.5
11.1
14.3
17.5
20.6
7/16
9/16
11/16
13/16
24.6
26.2
29.4
35.7
38.9
31/32
1/32
5/32
13/32
17/32
Solder cup
length
mm
in.
7.9
9.5
127
15.9
19.1
23.0
5/16
3ls
IL?
51%
3H
37.3
29/32
31/32
I 3/32
I 11/32
I 15/32
80.2
1 31/32
2 7/32
23/32
3 5/32
421
48.4
54.8
67.5
78.6
I2l2
ll9/32
2 5/32
2 21/32
3 5/32
102.4
104.8
117.5
4 1/32
4 I
4 51s
100.8
101.6
114.3
3 31/32
4
4 ID
43.7
50.0
564
69.1
I
I
I 23/32
Weight'
24.6
27.8
34.1
VpeDWV
mm
in.
---
0.032
0.035
0.042
0.049
0.01
1.02
0.065
1.07
1.07
0.W
0.042
0.42
0.045
0.058
VpeK
VpeL
VpeM
56DWV
kglm Ib/ft kglm IbKt kglm Iblft k g h Iblft
0.216
0.400
0.512
0.622
0.954
1.25
0.145
0,269
0.344
0.418
0.187
0.295
0.424
0.539
0.641
0.677
0.975
2.02
3.07
0.839
1.04
1.36
2.06
2.93
4.00
5.12
6.51
9.67
3.70
4.%
6.38
8.01
1.55
1.32
1.70
260
0.126
0.198
0.488
0.692
1.01
1.40
2.17
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
1.46
2.48
3.33
4.29
5.38
7.61
3.02
2.03
2.68
3.58
4.66
6.66
2.
1.69
4.
6.
2.87
4.43
0.095
0.109
1.47
1.83
0.072
0.122
2.11
0.083
20.7
13.9
15.2
10.2
13.3
0.170
a212
0.254
277
0.109
38.3
60.0
86.0
25.9
40.3
57.8
28.7
44.8
60.1
19.3
24.6
38.1
54.6
0.455
0.665
0.884
1.14
1.75
0.391
1.14
0.304
0.072
0.083
11.3
0.285
0.362
4.36
5.95
7.62
9.69
14.4
0.106
0.145
0.204
0.263
0.158
0.216
30.1
40.4
3.W
5.33
6.93
9.91
8.92
16.5
25.6
36.7
O.
I.
0.650
0.809
1.
1.07
9.
6.10
IS.
10.6
Solderjoint fittings*'
Fitting end length
Solder cup depth
Wrought
Cast
Cast
Wrought
drainage
drainage
drainage
drainage
mm
in.
mm
in.
mm
in.
mm
in.
-
17.5
19.1
20.6
11/16
11.2
127
14.2
0.44
0.50
0.56
15.9
17.5
19.1
9.7
11.2
127
0.38
11/16
314
0.81
23.8
15116
19.1
O 75
1.06
30.2
25.4
31.8
38.2
1.25
50.8
2.00
26.9
3x3
41.1
1.31
1.62
53.8
2.I2
31.8
1 IH

25.4
20.6
-
13/16
I 8/16
0.44
0.50
1.00
1.50
12O/SOLDERINGMANUAL
Table 22.3-Stainless
steel pipe
Schedule 40
Nominal
pipe size
in.
mm
3.2
6.4
114
9.5
12.7
318
112
19.1
314
1
25.4
31.8
1 114
38.2
1 112
50.8
2
2 112
63.5
3
76.2
3 1/2
88.9
4
101
5
127
6
152
8
203
OD
mm
10.29
13.72
17.15
21.34
26.67
33.40
42.16
48.26
60.33
73.03
88.90
101.6
114.3
141.3
168.3
219.1
in.
0.405
0.540
0.675
0.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4.500
5.563
6,625
8.625
mm
7.80
10.41
13.84
17.12
22.45
27.86
36.63
42.72
54.79
66.93
82.80
95.50
108.2
134.5
161.5
211.6
ID
in.
0.307
0.410
0.545
0.675
0.884
1.097
1.442
1.682
2.157
2.635
3.260
3.760
4.260
5.295
6.357
8.239
Wall
thickness
mm
in.
1.24
0.049
1.65
0.065
1.65
0.065
2.11
0.083
2.11
0.083
2.77
O. 109
2.77
O.109
2.77
O.109
2.77
O. 109
o. 120
3.05
o. 120
3.05
o. 120
3.05
o. 120
3.05
O.134
3.40
O.134
3.40
O.148
3.76
in.
0.710
0.920
1.185
1.530
1.770
2.245
2.709
3.334
3.834
4.334
Wall
thickness
mm
in.
1.65
0.065
I .65
0.065
1.65
0.065
1.65
0.065
1.65
0.065
1.65
0.065
2.11
0.083
2.11
0.083
2.11
0.083
2.11
0.083
Schedule 5
Nominal
pipe size
in.
mm
1 12
12.7
19.1
314
1
25.4
1 114
31.8
1 1/2
38.2
2
50.8
63.5 . 2 112
3
76.2
3 112
88.9
101.6
4
OD
mm
.21.34
26.67
33.40
42.16
48.26
60.33
73.03
88.90
101.6
114.3
ID
in.
0.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4.500
mm
18.03
23.37
30.10
38.86
44.96
57.02
68.81
84.68
97.38
110.1
CLEANING
so that only the surface contaminants are removed without excessive loss of the base metals.
The ends of tubing or pipe as well as the internal This is best accomplished by lightly abrading the
surfaces of fittings must be thoroughly cleaned to tube ends and solder cups with small wire
provide surfaces which allow for wetting (allay- brushes, steel wool, or fine grades (00)of abraing) and distribution of the solder at the joint sive papers or cloth. Embedding of abrasive parinterfaces. All traces of dirt, grease, lacquers, or ticles in the joint surfaces should be avoided, and
oxides on the base metals must be removed. any material resulting from the mechanical cleanDegreasing with organic solvents will often re- ing operation must be removed.
Although mechanical cleaning of steel or copmove various oils, but solvents will not ordinarily be effective in removing oxides or organic p x pipe and tubing is usually adequate, mineral
coatings which are applied to provide oxidation acids and alkaline cleaners are occasionally used
resistant surfaces. Cleaning should be performed to prepare surfaces for soldering (see Chapter 5).

The Soldering of Pipe and Tubel 121
FLUXING OPERATIONS
~l~~~~ are required for soldering of tubing or
pipe. Since the main purpose of fluxing is to
dissolve or remove very thin oxide films already
present on precleaned surfaces, fluxes should not
be used as a primary cleaner of joint surfaces. A
small bmsh or clean cloth will assist in coating
the joint interfaces with flux, and flux should be
applied as soon as possible after cleaning.
Only surfaces which are to be wetted by solders should be coated with flux, and an application of flux to the inside surfaces of pipe should
be avoided, Often flux inclusions in the finished
joint can be minimized by preplacing a ring of
solder at the seat of the pipe joint. Upon heating
and distribution of the solder in the joint, the
metal will flow outward, displacing the flux.
ASSEMBLY
Before any joining operation, the assembly
should be carefully aligned and adequately supported, Misalignment will affecf the joint by
changing the clearance between the tube and the
fittings. Vertical pipe runs should be plumb to
prevent any inconsistencies in joint spacing.
Supports and fixtures should allow for expansion
and contraction of the assembly during the joining operation.
APPLYING HEAT AND SOLDERS

Most of the pipe and tubing assemblies are made
with gas torches fueled with acetylene, propane,
nafural gas, and other gases in the presence of
oxygen (see Chapter 21 and AWS A6.2, Lens
Shade Selector). Usually the size of the pipe or
tubing being joined will control the selection of
t.orch tips and the amount of heat to be delivered
to the joint. A low velocity bulbous flame of
sufficient size to permit rapid and even heating is
ordinarily used. The flame should be neutral or
only slightly reducing. A neutral flame has a
smooth, even inner cone which is as large as can
be obtained without making the end of the cone

feathered To adjust an acetylene flame to its

neutral state, light a flame which has an excess of
acetylene, then reduce the flow of the gas, Or
increase the oxygen flow Slowly until the cone
just startsto feather*
The flame should be directed SO that it wraps
itself around small diameter pipe or fittings. Multiple tip torches or even additional heating
torches may be required to solder large diameter
(over 100
[4 in.]) Pipe. The Pipe Or tube
should be heated before the fittings, and after a
short heating period, the flame is directed alternately to the pipe and then to the fitting. This
will bring the fittings and pipe UP to equal heat.
Holding the flame at one location on the fittingor
pipe will cause localized overheating, excessive
drying of the flux, distortion of the pipe, and
possible cracking of the fitting, and should b e
avoided.
The inner cone tip of the flame should not
impinge directly on the shoulder of the tube and
fitting or into the socket of the fitting. The sharp
Point Of the inner cone of the flame should just
touch the
surfaces and the flame h ~ l bed
kept in motion so that heat is distributed evenly to
as large an area as Possible.
The correct temperature for making solder
pipe joints can be tested by touching the solder to
the heated junction between the Pipe and fitting
and observing the flow of the solder. The flux
should be very fluid on both fitting and pipe.
When the solder begins to melt, it is fed into
the capillary space with a gentle pressure. At the
same time, the torch is moved around the fitting
with the solder being fed to the joint just behind
the bath of the flame. Heat should not be applied
directly to the solder. If the torch flames are
directed to the heel or 6ottom of the socket of the
fitting, the solder will distribute itself throughout
the joint.
Opinions differ as to whether or not a fillet is
necessary or desirable on pipe joints. Often a full,
annular fillef indicates good solder penetration
and distribution in the joint. However, generous
fillets at the bottom of the assembly may be
caused by accumulation of the solder, which has
solidified after flowing over relatively cold
metal. Heating the bottom of the fitting will
largely eliminate this condition.
IZZ/SOLDERINGMANUAL
Induction, furnace, radiant, and resistance
heating can also be used to solder pipe and tubing
assemblies. Resistance heating of tubular parts is
accomplished by the use of electrical tongs (see
Fig. 22. I). Tongs are usually employed for joining pipe or tubing of 50 mm (==2in.) diameter or
smaller. The tongs are applied to the joint area,
and the current is turned on and maintained until
solder wire touched to the pipe begins to flow.
The current is then shut off, and the solder is
moved around the periphery of the joint to ensure

even distribution.
In induction, furnace, and radiant heating, the
solder is usually preplaced in the fluxed joint.
Alternatively, solder pastes may be used wherein
the joint surfaces are painted with mixtures of
flux and powdered alloys before joining. When
mixtures of this type are used, additional solder
may be added to assure a filled soldered joint.
Mg. 22.1-A solderer using a resistance heater simply holds solder wire to the lip of the joint with the
heat tongs on the solder cup. Solder will not begin flowing until the solder joint is at the required
temperature

The Soldering of Pipe and Tuber123
SOLDERS AND FLUXES FOR

JOINING PIPE AND TUBING
ity than rosin base fluxes and are preferred when

heat is applied by a fuel gas-air soldering torch.
In soldering nickel or stainless steel, tin-rich
Solders are used to join pipe and tubing because solders such as 60% tin-40% lead or 50% tinthey possess reasonably high strength and ductil- 509 lead are usually desirable. Corrosive flux
ity and are economical in their use. The strength mixtures of zinc chloride, ammonium chloride,
of soldered capillary joints depends on the and hydrochloric acid are required to remove
strength of the solder in shear. Although the oxide films when soldering these metals.
Aluminum and aluminum alloy pipe and tubeutectic 63% tin-379 lead composition provides
ing
require tin-zinc or cadmium-zinc solders.
the maximum shear strength of the binary tinlead filler metals, the filler metal does not have a Tin-lead solders are not recommended for
melting range and therefore does not allow for aluminum because of the poor corrosion resiseasy mainipulation in forming plumbed joints. tance of joints soldered with these solders. SoiMost solderers prefer to use solder compositions ders containing 409 tin-% zinc wet aluminum
which have a somewhat lower tin content to pro- well and provide a useful melting range.
Aluminum alloys containing 0.5% or more of
vide a greater melting range, ease of application,
and distribution of the solder in the joinf during magnesium are susceptible to intergranular corrosion by molten tin base solders. However, solsoldering.
Low and medium carbon steel pipe and tubing ders containing a minimum of 4% aruminurn will
are usually joined with solders containing 40 to reduce intergranular penetration and dissolution.
60%tin, balance lead. Acidified zinc-ammonium A solder containing 9 5 9 zinc-5% aluminum has
chloride base fluxes are most satisfactory. If the been found useful in joining aluminurn alloys
pipe is galvanized, the zinc coating must be re- containing magnesium.
Aluminum and its alloys have a tenaceous
moved from joint surfaces by mechanical abraoxide
film which must be displaced by highly
sion or chemically stripping the coating before
reactive fluxes during the soldering operation.
heat is applied.
Copper and brass pipe and tubing are most Fluxes incorporating zinc and often stannous
frequently joined by soldering with tin-lead sol- (tin) chloride react at approximately 280" to
ders containing 20 to 60% tin. The 50% tin-50% 340" C ( ~ 5 4 0 "to 640"F) and are used primarily
lead solder is commonly employed to provide with tin-zinc solders. If temperatures above this
strong joints under ambient temperatures and are used in joining, the tin-containing flux should
normal operating pressures. Under conditions of not be used. Zinc-chloride base fluxes are premoderately elevated temperature or higher pres- ferred in this instance. Adequate post cleaning is
sures, the 95% tin-% antimony solder is some- required after soldering with these fluxes to pretimes used. Tin-silver solders have comparable vent joint corrosion.
Often it is not practical to clean flux residues
properties but should be qualified by tests as
from soldered aluminum tubing assemblies and
alternates.
When 95% tin-59 antimony solders are used, the nonchloride, organic fluxes are recomit must be remembered that they have a narrower mended. These fluxes are considered to be a
pasty range and a higher liquidus temperature nonhygroscopic, and their residues produce little
than tin-lead solders and therefore require dif- or no corrosion if left in place.
ferent techniques and more control to assure
properly filled joints.
The tin-antimony solders are often useful in POST CLEANING OPERATIONS
refrigeration applications where soldered copper
tubing is subjected to very low temperatures.
After the solders have solidified, the remaining
Normally, proprietq liquid or paste fluxes flux and residues can be removed from wrought
containing zinc and ammonium chlorides or or- fittings by wiping with a wet cloth or by wet
ganic base fluxes are used to solder copper pipe brushing. Often a cloth is dipped into water conand tubing. These fluxes have higher heat stabil- taining a small amount of sodium bicarbonate to

124ROLDERING MANUAL
assist in neutralizing any flux residues on the
finished joints. Cast fittings should be allowed to
cool naturally before applying swabbing to the
joints.
INSPECTION
Though soldered joints are very rarely examined
or inspected by NDTmethods other than visual, it
is possible to conduct both radiogfaphic and ultrasonic inspections. Ultrasonic inspection is
fairly quick and easy but usually does not give a
permanent record. Radiography is more timeconsuming, but it does give a permanent record
and may be a better inspection tool. Such inspection techniques are expensive and are not recommended except in critical areas or for spot
checking.
Figures 22.2,22.3, and 22.4 show radiographs
of solder joints with various amounts of voids.
Fig. 22.3 Radiograph of T-joint in nominal

25 X 13 mm (1 X % in.) copper tube. The
bright white spots are drops of excess solder.The
darker gray areas are voids. There is a difference in density and contrast between the
voids on the top and those on the bottom
Fig. 22.4 - Radiograph of L-shaped joint in

nominal 20 X 13 mm (%I X ?4 in.) copper
in.) copper tube and coupling. The bright white tube. The bright white spots are excess soldet
spots are drops of excess solder on the bottom. On the 20 mm (% in.) side there is also considerThe darker gray areas in the gray solderioints are able excess solder on the inside. On the 15 mm
voids. There is a fairly larie ioid on-the right %
. in.) side there is a maior. serious void
Pig. 22.2 Radiograph of nominal 32 mm (1%

CHAPTER 23
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF SOLDER
AND SOLDERED JOINTS
INTRODUCTION
Although the mechanical properties of solder can
be determined by standard tests, solder joints are
generally designed to take advanfage of the properties of the base metal rather than relying upon
the strength of the solder alone. Due to this dependency upon the joinf design, experience best
dictates what can or should be soldered with the
expectation of reasonable service life.
However, design problems occasionally arise
which warrant reference to test data for successful resolution. The following information may be
helpful in such cases.
ROOMTEMPERATURE PROPERTIES
OF BULK TIN-LEAD SOLDER
Fairly extensive data are available on the bulk
properties of tin-lead solders despite the fact that
these solders are seldom, if ever, used in the bulk
form. While these bulk data may not be identical
to those developed for soldered joints, they frequently can be used to afford some reasonable
basis for design.
Typically, the room temperature properties of
tin-lead solders vary gradually over common
solder compositions, maximizing or minimizing
at or near the eutectic composition of 63%
Sn-37% Pb. The properties of bulk solders can
vary considerably depending upon such things as
the casting conditions, thermo-mechanical history of the solder, or even the timeof storage prior
to testing. In view of this, whenever a conflict in
data exists, the more conservative value is reported. Some mechanical properties of particular
interest are shown in Table 23. 1.
The tensile strength of solders, as measured by
tensile testing at strain rates of 0.5 m d m d m i n ,
increases with increasing tin content, reaching a
maximum of about 54 O00 kPa (7800 psi) at the
eutectic composition. Although easy to determine and quite reproducible, the significance of
tensile strength data for any design application is
moot, since it is only a measure of the maximum
uniaxially applied load a specimen can withstand
at rapid rates of straining. And, of course, due to
alloying with the base metal, the tensile strength
of a solderedjoint would likely be superior to the
tensile strength of the bulk solder.
As with tensile strength, the shear strength of
solders increases with increasing tin content. It
might be noted that: (1) the shear strength of bulk
solder is less than the tensile strength for all
compositions of solder tested, particularly at the
lower tin confents, and (2) the shear strength
increases nearly linearly with tin content up to
about 60% tin.
The elongation of solders (the ratio of increase
of length of a gage section of the specimen to its
original length) would be expected to vary inversely with tensile strength. It should be noted
that the elongation of solders is quite siructure-
125

ci
AWS S M * C H * 2 3
**
m 0784265 0006343 5 m
i26/SOLDERING MANUAL
0000000000
O 0
o o ~ ~ g
b N
2 M 8 s-*vi vi vi
vi
8
888888888
0000000000
$53
O

o o
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints(l27

sensitive so that very largevariationscan occur in
elongation measurements for a given solder.
Nevertheless, even with conservative data, it can
be seen that solders are quite ductile over the
composition range of interest.
The ratio of the tensile stress to strain in the
elastic region is defined as the modulus of elasticity, or Young's Modulus. Consequently, the
modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a
material-that is, ,the greater the modulus the
stiffer the material or smaller the elastic strain
resulting from the application of a given stress.
While the modulus increases in a nonlinear manner with increasing tin content, it should be recognized that the values of Young's Modulus for
solders are, like all soft metals, highly dependent
upon the rate of loading.
The Brinell hardness of bulk solders increases
with idcreasin2 tin content. It is interesting, as in
the case with many metals, that the Brinell hardness of solders appears to correlate directly to the
tensile strength of the solders: Tensile strength
equals 400 to 450 times the Brinell hardness
number.
The impact strength of solders, as measured by
the Izod impact test, is relatively low, increasing
with increasing tin content up to about 40% tin.
However, the fact that the ductile solders do not
fracture in conventional Izod impact tests brings
into question the relevancy of such impact data
for design.
Table 23.2-Physical
Tin
content
w/o
O
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
63
70
Solders will plastically deform, or creep, under

sustained loads constituting only a small fraction
of their tensile strength. This critical influence of
duration of the load on the stress-strain relationship severely restricts the use 6f tensile data for
design. Consequently, in most applications the
creep resistance is the most important design
parameter. Unfortunately, creep data do not exist
for the entire range of interest for solders. However, the available data do indicate that solders
have generally low creep strength. Specifically,
the stress to produce creep rates of 0.0001
mm/rnm/day at room temperature for several
commonly used solders containing 30-50% tin is
only of the order of 830 kPa (120 psi). It should be
noted that this creep rate is quite rapid, equivalent
to an extension of about 3.5% per year.
Other physical properties of bulk solder which
would likely be of interest to designers are the
density, electrical and thermal conductivities, and
linear expansion. For tin-lead solders, as showi
in Table 23.2, these properties vary in a predictable and linear manner with tin content.
Measurements have also been made of the
surface tension and viscosity of several solders,
as shown in Table 23.3. These properties of the
molten solder vary only slightly at the test temperature over the range of compositions investigated.
properties of tin-lead solders
Electrical
Coefficient3 of
conductivity'
Thermal conductivity3
linear thermal
Density'
percent
W/m*K
expansion
g/cm3 of copper IACS
(btu/ft*/in./" F/s)
per "C X
("FX
11.34
10.80
10.50
10.04
9.66
9.28
8.90
8.52
8.34
8.17
7.9
8.1
8.2
8.7
9.3
10.1
10.9
11.5
11.8
12.5
references

34.8
35.2
35.8
37.4
40.5
43.6
47.8
49.8
50.9
0.067
0.068
0.069
0.072
0.078
0.084
0.090
0.096
0.098
29.3
28.4
27.9
26.6
25.6
24.7
23.6
21.6
21.4
20.7
16.3
15.8
15.5
14.7
14.2
13.7
13.1
12.0
11.8
11.5
AWS S M * C H * Z 3
~
**
-~~
0784265
0006345
9
___-~
__
~~
Table 23.3-Physical properties of

molten tin-lead solders
Tin
content
wlo
O
20
30
40
50
63
Surface
Temperature tension4 Viscosity4
"c "F dynes
poise
391
282
282
282
282
282
735
540
540
540
540
540
439
467
470
474
476
490
0.0244
0.0272
0.0245
0.0229
0.0219
0.0197
4seereferences
PROPERTIESOF SOLDER AT
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
The low solidus temperature of most tin-lead
solders limits their use for structural joining of
materials for elevated temperature service. For
example, at 150"C (=300" F) the tensile strength
of bulk tin-lead solders is approximately 14 O 0 0
kPa (2000 psi) regardless of tin content. As
expected, the elongation of these solders at elevated temperature is substantial (see Table 23.4).
Table 23.4-Tensile properties of bulk

tin-lead solders at 150C[ =300" F)
Tin
content
wlo
O.
5
10
20
30
40
50
Tensile strength5
kPa
psi
5500
800
1500
1900
1900
1900
13 000 1900
13 O00 1900
12 O00 1800
10 o00
13 O00
13 O 0 0
13 O00
Percent
elongation5
65
35
70
120
140
140
145
150
O.OOO1 mmlmmlday in 5 9 tin-lead solder would
containing 30-60% tin. Lower tin-bearing solders, say of the order of 5% tin, with higher
solidus temperatures have somewhat superior
creep properties at elevated temperatures. By interpolation, the estimated stress at 80C
(==iSO"F)required to produce a creep rate of
O.OOO1 mmlmmlday in ASTM Grade A solders
be approximately 690 kPa (100 psi).
PROPERTIESOF SOLDER AT
LOW TEMPERATURES
Measured properties of solders at cryogenic
temperatures are found, as shown in Table 23.5,
to be directly proportional to the tin content. That
is, the tensile strength and shear strength of the
solders increase with increasing tin content and
decreasing test temperature. Ductility, as measured by elongation, decreases with increasing
tin content and decreasing temperature. Because
of embrittlement of joints at temperatures below
13" C (55" F) (Le., tin pest), concern is often
expressed about the stability of solders in service
at low temperatures.
However, the retarding effect of lead may
ameliorate any problems with tin pest in solder
joints used in low temperature service. Since it
has been reported that antimony reduces the tendency of the solder to form tin pest, the ASTM
Grade B solders, which contain 0.20-0.509 Sb,
are often selected for cryogenic use.
TIN-LEAD SOLDERS CONTAINING

ANTIMONY
It has been long recognized that one part antimony

couId be used as a substitute for two parts
60
of the tin in tin-lead solders without seriously
affecting the soldering characteristics of the sol%eereferences
ders. This substitution is customarily limited so
Most important, however, is the fact that the that the total amounf of antimony added does not
creep strength of tin-lead solders is quite mark- exceed 6 4 of the tin content of the solder. These
edly reduced at elevated temperatures. Available ASTM Grade C solders have certain mechanical
data indicate that at 80C(==180F) tensile stres- properties, such as shear and tensile strength,
ses of only 205-415kPa (30-60 psi) would be superior to their tin-lead equivalents, as shown in
sufficient to produce minimum creep rates of Table 23.6.

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints/ 129

l b l e 23.5-Mechanical properties of bulk tin-lead solders at cryogenic temperatures
Tin
content
w/o
10
20
40
60
Test
temperature
- 73eC --100"F
- 73C --100F
- 73C --100"F
- 73C --100"F
10
20
40
-196OC
-196C
-196C
-196C
60
--320F
z-320F
z-320F
z-320F
Tensile
strength6
kPa
psi
5900
41 O00
7000
48 O00
6900
48 o00
8500
59 O00
59
85
87
130
O00
31
37
40
54
43
58
77
110
8600
o00 12 400
O00 12 600
O00
18 800
Shear
strength6
Percent
kPa
psi
elongation6
4500
34
O00
O00
5300
32
5800
43
O00
7900
48
O00
O00
6300
8400
O00
O00 11 200
000 15 900
27
30
30
10
%eereferences
Table 23.6-Mechanical
AntiTin mony
content. content
wlo
wlo
30
40
50
60
1.0
2.5
3.0
3.6
Tensile?
strength
kPa
psi
46000
49 O00
52 000
61 O00
6600
7100
7500
8800
properties of tin-lead-antimony solders
Shear?
strength
kPa
psi
30000
37 O00
42 O00
42 O00
4400
5300
6100
6100
Impact?
strength
%'
fplbs
Elongation
15.3
14.1
15.0
16.0
11.3
10.4
11.1
11.5
21
34
29
18
(IZO4
Stress to produce2
creep rate of
0.001 mm/mm/day
kPa psi
2000
2900
3300
3300
295
420
480
480
'see references
operation the tin contained in the molten solder

reacts with the base metal. This reaction can
result in solution strengthening and/or the formation and growth of intermetallic compounds,
such as Cu,Sns or FeSn,, in the joint area with
copper or iron base metals.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to obtain rigorous
data for the soldered joint because the properties
of the joint can be markedly influenced by a
number of soldering parameters other than the
composition of the solder used. Acareful study of
some of the factors which have an effect on the
properties of the soldered lap joints reveal the
following:
PROPERTIESOF THE SOLDERED
1. Thickness ofthe Joint. The strength of the
solder joint is a function'of the spacing between
JOINT
the soldered inferfaces. On steel, copper, and
The properties of the soldered joint can be Sig- brass the optimum joint strength was obtained
nificantly different from those of the bulk soi- when the surfaces were separated by 0.1ders. The reason for this is that in the soldering O. 15 mm ( ~ 0 . 0 0 3 - 0 . 0 0 5in.). Thicker joints
The addition of antimony to solders causes an

improvement in creep resisfance. That is, at room
temperature these solders can sustain a higher
load for a given creep rate than equivalent tinlead solders. As with the tin-lead solders, the
creep resistance of solders containing antimony
is markedly reduced at elevated temperatures.
For example, the loads needed to produce
minimum creep. rates of 0.0001 c/c per day in antimonial solders at 80" (1(-180" F) are about
20% of those needed at room temperature, Le.,
480-830 kPa (70-120 psi).

I30/SOLDERINGMANUAL
usually have joint strengths which approach
those of the bulk solder, while joints thinner than
0.1 mm (=0.003 in.) may be weak from poor
solder penetration and flux inclusions.
2.Solder Temperature. The optimum soldering temperature must be high enough to allow the
flux to flow adequately and clean the area to be
soldered and not so high as to cause the solder to
flow out of the joint area or to build up a thick
intermetallic layer. Good results are obtained at
soldering temperatures approximately 55" C
(100F)above the liquidus of the solder. The base
metal at the point of soldering must be above the
solder's melting point.
3. Soldering Time. Within normal soldering
cycles, the time of contact with molten solder has
little or no influence on joint strength. However,
prolonged heating may result in rapid deterioration of the tearing strength of the soldered joint
due to a buildup of a brittle intermetallic layer.
4.Quantity of Solder in Joint. Excess solder
does not add to the strength of the joint provided
that the joint space is full and that there is
sufficient solder to round out sharp corners.
These properties of soldered joints are only
meaningful and can be compared meaningfully
only if the joints are made in a controlled and
reproducible manner. The test data on joints pre-
sented here were developed with full cognizance

and control of these parameters.
rn general, the two mechanical properties of
the soldered joint of greatest interesf are the shear
and creep strengths.
SHEARSTRENGTHOFSOLDERED
JOINTS
The shear strength of soldered joints was determined by pulling lap joints at a strain rate of
0.5 m d m d m i n . The results of these tests for
ASTM Grade A and Grade C solders are shown
in Table 23.7.As can be seen, the shear strengths
of joints made in either copper, brass, or steel
were maximized with solders containing approximately 50% tin, under the soldering conditions
used. When shear strength data are applied to
design, it is important to remember that, in practice, the forces acting to pull apart lap joints are
generally not pure shear but rather a combination
of shear, tensile, and peel stresses. In some instances, the application of a load fo a solder joint,
particularly a joint in thin stock, can cause a
concentration of stress at the edge of the joint.
This in turn causes a slow tearing action or peeling at this point, which can result inlow values of
joint strength.
Table 23.7- Shear strength of soldered lap joints

Tin
content
wlo
Joint between?
mild sfeel members
kPa psi
Joint between7
copper members
kPa psi
~
ASTM
grade A
tin-lead
solders
10
20
30
40
50
60
19
28
32
34
34
33
ASTM
grade C
tin-leadantimony
solders
10
20
30
40
50
60
12 O00
21 O00
28 O00
32 O00
34 o00
31 O00
'see references

O00 2700
000 4000
000 4700
O 0 0 5000
O 0 0 5000
000 4800
1800
3100
4000
4600
4900
4500
Joint between7
brass members
kPa psi
~~
o00 1800
14 O00
21 O00
28 O00
34 O00
39000
39 O00
2100
3000
4000
5000
5600
5700
12
19
23
28
31
30
14 O00
21 O00
29 000
34000
39 o00
42 O00
2100
3100
4200
5000
5700
6100
12 o00
19 O00
23 O00
28 O00
28 O00
28 O00
O00 2800
o00 3300
O 0 0 4000
O00 4500
O00 4300
1800
2800
3300
4000
4000
4000
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints1 13 1

therefore, it is not possible to conduct fatigue
fests on such joints under conditions of alternating tension and compression.
CREEP STRENGTH OF SOLDERED

JOINTS
The ability of a soldered joint to safely withstand
a sustained load without failure is probably the
single most important mechanical property for
design. For example, the specific measure of this
characteristic is the determination of the
maximum allowable stress which will not cause
failure of lap joints in a service life of ten years.
Data pertinent to this are presented in Table 23.8.
As can be seen, the maximum allowable stress
tin-lead soldered joints can sustain over their
service life decreases with increasing tin content.
A similar relationship exists between joint
strength and tin content at elevated temperatures,
although the limiting loads at the higher temperatures are quite reduced from room temperature
loads. The data in Table 23.8 were developed for
lap joints in copper.
SOLDERS FOR USE AT ELEVATED

TEMPERATURES
High-Tin Alloys
Joints formed with tin-lead and also

antimonial-tin-lead solders containing upwards
of approximately 15% tin have a low solidus
temperature of 183"C (361"F). This low solidus
temperature generally precludes consideration of
these solders for joints which will be subjected to
stresses at or above 150" C (==300"F).
There are, however, high tin-containing solders which can be applied at low temperatures but
have appreciably higher solidus temperatures
than the common lead-tin solders. One such
group of solders is the tin-antimony solders. AS
shown in Table 23.9, although the iiquidus tempFATIGUE STRENGTH OF SOLDERED eratures of these solders are about the same order
as typical lead-tin solders, their solidus temperaJOINTS
tures are higher.
Consequently, these tin-antimony solders
Although soldered joints are often exposed to
vibratory loads, such as in automobile radiators, maintain some strength up to relatively high
which could result in fatigue failure, explicit data temperatures of 200" C (400" F). It should be
on the fatigue strength of soldered joints are not noted that at this temperature lead-tin solders
available. One reason for this is that soldered lap containing above 15% tin would be completely or
joints produced with thin gauge material cannot partially melted and would therefore have no
sustain compressive loading along their length; load-caqing capacity.
Table 23.8-Maximum sustained stress at various temperatures
which will not cause failure of soldered lap joints in 10 years (in air)
Tin
content
wlo
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
20" CB 68" F
kPa psi
3400
3200
2500
2100
500
470
360
300
1800 260
1700 250
1700 250
*see references
'i

100" Ce 212" F
kPa psi
1700 250
1400 200
830 120
620 90
520 75
520 75
520 75
149"C8 300"F
kPa psi
150
690 100
340 50
210 30
210 30
210 30
210 30
1000
1321SOLDERING MANUAL
Table 23.9-Properties of tin-antimony solder
Composition
Tin
Antimony
wlo
wlo
Liquidusg
Solidusg
"C "F
"C "F
100
97
95
93
232
239
242
244
3
5
7
232
235
237
239
450
462
468
471
450
455
458
462
* 10 see references
The tin-silver eutectic solder (96.5% Sn-3.5%
Ag), having a melting point of 221" C (430" F),
might be considered for use in elevated temperature service although the cost of this sider is
generally high.
Joints to be soldered with tin-antimony or tinsilver solders for high temperature service should
be free of lead. Any lead in the joint can dissolve
in these solders and possibly produce low melting
ternary eutectic phases in the soldering process
At elevated temperatures these eutectic phases
melt, resulting in hot shortness and joint failure.
Lead-Tin-Silver Solder
The most widely used solders for high
temperature application are ternary lead-tinsilver solders in the composition range of O-5%
Sn, O- 1.5% Ag. The tin content of these solders is
low enough to maintain a relatively high solidus

temperature while yielding reasonable solderability and corrosion resistance. The silver is
added for improved creep resistance.
The effects of using low tin and silver can be
appreciated by examining the data in Table 23.10
in which copper lap joints, soldered with these
solders, were evaluated over a wide temperature
range by a stepped loading test. That is to say, the
lap joint was stressed to some low level for 24
hours and the load incremented daily until failure
occurred. Although the stepped loading characteristics are not directly relatable to the creep
resistance ofthe soldered joint, they do afford an
excellent semiquantitative measure of this most
important property. The superiority of the leadtin-silver solders to eutectic tin-lead solders,
under test conditions, is clearly evident.
Table 23.l-Stepped loading creep tests on nominal 15 mm x 3 mm (1/2 in.

overlap joints on copper
Composition
Pb Sn Ag
WlO
98
95
97.5
96.5
93.5
WlO WlO
'O
1/8 in.)
Breaking stress
Liquidus
"C "F
2
319 608
5
312 594
1 1.5 313 595
2 1.5 306 583
5 1.5 304 579
70
30
6 0 4 0
5 0 5 0
256 491
238 466
216 421
Solidus
"C "F
304
270
301
301
301
580
518
573
573
573
183 361
183 361
183 361
see references

20C10 68F
kpa
psi
11 o00 1640
10 O00 1500
8500 2150
6100
5800
6000
900
850
875
1000C1o212qF
kPa
4100
3100
6100
6000
5500
psi
600
540
900
880
800
2600 375
2000 300
2000 300
1500C10 30.
kPa
psi
<2000 C300
e2000 c 3 0 0
4800
700
4800
700
3800
560
**
AUS S M~
* C_
H * 2 3 ____
- __-
0 7 & 4 2 b S 0006350 2
m-
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints1 133
Tensile strength at various temperatures1

25C
kPa
13
28
38
48
O00
80F
psi
66C 150O.F
psi
kPa
149C 300qF
psi
kPa
204C W , F
kPa
psi
20 O00 3000
38 500 4200
34 O00 5000
11 O00 1600
13 500 2000
13 500 2000
10 O00 1500
1900
O 0 0 1400
O00 5600
O00 7000
LOW TEMPERATURE SOLDERING

There are many fusible solders, generally based
upon eutectics of bismuth, which can be used
when low temperature soldering is required.
Table 23.11 presents some data concerning the
properties of these commonly used solders. It is
important to note that while these low melting
solders have relatively high tensile strengths and
hardnesses, they are not very creep resistant. i n
fact, sustained tensile loads of approximately 70
kPa (10 psi) are often sufficient to produce creep
rates in the solders in excess of 1%per year. This
creep sensitivity is intensified by structural
characteristics of the solder. Rapidly solidified
fine grain will, as a rule, exhibit less creep resistance than a coarse grain solder.
The poor creep strength of these solders must
be recognized in any application in which the
solders will be exposed to continuous loads.
PROPERTIES OF SOLDERED
COPPER JO1NTS
Goc i design practice generally requires that the
soldered copper joint will be stressed primarily in
shear, and then the area will be adequate to assure
that the stress will be below levels which can
cause tensile, creep, or fatigue failure.
The mechanical properties of a soldered copper joint are different from those of the bulk
solder itself and depend on a number of process

variables in addition to solder composition. Of

importance are joint clearance, base metal
composition, cleaning procedures, flux, soldering temperature, soldering time, and cooling
rate.
Designs for sfrucfural applications usually
have soldered members loaded in shear. Shear
strength (under rapid application of load) and
creep strength in shear are the important
mechanical properties. For specialized applicafions such as auto radiators, peel strength and
fracture initiation strength are thought to be important. In a few cases tensile strength is of interest. There are no known techniques for relating one mechanical property to another.
Shear Strength
Shear strength is determined using single- or
double-lap specimens or sleeve type cylindrical
specimens and testing at cross-head rates of the
order of 25 or 2.5 mm/min (1.0 or 0.1 in./min).
The duration of loading is then very short, either
seconds or minutes. The shear strengths of copper joints soldered with lead-tin solders are
shown in Fig. 23.1. The maximum strengthis obtained with solders roughly of the eutectic composition(63% tin, 37%lead). Ifthejoints areaged
at room temperahire or moderately elevated temperature for several weeks prior to test, measured
short-timeshear strengthmay decreaseupto 30%.
Reported strengths are sometimes at variance due
to differences in procedures for soldering and
testing. The properties reported here for soldered
copper may not apply on other materials.
Table 23.1111 -Some properties of low melting solder of bismuth
Solder composition (%): Bi
Pb
Sn
Other
45
23
8
5 Cd
19 In
49
18
12
21 In
47,117
47,117
O
58, 136
58, 136
O
8.9
8.6
Density kg/m3
lbs /in.3
8850
0.32
8600
0.31
Tensile strength MPa

psi
37
5400
43
6u)O
Liquidus O C, OF
Solidus C, O F
Pastymnge OC, O F
Specific gravity 20"C, 68" F
12
14
4.5%*
3%*
0.05*
Specific heat, liquid (cal/gl"C)
0.035*
0.032*
Lafent heat of fusion J/kg

(btullb 1
14 OOO*
'
6
Brinell hardness
Electrical conductivity
as % of copper (1.72 microhmslcm)
Thermal conductivity, solid
(cal/cm2/cm/"C/s)
(copper is 0.94)
Coefficient of linear thermal

expansion, mm/mm/" C mean
Volume change liquid-solid
- 1.4%
-1.5%
Volume change (linear

growth on solidification)
0.05%.
0.05%
11
see references
* Approximate value
Note: A segment of the safety device industry sometimes defies a yield temperature as the temperature under
which the solder will ruptureunder a standard load.

C
-
55
45
58
42
42
38
11
9 Cd
48
28
15
9 Sb
124,255
124,255
O
138,281
138, 281
O
70, 158
88, 190
18, 32
103, 217
227,440
124,223
9.4
10.3
8.7
9.4
9.5
9400
O. 339
10 300
0.371
8700
0.315
9450
0.341
9500
O. 343
41
6Ooo
44
6400
55
8000
38
5500
13 OOO'
10
22
19
4%*
3%*
4.5%*
4%*
3%*
0.045*
0.04*
o.os*
o.os*
O.W*
0.03"
0.045*
0.040*
32 MO*
14*
16 OOO*
72
46 500*
20*
23 OOO*
10*
o.ooo022
O~ooo015
O.ooOo24
- 1.7%
-1.5%
+0.77%
-2%
- 1.58
O. 6%
0.3%
O.OS%*
0.38
0.5%
50
27
13
10 Cd
70,158
70, 158

90
0.045*
-
6000
40000
1- 30 O00 5m
.-u>
LI
G
0
C
?!
;
o
2ooor
O
20000
10 O00
20
40
60
I
80
1O0
Percent tin
Fig. 23.1-Shear
strengths of copper joints soldered with tin-lead solders (Ref. 12)
Shear strength decreases with increasing

temperatures, as shown in Fig. 23.2. Many solders, especially those high in lead content, remain ductile at cryogenicfemperatures (to at least
- 195" C [ =-320" FI), and strength increases
significantly with decreasing temperature below
room temperature (Ref. 13).
those of the 95% tin-5% antimony solders

(Ref. 15).
Pressure ratings for soldered copper tubing
with either wrought copper or cast bronze pressure fittings are based upon creep strengths
shown in Fig. 23.3. Safety factors are included to
make allowance for defects in workmanship and
stress concentrations. Rated working pressure for
joints in soldered copper tube systems are given
Creep Strength
in Table 23.12.
The bursting strength of a soldered connection
The creep strength in shear of a soldered cop- is determined by increasing the pressure in the
per joint is considerably less than its short-time tubing until failure occurs. Normally, the duration
shear strength. Creep strength is defined as the of the fest is short, and stresses close to the shear
maximum stress that will not cause failure under strength of the joint would be required to rupture
continuous application of the load. Failure can the solder bond. However, the tube itself noroccur at stresses less than 10% of the short-time mally bursts before the joint fails. The area of the
strength. The creep strengths of a number of fittings is large enough so that the tube splits
solders, including 95% tin-5% antimony and 50% before the solder fails. In contrast, pressure ratlead-50% tin solders, the two solders most often ings based onthe creep strength of the solder joint
used in plumbing installations, are presented in are much lower. Table 23.13 compares thecalcuFig. 23.3. Although these two solders have simi- lated bursting pressures of soldered copper joints
lar short-time shear strengths, there are consider- with their pressure ratings. The calculated burst
able differences between their creep strengths, strengths are more than twenty times higher than
the 95% tin-5% antimony solder being consider- the ratings. This provides a large margin of safety
ably stronger. Tin base solders with from 3.5 to against failures due to pressure surges and other
5% silver offer creep strengths comparable to sudden or short-time applications of stresses.


Temperature, "C
50
1O0
I
200
150
I
50 O00
._
6000P
40 o00
v>
2
m
95% tin-5% antimony

a
m
l
.c
VI
20
2000
o00
10 O00
1O0
Oo
300
200
Temperature, " F
FiB. 23.2 -Shcar strengths at elevated temperatures for copper joints soldered with 50%tin-507 lead
a i d OS'%-S'% antiinony alloys (Ref.12)
1
1200
O
I
Fig. 23.3-Creep
(Ref.14)
Temperature, "c
150
50
1O0
200
Curve
1
~
250
I
Solder
i 95% tin-5% antimony
95% lead-5% tin
50% tin-50% lead
I
i
I
I
-(*WO
Temperature, o F
strengths at elevated temperatures for copper joints soldered with several alloys

the fluxused. Also, it has been shown that soldering in an inert atmosphere can improve the peel
Typical tensile strengths for butt joints soltest
propedies obtained with some fluxes.
dered with fivedifferent lead-tin solders oncopper
are presented in Table 23.14. Tensile strengths Fracture Initiation Strength
are much higher than shear strengths and also
At the start of the peel test, the applied load
increase with increasing tin content up to the
rises
to an abrupt maximum and then rapidly
eutectic composition. Butt joints are not nordrops
to a relatively constant peel strength. The
mally recommended for soldered systems behigh
initial
load is necessary to initiate a crack
cause applied stresses and strains will tend to
which
then
propagates at lower loads. Typical
concentrate in the very narrow layer of solder.
values
of
the
fracture initiation strength of solAlso, any defects in the soldei layer will act as
dered
copper
are given in Fig. 23.5. Fracture
sharp crack starters when the joint is stressed in
initiation
strengths
may be several times higher
tension,
than the corresponding peel strengths.
Tensile Strength
Peel Strength
Torsional Strength
When a soldered joint is twisted, torsional
In some applications stresses tend to tear open
the solder bond rather than shear it. For these shear stresses are developed in the solder. The
cases the peel strength of the soldered copper strength of such a joint will be somewhat differjoint is of interest. To measure peel strength, two ent from that found in lap shear because stresses
thin strips are soldered together at one end to are not constant across the cross-section. Plastic
form a sort of wishbone specimen. The bond is deformation may occur, lehding to a stress patthen broken by peeling the strips apart, and the tern which is difficult to analyze. Torsional
strengths of butt-joined copper bars have been
load required to propagate a crack is recorded.
Peel strength, like all mechanical properties, is determined for a number of solders. The reported
dependent upon the soldering parameters. Exam- values in Table 23.15 do not take into account the
pies of the influence of flux and soldering temp- stress gradient, so the values appear to be higher
erature are shown in Fig. 23.4. The optimum than the shear strengths measured in lap shear for
temperature for soldering appears dependent on the same solders.
Soldering temperature, OC
300 350
400 450 500 550
600 650
700
750
25 I
i 1
97.5% Pb-1 %Sn-l.5% Ag

1150
Fluxes F,, F2, F,, F,
20
500
Fig. 23.4-Peel
(Ref. 17)
600
700
I
I
I
900
1000 1100
Soldering temperature,F
I
800
I
1200
I
1300
1400
strength of copper joints soldered with four fluxes over a range of temperatures

AWS
.~~
6.4mm (ah in.) to 31.8mm (1% in.) to 63.5mm (2%in.) io 127mm (5 in.) to
2 5 . 4 1 ~( 1I in.) incl. 50.8mm (2 in.) incl. 102mm (4 in.) incl. 203mm (8 in.) incl.
50% tin50%1ead
"Idera
"%
5% antimony
solder a
"C
38
66
93
121
"F
100
I50
200
250
38
66
93
121
100
150
200
250
MPa
1.4
1.0
0.7
0.6
3.4
2.8
2.1
1.4
psi
200
150
100
85
500
400
300
200
MPa
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.5
2.8
2.4
1.7
1.2
psi
175
125
90
75
400
350
250
175
MPa
0.9
0.6
0.5
0.3
2.1
1.9
1.4
1.0
MPa
0.9
0.6
100
75 . 0.5
0.3
50
1.9
300
1.7
275
1.2
200
0.9
150
psi
150
Table 23.13-Burst
Tube size,
in.
12.7
1/2
19. i
Y4
I
25.4
2
50.8
12.7
1/2
3/4
19. I
i
25.4
50.8
2
mm
psi
130
90
70
50
270
250
180
135
pressures!* and pressure ratings for soldered copper tube

CalcuIated burst * *
pressure for
Pressure
soldered joint,
rating at 38" C (100" F)
Solder
- MPa
psi
MPa
psi
99
14
400
1.4
200
50% Iead-50% tin
106
15400
1.4
200
50% lead-50% tin
1.4
200
15 900
50% lead-50% tin
109
175
50% Iead-50% tin
80
11 600
1.2
500
95% tin-5% antimony
99
14400
3.4
15400
3.4
500
106
95% tin-5% antimony
15900
3.4
500
95% tin-5% antimony
109
400
95% tin-5% antimony
80
l i 600
2.8
*'lSrpical shear strength of 31 Mpa (4,500 psi) assumed for both solders
**Tube will fail at lower pressures.
Table 23.14-Tensile strength of soldered copper butt joints

Solder
Tensile, strengthfi
MPa
psi
Lead, wt. %
Tin, wt. %
20
80
78
11 300
-95
13,800
30
70
i
16
i 6 800
60
40
125
18 200
50
50
63
37
135
19 600
%ee references

I40/SOLDERING MANUAL
Soldering temperature, "C

300
I
350
1
400
I
450
I
500
550
600
650
1
700
1
97.5% Pb-1% Sn-l.5% Ag

Fluxes F,, F2,Fa,F,
KI
500
Y
+-
o>
400
$,
300
:.-$
.-K
200
!!!
100 u.
O
600
700
800
900
1000
Soldering temperaturePf
1100
1200
1300
Fig. 23.5-Fracture initiation strength for copper joints soldered with four fluxes over a range of
temperatures (Ref.17)
Factors Infuencing Strength
ing tin content and temperature of the solder bath.

Reactions take place at the interface between . These data show that soldering time should be
the liquid and solid during soldering. These reac- minimized and that time is most critical when the
tions account for the apparent wetting of the solid soider has a high tin content.
by the liquid and influenie the strength of the
The volume of liquid solder in contact with the
final joint. During the soldering of copper with solid is also important. The larger the volume,
tin alloys, immetallic compounds a 6 S n 5 and the more rapid the reaction. Fig. 23.9 shows that
Cu,Sn form at the solid-liquid interface. They the width of the reaction layer increases as the
may TOW to appreciable thicknesses, and as volume of the solder between the mating surfaces
thicknesses increases, strength decreases. For increases.
soldered copper and brass, Fig. 23.6 shows the
Joint spacing has long been recognized as imreduction in peel strength as the thickness of the portant to the strength of soldered fittings. Most
reaction layer increases.
investigators report thaf a clearance of the order
Intermetallic layers will grow during storage of O. 1 to o. 15
( 4 . 0 0 3 to 0.006 in.) provides
or service at room or elevated temperatures, and maximum shear strength for copper soldered
this can reduce the mechanical properties. For with tin-lead solders. The influeme ofjoint spacexample, the total intermetallic compound thick- ing on shear strength may be seen in Fig. 23.10.
ness on 60%tin-40% lead solder coated copper
The foregoing discussion indicafes the imporhas been observed to follow the relations shown tance of treating each solder problem individuin Fig. 23.7. The presence of stress during ele- ally By understanding the effects of design,
vated temperature exposure may alter the growth equipment, and process parameters, the properrate of the compounds.
ties of soldered copper may be optimized without
Fig. 23.8 shows that the rate of reaction be- making major changes in manufacturing matetween solder and copper increases with increas- rials and equipment.

**
AWS S M * C H * 2 3
9 0784Zb5 0006358 7 W
p
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joinfsl14 1

0.005
35
30
25
0.010
0.015 0.020 0.025

I
0.030 0.035mm
I
37% ~ ~ 6 sn
3 Solder
%
225
O 510" F
O 510" F
Copper 102: A 680"F

m
Copper 102
150. j
VI
125
F
2
<u
c
a"
15
1O0
Reaction layer thickness, 0.001in.

Fig. 23.6-Influence of reaction layer thicknesses on the peel
strength of copper no. 102 and copper alloy no. 260 (Ref.19)
25
20
15
10
m e (days)
Fig. 23.7-Compound thickness when 60% tin-40%lead solder coatings on annealed copper are
stored for various times and temperatures (Ref. 201

I42/SOLDERING MANUAL
37
(100)
Solder
70
85
95 Lead
Composition, %
Fig. 23.8-Effect of temperature and tin content on the reaction

rates of lead-tin solders with copper and brass (Ref. 21) (Test data
reported in U.S. customary units)

(100)
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solder and Soldered Joints1 143

1 .o
0.50
I
mm
1.52
1.01
I
2.03
I
2.54
0.025
850 F
Volume per unit area, inches
Fig. 23.9-Influence of volume of solder on the reaction of copper alloy no. 260 with 70% lead30%tin (Ref.21)
-20000
v)
2000
- 10 O00
Fig. 23.10-Effect
of joint spacing on the shear strength of copper soldered with 56% tin-44%
lead alloy and zinc chloride flux (Ref.22)

IU/SOLDERING MANUAL
Sn
100
50
63
40
95
95
Table 23.15-Torsional shear strength of soldered copper *

Torsional shear strength,
Solder, % by wt.
Pb
Sb
Ag
MPa
psi
47
6880
52
7580
50
55
8000
37
57
8280
60
5
76
I I 080
5
73
10 610
2
30
4420
98
*Copper rods 20 mm (% in.) in diameter were butted together and joined with solder in a clearance of
0.13 m m (0.005 in.) (Ref. 5 )
REFERENCES
1. Greenfield, L.T., and Forrester, P.G. The
properties of tin alloys. Tin Research Institute, Publication 155.
2. Baker, W.A. 1939. Creep properties of soft
solder and soft soldered joints. J . insfiture of
metals: 65.
3. American Society for Metais. 1961. Metals
handbook. Ist ed.
4. Latin, A. 1946. Capillary flow in the soldering process and some measurements of the
penetration coefficients of soft solders. J .
Institute of Metals: 72.
5. Lead Industries Association. 1952. Lead in
modern industry.
6. Christian, J.L., and Wilson, J.F. Tensile
and shear properties of several solders ar
cryogenic temperatures. Society of Automotive Engineers, Publication 595E.
7. Nightingale, S. J.,, and Hudson, O. F. 1942.
Tin solders: a modern study of the properties
of tin solders and soldered joints. British
Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association.
8. American Smelting and Refining Co. 1961.
SoldeF-its natiire, properties and uses.
9. Hansen, M. 1958, Constitution of binary alloys, New York: McGraw-Hill.
10. McKeown, J. 1948. Properties of soft solders and soldered joints. British NonFerrous Metals Research Association,
Monograph 5.
11. American Smelting and Refining Co. 1962.
ASARCOLo fusible alloys.
12. Maupin, A.R., and Swanger, W.H. 1940.
Strength of soft-solderedjoints in copper tubing. NBS Report BMS 58, September.
13. Christian, J. L. 1963. Design criteria for solders in cryogenic environment. Electrotechnology 7 1, 6: 109- I i 2.

14. Maupin, A.R., and Swanger, W.H. 1942.

Strength of sleeve joints in copper tubing
made with various lead-base solders. NBS
Report BMS 83, May 5.
15. Zurn, H., and Nesse, T. 1966. Contribution
to the long-time test behavior of soldered
joints made with tin solders at room temperature. Schweissen and Schneiden 18:2- 10,
January.
16. Miller, V.R., Schwaneke, A. E., and Jansen, J. W.1967. Testfor tin-lead solders and
solder joints. U . S . Department of Interior,
- Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations
6963.
17. Beal, R.E. 1969. How soldering process
variables affect joint strengrh. CDA Report
80419, August.
18. Rhines, F.N., and Anderson, W.A. 1941.
Substitute solders. Metals and alloys,
November: 704-7 1 1.
19. Howes, M;A.H., and Saperstein, Z.P.
1968. Mechanical properties of soldered
joints in copper alloys. CDA Report 80118,
June.
20. Unsworth, D. A., and MacKay, C. A. 1972.
A preliminary report on growth of compound
layers on various metal bases plated with tin
and tin alloys. CDA-ASM Conference on
Copper, October 16-19, 1972, Cleveland,
Ohio.
21. Howes, M. A. H., and Saperstein, Z. P.
1967. The reaction of tin-lead solders with
copper alloys. CDA Report 80417, September.
22. Nightingale, S . J . , and Hudson, O.F. 1942.
Tin solders. British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association.

AWS SM HDBK 2nd Ed 1977 Soldering Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AWS SM HDBK 2nd Ed 1977 Soldering Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AWS S M * I N D E X

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Library of Congress Number: 77-90783

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Wail Colmonoy Corp.

W.G. Bader, Chairman

Bell Telephone Laboratories

Past Subcommittee members who assisted in the

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Lead Industries Association

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

abrasion: cleaning. 37;solders. 95

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

capillary flow: in joini design. 23-?6,ji~.,

edge dip lest. 52

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

IS: for lead and lead alloys, 87; for mag.

galvanized iron. See zinc coated steels

hardness: of4ead joints. 83; tests for. 60. 127

hot gas soldering. 46

jigging, 2, 2 4 . j i ~ . ,25, fable. 31

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

orthophosphoric acid. 15; Cor acid cleaning. 36

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

98; for nickel alloys, 79; for nickel and cobalt

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Wetting is often associated with the ease of

Soldering is a group of welding processes which

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Applying the Solder

Cooling the Joint

Flux Residue keatment

not over a range. In this respect eutectic solders

A better understanding of the nature of solders,

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

The 25A and 30A solders have lower liquidus

Fig. 2.1 - Phase diagram for the tin-lead alloy system

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Joint clearances for the tin-antimony-lead solders should be from O. l to O. 15 mm (=0.003to

A large number of tin-zinc solders, some of

70 to 80% tin, balance zinc, have been highly

%bible 2.4 -Tin-zinc solders

%able 2.5 -Lead-silver solders

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Table 2.9 -Typical fusible alloys

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Table 2.10-lndium solders

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Triangular bar or wire cut into any

A soldering flux a liquid, solid, or gaseous

mova1 with a flux varies with each base metal.

THEORIES OF FLUX ACTION

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

- Mechanism of flux action

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.