University of Missouri-Columbia

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department

Automobile Vibration Analysis

MAE 3600
System Dynamics
Project
Fall 2009
Eric Booth

(12907660) (25%) Equations of motion, write-up

Evan Kontras (12157638) (25%) State-space model, plots

Will Linders

(13942861) (25%) Write up, optimization

Brad Pyle

(11869469) (25%) Natural frequencies, modes, FBD, write-up

Table of Contents
1. Introduction

p. 3

2. Modeling

p. 4

3. Analysis and Results

p. 7

4. Parameter Selection and Optimization

p. 13

5. Design Considerations

p. 16

7. Conclusion

p. 17

6. References

p. 18

Introduction
The purpose of this report is to study the vibration of an automobile when running from a
smooth section to a bumpy section of a road. A four-degree-of-freedom model, shown in Fig. 1,
was developed for the study. The car was approximated as a flat plate with mass equal to the car,
the suspension was represented by four spring-and-damper systems attached to the four corners
of the plate, and the driver was approximated as a block mass supported by another spring-anddamper system. The forces resulting from the unbalanced inertia force of the engine were taken
into consideration as well. The car was assumed to have three degrees of freedom; one for rolling
(x1), one for pitching (x2, assumed to be positive opposite the sense of Fig. 1), and one for
heaving (x3). In addition, the driver was assumed free to move vertically (x4), giving the model
its fourth and final degree of freedom.
The analysis required derivation of equations of motion, calculation of natural
frequencies and mode shapes, state space analysis, and graphical depictions of system responses
over different input and constraint conditions. The system was then optimized to minimize the
vertical steady state vibration of the driver, keeping realistic constraints in mind. Finally,
recommendations were made for improving the system design.

Fig. 1. Working model of the automobile with the suspension system and the driver [1].
3

Modeling
Several assumptions were made while developing the mathematical model of the system
shown in Fig. 1. First, it was assumed that, due the large mass of the engine, the center of gravity
of the car would be located a distance e1 from the front of the plate rather than at its center. The
driver was also assumed to be located a distance a1 by a2 from the C.G. Second, the bumpy
surface of the road was assumed to cause four separate displacement inputs, one to each springdamper system on the plate, given by z1, z2, z3, and z4, where
z1() = 1.2z3() = Asin(2/)1()

(1)

z2() = 1.2z4() = Asin(2 /)1( )

(2)

with = ( e1 e2), = Vt, and 1() is a unit step function. In these equations, is the
horizontal distance the car travels with a velocity equal to V over a wavy surface of amplitude A
and wavelength . Lastly, the road was assumed to be smooth and the car assumed to be at
equilibrium before hitting the bumpy surface, making all initial conditions zero.
The values and symbols for system parameters used for calculations are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Values and symbols for system parameters used for calculations.
Parameter
Mass of Driver
Mass of Car
Radius of gyration (rolling)
Radius of gyration
(pitching)
Displacement co-ordinates
of driver from CG
Spring Constant (Wheel 1)

Symbol
m
M
r1
r2

Value
70 kg
3500 kg
0.43 m
0.5 m

Parameter
Car Velocity
Road profile
Unit step function
Road Profile Amplitude

Symbol
V
z()
1(t)
A

a1, a2

Displacement coordinates
of edges from CG
Spring Constant (Wheel 3)

e1, e2,
e3
k3

1.1 m, 1.4
m, 0.6 m
8000 N/m

Spring Constant (Wheel 2)

k2

Spring Constant (Wheel 4)

k4

8000 N/m

Spring Constant (Driver)

k5

Damping Coeff. (Wheel 1)

b1

800 Ns/m

Damping Coeff. (Wheel 2)

b2

Damping Coeff. (Wheel 3)

b3

700 Ns/m

Damping Coeff. (Wheel 4)

b4

0.2 m,
0.25 m
10000
N/m
10000
N/m
110000
N/m
800
Ns/m
700
Ns/m

Damping Coeff. (Driver )

b5

20 Ns/m

k1

Value
Variable
Variable
N/A
0.04 m

The equations of motion were derived using Newton's Second Law applied to the freebody diagram shown below in Fig. 2. The force on the plate that causes heaving is given by,

Mx3 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 ,

x3

(3)

where x3 is the vertical acceleration of the center of gravity of the plate. The force on the
drivers seat is given by,

x4

mx4 k 5 x4 x3 x2 a1 x1a2 b5 x 4 x3 x 2 a1 x1a2 ,

(4)

where x 4 and x4 are the vertical velocity and acceleration of the driver, x3 is the velocity of the
center of gravity of the plate, and x1 and x 2 are rolling and pitching angular velocities
respectively. The moments on the plate about the x and y axes are given by,

M
M

J 1 x1 F1e3 F3 e3 F2 e3 F4 e3 F5 a2

(5)

J 2 x2 F1e1 F2 e1 F3 e2 F4 e2 F5 a1 F sint e1

(6)

where, x1 and x2 are rolling and pitching angular accelerations and J1 = Mr12 and J2 = Mr22 are
moments of inertia about x and y axes. Note that M x and M y are moments that cause rolling
and pitching respectively.

F4 k4 z4 x3 e3 x1 e2 x2
b4 z4 x3 e3 x1 e2 x2

F5 k 5 z 4 x3 a 2 x1 a1 x 2
b5 x 4 x 3 a 2 x1 a1 x 2

x3
x1

a1

F6 f (t ) F sint

x4
a2
e3

y
e2
F3 k 3 z 3 x3 e3 x1 e2 x 2
b3 z 3 x 3 e3 x1 e2 x 2

xe21

F2 k 2 z 2 x3 e3 x
x1 e1 x2
b2 z 2 x 3 e3 x1 e2 x 2

F1 k1 z1 x3 e3 x1 e1 x 2
b1 z1 x 3 e3 x1 e1 x 2

Fig. 2. Free body diagram of the automobile

The forces F1 through F5 of the spring-and-damper systems acting on the plate were found to be,

F1 k1 z1 x3 e3 x1 e1 x2 b1 z1 x3 e3 x1 e1 x 2

(7)

F2 k 2 z 2 x3 e3 x1 e1 x2 b2 z 2 x3 e3 x1 e2 x 2

(8)

F3 k3 z3 x3 e3 x1 e2 x1 b3 z3 x3 e3 x1 e2 x 2

(9)

F4 k 4 z 4 x3 e3 x1 e2 x2 b4 z 4 x3 e3 x1 e2 x 2

(10)

F5 k5 z 4 x3 a2 x1 a1 x2 b5 x 4 x3 a2 x1 a1 x 2

(11)

where, z1 , z2 , z3 , and z4 are vertical velocities of the wheels. The force due to the engine, F6, is
a function of time and is given by,

F6 f (t ) F sint

(12)

where, F is constant that depends on the engine type and is the angular velocity of engine
vibrations.
The force equations (Eq. 7-12) were inserted into the equations of motion (Eq. 3-6) and
combined to create the final matrix formulation of the governing equations shown below.
Mr12

0
0

0
2
Mr2
0
0

0
0
M
0

2
2
0 x1 e3 (b1 b2 b3 b4 ) a2 b5

0 x2 e1e3 (b2 b1 ) e2e3 (b3 b4 ) a1a2b5

0 x3 e3 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5a2

b5a2
m x4

e1e3 (b2 b1 ) e2e3 (b3 b4 ) a1a2b5

2
2
2
e1 (b1 b2 ) e2 b3 b4 a1 b5
e1 b1 b2 e2 b3 b4 a1b5
b5a1

e3 (b1 b2 b3 b4 ) a2b5
e1 (b1 b2 ) e2 (b3 b4 ) a1b5
b1 b2 b3 b4 b5
b5

a2b5 x1

a1b5 x2

b5 x3

b5 x4

e32 k1 k2 k3 k4 a2 2 k5

e e k k e2e3 k3 k4 a1a2 k5
1 3 2 1

e3 k2 k4 k1 k3 a2 k5

k5a2

e1e3 k2 k1 e2e3 k3 k4 a1a2 k5

2
2
2
e1 k1 k2 e2 k3 k4 a1 k5
e1 k1 k2 e2 k3 k4 a1k5
k5a1

e3 k2 k4 k1 k3 a2 k5
e1 k1 k2 e2 k3 k4 a1k5
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5
k5

a2 k5 x1

a1k5 x2

k5 x3

k5 x4

b1e3 b2e3
be
b2e1
1 1
b1
b2

0
0

b3e3
b3e2
b3
0

b4e3 z1 e3k1 e3k2

b4e2 z2 e1k1 e1k2

b4 z3 k1
k2

0 z4 0
0

e3k3
e2 k3
k3
0

e3k4 z1 0
e2 k4 z2 e1
f t

k 4 z3 1

0 z4 0

(13)

Analysis and Results

3.1 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes
The first step in the analysis was to compute both the undamped natural frequencies of
the system and the corresponding mode shapes. A MATLAB program was created that used the
spring and mass matrices from Eq. 13 to compute the natural frequencies and mode shapes
(shown in Fig. 4) based on the Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of the system. The natural
frequencies obtained were,

4 0.505 Hz , 3 0.710 Hz , 2 1.266 Hz , 1 6.404 Hz

(14)

and the corresponding mode shape values were,

1

0.0274 0.0079 1.0000

0.0166
1.0000 0.0489
Modes
0.0201 0.0069 0.0110

1.0000 0.1991 0.2520

The mode shapes are shown in Fig. 3 below.

Fig. 3. Mode shape plots for the system.

0.0274
0.0125
0.9842

1.0000

(15)

The natural frequencies of the system are significant because when they are within the
range of a human beings natural frequency (4-8 Hz) [2] resonance will occur causing the motion
experienced by the driver to be both exaggerated and uncomfortable. When optimizing the
system, the natural frequencies should be made to lie outside this range.
The mode shape values shown in Eq. 15 represent how the system responds to the natural
frequencies shown above each column. Each row gives the systems response in a particular
degree of freedom. Because the highest value for the first mode occurs in the row corresponding
to DOF x4, the first mode results primarily in vertical displacement of the driver. Likewise, the
second mode results primarily in pitching motion, the third in rolling motion, and the fourth in
heaving motion.

3.2 State-Space Formulation

In order to further analyze the model, the equations of motion were converted to statespace. The state-space model consists of the following pair of equations,

x A x B u
y C x D u

(16)

where x and x are state space variables and their derivatives, u is the input matrix, y is the output
matrix, and A, B, C, and D matrices are constants. Eq. 16 can be expanded into Eq. [17-21].

x1
x1
x
x
2
2
x 3
x3


x 4
x4
= A +B U
x 5
x5
x 6
x6


x 7
x7
x
x
8
8

0
0

0
1
B= 2
Mr1

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

1
2
Mr2

1
M

0
0
0

0
0

1
m

e3 (b1 z1 b2 z 2 b3 z3 b4 z 4 k1 z1 k 2 z 2 k 3 z 3 k 4 z 4 )

e (b z b z k z k z ) e (b z b z k z k z ) e f (t )

2 2
1 1
2 2
2
3 3
4 4
3 3
4 4
1
U= 1 1 1

b1 z1 b2 z 2 b3 z3 b4 z 4 k1 z1 k 2 z 2 k 3 z 3 k 4 z 4 f (t )

(17,18)

(19)

2
2
e 3 ( k1 k 2 k 3 k 4 ) a 2 k 5
2

Mr1
A=
e3 (e1 (k1 k 2 ) e2 (k 4 k 3 )) a1 a 2 k 5
2

Mr1

e3 ( k 1 k 2 k 3 k 4 ) a 2 k 5

a2 k5

0
0
0
0
e3 (e2 (k 4 k 3 ) e1 (k1 k 2 )) a1 a 2 k 5

Mr1
e2 (k 3 k 4 ) e1 (k1 k 2 ) a1 k 5

Mr1
( k1 k 2 k 3 k 4 k 5 )
M
k5
m

Mr1
2
2
2
e1 (k1 k 2 ) e2 (k 3 k 4 ) a1 k 5

1
0
0
0
2
2
e3 (b1 b2 b3 b4 ) a 2 b5

0
0
0
0
e3 ( k 1 k 2 k 3 k 4 ) a 2 k 5

Mr1
e2 (k 3 k 4 ) e1 (k1 k 2 ) a1 k 5
M
a1 k 5
m

0
1
0
0
e3 (e2 (b4 b3 ) e1 (b1 b2 )) a1 a 2 b5

Mr1
2
2
2
e1 (b1 b2 ) e2 (b3 b4 ) a1 b5

Mr1
e2 (b3 b4 ) e1 (b1 b2 ) a1b5
M
a1b5
m

Mr1
e3 (e1 (b1 b2 ) e2 (b4 b3 )) a1 a 2 b5
Mr1
e3 (b1 b2 b3 b4 ) a 2 b5
M
a 2 b5
m

0
0
0
0
a2 k5

Mr1
a1 k 5

Mr1
k5
M
k5
m

0
0
1
0
e3 (b1 b2 b3 b4 ) a 2 b5

Mr1
e2 (b3 b4 ) e1 (b1 b2 ) a1b5

Mr1
(b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 )
M
b5
m

0
0
0

1
a 2 b5
2
Mr1

a1b5
2
Mr1

b5
M
b5

(20)

 x1
x
2
x3
y1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 +0 U

x4
y 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
y 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 x 5
3
x
6

x
7
x
8

(21)

The transfer function,

Y1 ( s)

Y
Y1
Y
Y
U1 2 U 2 3 U 3 4 U 4
U1
U2
U3
U4

(22)

was used to solve the equations in MATLAB where U1-4 are the Laplace transforms of Eq. 19.
3.3 Frequency Response due to Engine
Once the state-space model was developed, the response of the system to engine
vibrations () was analyzed. This was done by making all z inputs zero, thus simulating idling
conditions. The amplitude of the engine vibrations was assumed to be a non-zero constant. The
frequency response functions (FRFs) were plotted using a MATLAB program entitled Auto1.m
and are shown in Fig. 4 below. The vibration frequencies ranged from 0 to 10 Hz, which covers
all the natural frequencies.

References
1. Human Vibration. Bruel & Kjaer, Choayang University of Technology.
http://www.cyut.edu.tw/~hcchen/downdata/human%20vibration.doc

Fig. 4. Frequency Response Functions due to engine vibrations.

10

The peaks observed in Fig. 4 correspond to the natural frequencies of the system. This
means that as the engine vibration frequencies approach a natural frequency, resonance occurs
and the system response increases. The resonance response observed for the roll angle at 0.71
Hz, for the pitch angle at 1.2 Hz, and for the driver displacement at 6.4 Hz are easily explained
when Fig. 3 is reexamined. The roll angle response at 6.4 Hz is observed because the driver is
offset from the rolling axis and, when excited, produces a moment causing the vehicle to roll.
The driver response observed at 0.5 Hz results from the fact that the driver is anchored to the car.
If the car heaves, the driver is displaced, and 0.5 Hz is the frequency at which heaving is
observed.
3.4 Response to Single Bump
The next step of the analysis examined the automobiles response when traveling over a
single bump. The engine excitation was assumed to be zero and the bump was modeled as an
impulse input. Because there is only a single bump in the road the inputs will be,

A
(t t1 ) ,
(22)
z 2 (t ) z 4 (t ) 0 .
V
e e2
where, t1 is the time delay given by, t1 1
. Assuming A=0.04m, =0.2m, and V=48 km/hr,
V
the outputs were plotted using MATLAB and are depicted in Fig. 5.
z1 (t )

A
(t ) ,
V

z 3 (t )

-4

x 10

Roll Angle (rad)

Pitch Angle (rad)
Driver Displacement (m)

4
3

Response

2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

4
Time (s)

Fig. 5. Response of automobile to single bump input

11

The initial jump observed in all the outputs of Fig. 5 corresponds to the time delay (t1) of
0.1875 seconds before the second tire hits the bump. Secondly, the plot shows that the
suspension system effectively damps all responses, allowing the system to return to its
equilibrium state in about 8 seconds.

3.5 Response to Continuous Road Profile

The next step in the analysis was to evaluate the steady-state displacement of the driver at
when the car travels over a continuously bumpy road surface described by Eq. 1 and 2. The
engine vibrations were assumed to be zero and b5 was assumed to be 300 Ns/m. The velocity of
the car and the wavelength of the road were varied and related according to,

2V /

(23)

where describes the excitation frequency due to the road profile. The response of each output
0.02

0.015

=15
=3

=30

=20

=25

50

60
70
Velocity (km/h)

=10

=2.5
0.01

=2
0.005 =1.5

=5
=1=0.5
10

20

30

40

0.05

=5
0.04

=10
0.03

=2
0.02

=15

=3

=20

=25

=1.5
0.01

=30

=1
=2.5
=0.5
20

40

60
80
Velocity (km/h)

100

120

Driver Position Steady State Amplitude (m)

Pitch Angle Steady-State Amplitude (rad)

Roll Angle Steady-State Amplitude (rad)

was computed using MATLAB and the results are shown in Fig. 6 below.

80

=15

90

100

110

120

=30
=20=25

0.1

0.05

=10
0

=0.5 =1 =1.5 =2 =2.5 =3

20

40

60
80
Velocity (km/h)

=5
100

120

Fig. 6. Steady-state responses of automobile traveling over continuous bumpy surface

12

In addition, the steady-state response of each output was plotted as a function of the
ground excitation frequency for different road wavelengths and is shown in Fig. 7 below. As can
be seen, the largest displacements occur at the natural frequencies. This was expected from the
results observed in Fig. 4. Although the excitation source differed, the resulting responses
exhibited similar trends.

Roll Angle Steady-State Amplitude (m)

0.02

=0.5
=1
=1.5
=2
=2.5
=3
=5
=10
=15
=20
=25
=30

0.015

0.01

0.005

4
Frequency Hz

Driver Position Steady State Amplitude (m)

Pitch Angle Steady-State Amplitude (m)

0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0

4
5
Frequency Hz

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

4
5
Frequency Hz

Fig. 7. System Responses as a function of excitation frequency.

Parameter Selection and Optimization

Parameter selection and optimization began by first identifying all relevant design
constraints. The most important of these constraints is the health and safety of the driver.
Frequencies in the range of 4-8 Hz [1] cause resonance in organs of the human body which could
be painful to the driver, while frequencies in the range of 16 Hz to 20 kHz are audible and may
be uncomfortable. Hence, the natural frequencies of the system must be below 4 Hz or between 8
and 16 Hz. Thus, the fourth mode natural frequency of the current design, 6.4 Hz, must be
changed. The first way to change the natural frequency would be to install a vibration absorber.
13

A vibration absorber would consist of a mass (ma) suspended from the driver seat by a spring
(ka). The spring and the mass could be adjusted until,
ka
6.404 Hz
ma

(24)

causing the displacement of the driver at this frequency to become negligible. This would also
cause two displacement peaks to occur at frequencies on either side of 6.404 Hz. If one or both
of the peaks occur within the 4-8 Hz range, then the values selected for the vibration absorber
and the driver seat spring and damper would need to be adjusted until the peaks lied outside the
4-8 Hz range.
The second method to alter the natural frequencies so that they will occur outside the
4-8 Hz range would be to change the spring constants of the system. To accomplish this, the
fourth mode natural frequency was plotted against the spring constant k5 to obtain the plot shown
in Fig. 8. Based on the results, a new spring constant of 2,500 N/m was selected for k5. This
changes the natural frequencies of the system to,

1 0.5034 Hz , 2 0.7072 Hz , 3 0.9695 Hz , 4 1.270 Hz

which are all in the acceptable range.
16
14

Natural Frequency (Hz)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

0.5

1.5

2.5
3
3.5
4
Spring Constant (k 5)

4.5

5.5

6
5

x 10

Fig. 8. Plot of first mode natural frequency versus driver seat spring constant (k5)

14

(25)

Manufacturing concerns dictate that the spring constant for k5 be reduced, rather than
increased. If the spring constant were increased it would have to be increased beyond
approximately 175 000 N/m to force the natural frequency above 8 Hz. With common
manufacturing process and parts, this would prove to be an impractically high stiffness constant.
In addition, manufacturing constraints prevent any changes in the mass of the automobile
because it would require a complete retooling of the manufacturing plant.
Because any changes in the suspension systems spring constants would alter the natural
frequencies of the system and since the mass of the system cannot be changed, the only
parameters available for optimization are the damping constants. The damping constant for the
driver seat was varied while the suspension systems damping constants were held constant. This
was done because examining one damper is more cost-effective than examining four and because
any changes in the suspension dampers may cause the car to bottom out. Optimization was
performed by examining the Transmissibility (TR) of the system. Transmissibility is the ratio of
the output displacement to the input displacement and is given by [3],
TR

1 (2 ) 2

(26)

(1 2 ) 2 (2 ) 2

k5
v
, and 2 .
m

2m n
A MATLAB program was developed to calculate the transmissibility of the drivers seat

where b5

with respect to the car as a function of . The results were plotted and are depicted in Fig. 9.
7

=0.01
6

=0.1
5

TR

=0.2

=0.6

=0.8

=0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

=1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

= /n

Fig. 9. Transmissibility as a function of for different damping ratios

15

Based on the results shown in Fig. 9, a damping coefficient of 1.0 was selected. From the
relation,

b5
2m n

(27)

using m = 70 kg, and n = 1.270 Hz, b5 was calculated to be 177.8 Ns/m. Figure 9 also shows
that at higher driving speeds, lower damping ratios are desirable. The displacement at the natural
frequency as well as those at higher speeds may be minimized by using a dynamic damping
system which changes the damping ratio as a function of vehicle velocity.

Design Considerations
The mathematical model used for the analysis is simplified and its accuracy could be
improved by including several other considerations. The first of these is that the analysis
considered only a single bump hitting two tires and a continuous sine wave curve. Further
analysis could be performed for a variety of other road surfaces such as potholes, random bumps,
and non-sinusoidal road profiles. Secondly, the model did not consider the vibration absorption
characteristics of the tires. Another set of spring-and-dampers could be included underneath the
suspension system to account for the tires. Thirdly, the car was modeled as a rigid plate, but in
reality, the shape is both more complex and is not rigid. The car itself would deform under
external forces which would affect all the system responses. Fourth, the center of gravity of the
plate was offset in only along the length of the plate. The center of gravity is most likely offset
along the width of the plate as well as vertically. Fifth, the location of the engine input would
most likely be both closer to the center of gravity and offset from the major axis of the car, as
opposed to being at the edge of the car and on the major axis as assumed in the model. Sixth,
because the engine is actually mounted to the car at several locations, it should not be modeled as
single input acting at a single point, but rather multiple inputs acting at multiple points. Seventh,
when the car was actually in motion, the engine forces were assumed to be zero, which does not
reflect reality. Lastly, only a single occupant was considered. Consideration of passengers would
make the system more complex but provide a more accurate estimate of real system responses.

16

Conclusion
The above analysis, with some limitations, examined the vibrations of an automobile
suspension system, and the following conclusions were established. The natural frequencies for
the system were found to be 6.404 Hz, 1.266 Hz, 0.710 Hz and 0.505 Hz for the first, second,
third and fourth modes respectively. The resulting mode shapes were plotted as well. The
pitching, rolling and heaving responses for a single bump were plotted and analyzed. Thereafter,
responses were plotted for a continuous road profile with different wavelengths ranging from 0.5
to 30 m and velocities ranging from 3 to 120 km/hr. The maximum displacements were observed
at about 55 km/hr. These results may be used to simulate real suspension system responses
within acceptable error limits, and are good testing tools.
It was realized that the fourth mode, which causes maximum displacement of the drivers
seat, has a natural frequency of 6.4 Hz, which is within the uncomfortable frequency range of the
human body (4-8 Hz). For this reason, the spring constant for the drivers seat was reduced in
order to force the fourth mode natural frequency into the comfortable range. A spring constant of
2500 N/m was chosen which resulted in a new natural of 1.27 Hz. This also changed the other
mode natural frequencies, however they all remained in the acceptable range.
In order to minimize the drivers displacement, further optimization was performed. This
was accomplished by changing the driver seat damping coefficient using the concept of
transmissibility. It was observed that higher damping coefficients resulted in lower
displacements near the natural frequency. Based on this information, an optimal driver seat
damping coefficient of 177.8 Ns/m was selected. In addition, a dynamic damping system was
recommend to decrease the response at higher speeds.
Based on the results, a number of recommendations were made to improve the
mathematical model that may be used if more accurate analysis is desired.

17

References
1. Pai, P. F., C.W. La Pierre Professor of Mechanical Engineering, November 1 2005,
Columbia, MO (personal communication)
2. Bruel & Kjaer, Human Vibration, Choayang University of Technology.
<http://www.cyut.edu.tw/~hcchen/downdata/human%20vibration.doc> (12/2/04)
3. Ogata, K., 2004, System Dynamics 4th Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 431-458, 491575

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