CE3610 Environmental

Engineering:
Week 2

YEAR 3 SEMESTER 2
2015

SHIROMI KARUNARATNE
EMAIL-SHIROMI.K@SLIIT.LK
MOBILE- 0776368620

Unit 2-DW

the sequel to last week ..

Water sources

in Sri Lanka

Water use and fit-for-purpose treatment

Wastewater

Wastewater collection system; centralised vs decentralised systems, recycling

Guidelines for water and wastewater quality

Resource management of air, water, soil (multimedia)

Air quality management

Solid waste management

History of water supply and sanitation

Waterborne diseases, history and current issues

Material to be covered

Water Quality: Physical, Chemical and

Microbiological

Water Quality and Health

Raw water sources, water treatment and

distribution

Water Quality:

Physical water quality parameters

Chemical water quality parameters and

Microbiological water quality parameters

Review of water chemistry

Chemistry is the basis of many problems addressed in environmental

engineering, e.g.

design of water and WW treatment processes

remediation of environmental pollution

alkalinity, pH: acid/base reactions

water treatment chemicals to remove impurities

precipitation

oxidation

kinetics how long does the reaction take to occur?

Chapter 5, Davis and Cornwell 5th Ed

The common term for pH is alkalinity

The pH is an indication for the acidity of a substance. It is

determined by the number of free hydrogen ions (H+) in
a substance.

Acidity is one of the most important properties of water.

Water is a solvent for nearly all ions. The pH serves as an
indicator that compares some of the most water-soluble
ions.

The outcome of a pH-measurement is determined by a

consideration between the number of H+ ions and the
number of hydroxide (OH-) ions. When the number of H+
ions equals the number of OH- ions, the water is neutral.
It will than have a pH of about 7.

Continued.

The pH of water can vary between 0 and 14. When the pH of a

substance is above 7, it is a basic substance. When the pH of a
substance is below 7, it is an acid substance. The further the pH lies
above or below 7, the more basic or acid a solution is.

The pH is a logarithmic factor; when a solution becomes ten times

more acidic, the pH will fall by one unit. When a solution becomes a
hundred times more acidic the pH will fall by two units.

Mastering

the some chemistry will be

a great help in understanding, and
solving, environmental engineering
challenges

Water Chemistry
Physical properties of water:
The basic properties of water relevant to water treatment are density
and viscosity.

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Water Quality: from an environmental

engineering point of view

Impurities in water:

Dissolved substances: A substance which is truly in

solution (homogenous; solvated by the liquid)

Suspended solids are large enough to settle out of

solution or be removed by filtration

Colloidal particles are in the size range between

dissolved substances and suspended particles

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Dissolved substances: definition

12

Dissolved substances are substances that cannot be removed from

the liquid without

a phase change, such as:

distillation

adsorption

precipitation

gas stripping

liquid extraction

reverse osmosis (membrane filtration with pore size in ionic size range, ~10)

Find the definitions by your self

Dissolved substances

Can be simple atoms (e.g. charged ions)

Sodium ion: Na+ (cation)

Chloride ion: Cl- (anion)

or molecules dissolved in water through hydrogen bonding

Dissolved gases, e.g. dissolved oxygen O2

Complex molecules, e.g. sugar

13

Suspended solids and colloids

Suspended solids

Large enough to be removed by physical methods

Centrifugation

Sedimentation

filtration

14

Surface charge is the electrical potential difference

between the inner and outer surface of the dispersed
phase in a colloid.

Colloidal substances

Removal by high ultracentrifuge or tight membrane processes.

Exhibit Tyndall effect (light scattering by particles), , reflected light

causing turbidity

Both suspended and colloidal particles have a surface charge, NOT

an ionic charge

Particulates in water

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Effect of water treatment

Water treatment effectively changes size distribution.

Note much lower overall number of particles in treated
water

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Units for water quality measurements Solutes

change the density of a solution
Weight

percent is % in g/kg solution (w/w)

Weight

volume is % in g/L of solution (w/v)

For dilute solutions, assume that the density does not

change, so concentrations are expressed in
weight/volume (milligrams per litre, mg/L)

1 % = 10,000 mg/L

Consider example 5.1 P222 Davis and Cornwell

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Molarity, normality, equivalent

weight

Molarity is the number of moles per litre of a solution

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E.g. 5.2 Davis and Cornwell

Commercial sulfuric acid comes as a 93% weight % solution.

Find the concentration of the solution in mg/L, molarity and

normality (normality relevant to an acid/base reaction)

H2SO4 has a specific gravity of 1.839 g/cm3

Chemical reactions relevant to water quality

and treatment

Precipitation

Acid/base

e.g. pH correction

Ion association

e.g. water hardness

e.g. environmental processes - heavy metals

Oxidation-reduction

e.g. water chlorination

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Precipitation reactions

Precipitation - dissolved ions reacting to form a solid

compound

e.g. Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3(s)

note that ions in solution are often referred to as a

compound when in fact a compound does not exist,
simply the ions (e.g. CaSO4 and NaCl exist in solution as
4 ions)

Ca2+ + SO42- CaSO4(s)

Na+ + Cl- NaCl (s)

The solubility of a compound is given by its solubility

constant (Ks)

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Acids and bases

When acids enter the water, the ions will

separate. For instance, hydrogen chloride will
separate into hydrogen and chlorine ions (HCL
into H+ + CL-).

Bases also undergo separation of their ions when

enter the water. When sodium hydroxide enters
the water it will separate into sodium and
hydroxide ions (NaOH into Na+ + OH-).

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24

When an acid substance ends up in water, it will give up

a hydrogen ion to the water. The water will then
become acid.
The number of hydrogen ions that the water will receive
determines the pH. When a basic substance enters the
water it will take up hydrogen ions.
This will lower the pH of the water.
When a substance is strongly acidic it will give up more
H+ ions to the water. Strong bases will give up more OH-.

Acid/base reactions
Acid/base acids dissociate to form H+ (hydrogen ion) (and the

conjugate base)

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Rusting

In an oxidation-reduction or redox reaction, one atom or

compound will steal electrons from another atom or
compound. A classic example of a redox reaction is
rusting. When rusting happens, oxygen steals electrons
from iron. Oxygen gets reduced while iron gets oxidized.

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Buffers and alkalinity

Buffering capacity of a natural water refers to its ability to take up

acid or base without a pH change.

Alkaline water (pH>7) is different to water having a high alkalinity!!

Carbonate buffer system important in many aspects of water and

wastewater treatment and environmental chemistry

Alkalinity is experimentally determined as the sum of titratable

bases to pH 4.5.

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Water Quality Parameters

Sri Lanka Standard Specification for potable

water SLS 614 : Part I : 1983 and SLS 614 : Part II :
1983

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ADWG: Water Quality

Physical

Associated with appearance of water such as turbidity, colour,

temperature, particulate matter, taste and odor

Chemical

Differences are not visible but apparent in more subtle ways

e.g. hardness prevents lathering of soaps and shampoos

Microbiological

Major cause of water-borne diseases

so highest priority is to ensure microbiological quality

Radiological

ADWG: Water Quality

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Turbidity

The presence of suspended material such as clay, silt, finely

divided organic material, plankton, and other particulate material in
water

measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU)

Tyndall effect due to light scattering by particles

useful for control of risks of micro-organisms

<1 NTU at time of disinfection

<0.2 and max of 0.5 NTU for control of cryptosporidium, giardia risk

Turbidity greater than 5 NTU is easily detectable

usually objectionable on aesthetic grounds.

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Colour

True colour (filtered); apparent colour includes particulates

ADWG <15 Hazen Units

Dissolved organic substances from decaying vegetation and some

inorganic compounds (Fe, Mn)

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) see later slides

Occasionally excessive blooms of algae or the growth of aquatic

micro-organisms can impart colour

Colour itself is not a he

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Taste and Odour (organoleptic properties)

Can be caused by organic compounds, inorganic salts, or

dissolved gases

Chlorine which is used to disinfect water often imparts a taste

and/or odour

Chlorine can also react with other substances in the water to

indirectly cause taste or odour (e.g. bromide, phenol)

Contaminants, spills (e.g. hydrocarbons)

Cyanobacteria

ADWG: Drinking water should be free from any objectionable taste

and odour at point of use.

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Temperature
Temperature
10-15oC
Fridge

Above

affects taste

is most palatable.

taste???

ground water pipes

Effect on microbiological growth

Chemical Characteristics

Major ions (major components of TDS)

Chloride

Naturally occurring salt, seawater

No health guideline, taste issue at >250mg/L

High Cl- promotes corrosion

Values up to 350mg/L in water supplies, guideline is 250mg/L

Sulfate

Taste effects at >250mg/L; Laxative effects >500 mg/L

Carbonate, bicarbonate

Alkalinity

Sodium

Can affect individuals suffering from heart, kidney problems at >20 mg/L. Aesthetic
limit, 180 mg/L

Calcium, Magnesium

Hardness

Potassium

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Chemical Characteristics

pH

6.5-8.5, new cement pipes can increase pH

buffering capacity of water

alkalinity/acidity

Conductivity

an indirect measure of total dissolved salts (TDS)

inverse of ???

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Chemical Characteristics

Trace ions

Fluoride

Excessive fluoride may produce fluorosis (mottling) of teeth,

acceptable limit 0.8 to 1.3 mg/L; ADWG guideline is 1.5 mg/L

Drinking water in much of the developed world is fluoridated

to prevent tooth decay (controversial)

Bromide

Reacts with disinfectants to form disinfection by-products

Interferes with some oxidation reactions in water treatment

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Chemical Characteristics
Metals

Iron: Causes staining of laundry (iron staining), affects the taste of beverages
such as tea and coffee; easily removed by conventional water treatment

Manganese: Brownish color to water and stains laundry when used for washing,
off taste at 0.1 mg/L, Mn is concentrated in biofilms in distribution pipes, can be
removed by oxidation and conventional water treatment

Lead: Seriously damages health, nervous system, especially in children, possible

carcinogen

Occurs in old water pipes (solder)

ADWG value = 0.01 mg/L Prolonged exposure to relatively small quantities may
result in serious illness or death.

Zinc, copper: Detrimental to health, undesirable taste

Arsenic: Lung and urinary bladder cancer; skin pigment changes and scaling,
hyperkeratosis, reduced blood flow to skin, nerve damage

Other heavy metals: Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg, Ag

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Chemical Characteristics

Toxic inorganic substances: Nitrates, cyanides

Toxic organic substances: Pesticides, insecticides, solvents,

pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, industrial chemicals, petroleum
hydrocarbons (usually present in trace quantities why?)

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Microbiological characteristics

Water for drinking and cooking must be made free

from disease-causing organisms (pathogens).

viruses, bacteria, protozoa (amoeba, cryptosporidium,

giardia) and helminths (worms), cyanobacteria

Origin is either infected human or animal discharge

The specific disease-causing organisms present in water

are not easily identified.

surrogates (indicator organisms) are used to detect

contamination in routine tests total coliforms,
thermotolerant coliforms or E.coli test.

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Protection of drinking water supplies from

contamination

Multiple barrier approach

Catchment protection

Water treatment

coagulation (conventional treatment)

filtration (conventional media)

advanced treatment (e.g. ozone for protozoa)

Disinfection

primary disinfection

post-treatment disinfection

Distribution systems

Closed systems

Maintenance of disinfectant residual, redosing of reservoirs and tanks

Multiple barrier approach is guided by circumstances of the water

supply and distribution system, cf Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth

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Drinking water problems caused by organic

carbon

Presence of natural organic matter

Disinfection by-products

Disinfectant decay

Bacterial regrowth

The use of polyelectrolytes as water treatment chemicals

(coagulant aids)

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Water quality problems caused by organic

carbon

Accelerates chlorine, chloramine decay

makes the disinfectant less effective

Promotes bacterial regrowth

Reacts with disinfectants to form carcinogenic

disinfection by-products

Binds with ferric ions in water to cause discoloured

water

Fouls membranes

Can indirectly lead to production of objectionable

odours and tastes

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Problems caused by dissolved organic

carbon (DOC)

For effective disinfection and pathogen control, chemical

disinfectants are used

Chlorine is the most commonly used

Chlorine kills certain bacteria but also stays as a residual to

maintain disinfecting power later.

This characteristic is important to protect any possible accidental

or subsequent contamination that happens in the system

This is compromised when other agents that can degrade the

disinfectant are present in the system

One of the components that decays chlorine is natural organic

matter (NOM). This is measured as dissolved organic carbon (DOC).

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DOC (continued)

Dissolved organic carbon (NOM)

accelerates the decay of chlorine

provides precursors that react with chlorine to form carcinogenic

disinfection by-products, e.g. trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids

DOC provides food for micro-organisms to grow in distribution pipes

(biofilms)

these biofilms harbour micro-organisms and also cause decay of chlorine

(especially in small diameter pipes)

sloughing of biofilms causes discoloured water

off odours

nitrification

Therefore DOC (NOM) needs to be removed

water treatment processes

*Decay of chlorine will be demonstrated in the laboratory when you do

the experiment

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Recent research has focused on DOC

removal and characterisation

Organic carbon can be removed by:

Enhanced coagulation

Granular activated carbon

Biologically Activated Carbon (BAC)

Granular activated carbon (non-biological mode)

Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)

Ion Exchange process such as MIEX

Advanced oxidation processes

Complete removal of organic carbon cost would be exorbitant

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Some properties related to NOM

can be measured as:

Bacterial regrowth:

Biodegradable Dissolved Organic Carbon (BDOC)

Assailable Organic Carbon

Bacterial Regrowth Potential

Disinfection by-products formation:

THM formation potential

NDMA formation potential

Membrane Fouling

Fouling index

Disinfection decay characteristics

Fast and slow reacting agents

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Bacterial Regrowth

Bacterial Regrowth: Growth of bacteria in the treated

water

Bacteria grows if

disinfectant concentration is too low or bacteria is

resistant

Sufficient food available (organic carbon for

heterotrophic bacteria) and other nutrients (mainly
nitrogen or phosphorus).

Other environmental conditions are suitable (e.g.

temperature)

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Water Treatment Processes

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Conventional water treatment

system

Coagulation: adding and rapidly mixing of chemical coagulants into

the raw water.

Flocculation: slow mixing of the chemicals with the water to assist in

building up particles of floc.

Sedimentation: allow the floc to settle out (gravity)

Filtration: remove almost all of the suspended matter that remains by

passing the water through filters.

Disinfection: destruction or inactivation of waterborne pathogens.

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Design of Coagulation/Flocculation

Major reason to remove microorganisms and turbidity;

enhanced coagulation to remove DOC

In the fresh water bodies small particles (including

organic compounds, colloids microorganisms etc) exist

usually the particle surfaces are negatively charged

To bring them together and make them settle (to

remove by gravity), the charges must be neutralised. This
is achieved by coagulants.

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Colloid stability
Colloids are too small to be trapped in the filter
and too small to settle in a reasonable period of
time.
Surface is negatively charged

Colloidal

particles repel each other (repulsive

interparticle forces)

When the surface charge is larger, the stability

is stronger

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Colloid destabilization

Addition of positively charged cations such as Na+1,

Ca+2, Mg+2, Al+3, or Fe+3 to destabilise the surface
charge of colloids and allow aggregation (flocculation)
into particles

Schulze and Hardy rule: one mole of trivalent ion can

reduce the charge of as much as 30 to 50 moles of a
divalent ion and as much as 1,500 to 2,500 moles of a
monovalent ion

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Coagulation

A coagulant is a substance (chemical) that is added to the water

to accomplish coagulation

There are three key properties of a coagulant

Trivalent cation

Non-toxic

Insoluble in the neutral pH range

Two common coagulants used are aluminium (Al3+) and ferric ion
(Fe3+)

Coagulant aids- These assist coagulation by creating better

coagulation conditions,

e.g optimum pH,

formation of particulate nuclei,

bridging between small flocs to create bigger flocs.

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Coagulation

Four basic types of Coagulant aids:

(i) pH adjusters: most commonly used

- for raising pH lime [Ca(OH)2] or soda ash (Na2CO3) or

sodium hydroxide (NaOH; caustic soda)

(ii) Activated silica: produces a stable suspension of particles that

have a negative surface charge. The activated silica can unite with
the positively charged aluminium or with iron flocs, resulting in a
larger, denser floc that settles faster

(iii) Clays: Clays can act much like activated silica in that they
have a slight negative charge and can add weight to the flocs.
Cheaper than AS

-for lowering pH sulfuric acid [H2SO4]

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Coagulation

(iv) Polymers:

- Polymers can have a negative charge (anionic), positive charge

(cationic), positive and negative charge (polyamphotype), or no
charge (nonionic)

- Polymers are long-chain carbon compounds of high molecular

weight that have many active sites. The active sites adhere to flocs,
joining them together and producing a larger, tougher floc that
settles better. This process is called interparticle bridging.

from Bolto and Gregory, 2007,

Water Research, 2301-2324

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Mixing and Flocculation

Rapid mixing
To

disperse the chemicals throughout the entire

water body

Achieved

by injection of chemicals into the most

turbulent zone

In
In

a pure water Alum + water Al(OH)3 in 1-7 seconds

natural water we need to mix with particles before

this so that the intermediary product (Al7(OH)174+)
that forms within 0.01-1 second combines with
particles to neutralize the particles.

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Determination of optimum
operating conditions

60

Flocculation

Bring particles into contact, to collide, stick

together and grow to a size that will readily
settle

Accomplished by slow, gentle mixing

Enough mixing must be provided to keep the

floc in suspension

Too much mixing will shear the floc particles

and disperses it

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62
1. Coagulation
Rapid mixing
Destabilisation of
colloids
Fast mixing to neutralize
charge on colloids before
hydrolysis occurs

2. Adsorption between
particles due to van der
Waals forces
3. Flocculation
Slow mixing
Polyelectrolyte forms
bridges between
particles to form larger
flocs
Shear forces important

Potential health implications of trace

contaminants in polyelectrolytes

Trace contaminants come from manufacturing processes

Residual monomers, starting materials and reaction by-products

polyacrylimide and epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine (epi/DMA)

compounds

Suspected carcinogens/mutagens

Some countries (Japan, Switzerland) do not allow the use of

polymers due to the contaminants

Some (West Germany, France, and Canada) have stringent limits

In US in some states require notification to health authorities when

using these polyelectrolytes

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Practice questions

1. What is DOC?

2. What are the problems associated with DOC?

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Lecture 2: Practice Questions

4. Why do water utilities want to control turbidity to 0.1 NTU?

5. Why are the following compounds controlled in the distribution
system and what are their possible origins?
Iron and Manganese
Aluminium
Copper
Hardness
6. What is the reason for the multi-barrier approach to pollutant
removal?
7. Which components of water have the greatest effect on alkalinity?
8. Why is discoloured water an issue in utilities? What are possible
causes?
9. Which of the following compounds would you expect to be removed
by the conventional water treatment method of
coagulation/flocculation. Why? Na+; Cl+; finely divided clay particles; a
colloidal suspension of dairy waste; Fe(OH)3 formed from oxidation of
groundwater containing reduced iron; bromide?

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Practice questions (Lecture-2)

10. Charge neutralisation in a coagulation tank
is usually achieved very quickly. Why?
11. What are the primary concerns in drinking
water?
12. What properties are needed for a
coagulant?
13. From your experimental experience, how
much time should we allow in flocculation?
14. How long did you wait in the lab for
sedimentation?

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