Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

Analysis of Amplifier Systems

Amplifier Model
We have seen in the previous chapter, that an amplifier is a device that increases the
magnitude of a signal for use by a load. Amplifiers are complicated arrangements of
transistors, resistors and other components. However a simplified description is all that is
necessary when the requirement is to analyse the source and load behaviour. The amplifier
can be thought of as an interface between the source and the load.
A basic amplifier may be represented as follows:

Gain
Element
Output
Signal

Input
Signal

It is useful to classify amplifiers into four broad categories:

The Voltage Amplifier
Input signal is voltage VIN ,

Output signal is voltage VOUT

The voltage gain AV

The Transconductance Amplifier

Input signal is current IIN

Output signal is voltage VOUT

VOUT
VIN

The Current Amplifier

Input signal is current IIN

Output signal is current IOUT

The current gain AI

The Transconductance gain Gm

IOUT
VIN

The Transresistance Amplifier

Input signal is a voltage VIN

Output signal is current IOUT

IOUT
IIN

The Transresistance gain Rm

VOUT
IIN

In this chapter we will focus on the analysis of the voltage amplifier and the current amplifier.

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

Non Ideal Amplifiers

Saturation Voltage
An ideal amplifier means that the amplifier introduces no noise or distortion to the signal, i.e.
the output replicates the input exactly as the input signal increases. However, for real
amplifiers the gain will taper off as VIN increases in magnitude. This is known as saturation
of the amplifier.
Non Ideal Characteristic
VOUT (V)
40
Saturation voltage = 30V
30

A=
20

20

10

VIN (V)

Saturation in Non-Ideal Voltage Amplifier

Frequency Response
A non-ideal amplifier will also have a frequency response in that as the frequency increases
the gain will fall for a particular magnitude of the input signal.
Frequency Response of Non Ideal Amplifier
Gain A
40
30

Ideal

20

Practical

10
0

f (Hz)
0

10KHz

100KHz

1MHz

Frequency Response of Non-Ideal Amplifier

For an ideal voltage amplifier we assume that the gain remains constant as the frequency
increases.
2

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

Input impedance
For an ideal voltage amplifier we assume that the input impedance is infinite. However, a
real voltage amplifier will also have a finite input impedance.

RIN
VIN

VOUT

Input Impedance

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

Equivalent Circuit Models for Gain Elements

The concept of equivalent circuits, covered in the Electronic Circuits and Devices module to
model voltage and current sources, can be applied to more complicated case of an amplifier.
By drawing an amplifier as an equivalent circuit, you can simplify equations related to its
performance.
The Voltage Amplifier
A basic voltage amplifier may be represented as follows:
VOUT

Transfer Charteristic for Various Gains

100

AV

V=

VOUT

VIN

0
=1
AV

20

75
50

5
A V=

25
0

AV

VOUT
VIN

or

10

VIN

VOUT AV .VIN

Voltage Amplifier
The input signal from a source is applied to the input terminals of the amplifier, and an output
is taken from the second set of terminals.
In practice the amplifier input and output voltages will be influenced by the characteristics of
the source, which supplies the input to the amplifier, and the load, which the amplifier output
is required to drive. To analyse this, it is necessary to adopt a model of the interior of the
amplifier.

RS

IOUT

IIN

+
VOUT

VIN

VS

RL

GAIN ELEMENT

SOURCE
RS: Source Resistance

VS: Source Voltage

RL: Load Resistance

Source Gain Element Load

LOAD

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

The Voltage Amplifier Equivalent Circuit

The amplifier input and output circuits are characterised using Thevenins Theorem to
produce the model for a voltage amplifier.

Gain Element
ROUT

+
VIN

RIN

AV VIN

VOUT

Voltage Amplifier Equivalent Circuit Model

As amplifiers are designed to operate from input to output only, VOUT does not influence VIN.
The amplifiers input terminals present an input resistance to the voltage source. Therefore,
the input circuit is modelled as an input resistance RIN.

RIN is the Thevenin resistance seen at the input terminals and is called the
input resistance of the amplifier.

The output circuit of the amplifier can be modelled as Thevenin source, as shown above:

ROUT is the Thevenin resistance seen at the output terminals and is called the
output resistance of the amplifier

AVVIN is the Thevenin voltage seen at the output of the amplifier where AV is the voltage
gain of the amplifier. Because the magnitude of the Thevenin source is dependent on the
unloaded gain AV and the input voltage VIN., the amplifiers output circuit is said to contain
a dependent source.

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

An amplifier does not exist in isolation and in practice the input will be driven by a non-ideal
source and the output will be connected to a load. The load is assumed to be a resistance
connected across the output terminals as shown below:

Gain Element

Source

Load

RS

ROUT

+
-

VIN

VS

RIN

Voltage Source
Equivalent
Circuit

AV VIN

Voltage Amplifier
Equivalent Circuit Model

VOUT

RL

Load
Equivalent
Circuit

Source/Amplifier/Load Equivalent Circuits

Analysing the input circuit:

Gain Element

Source
VRS =IIN RS
IIN

+
-

RS

VS

VIN

RIN

Input Circuit

Figure 1: Amplifier Input Circuit

The input resistance RIN affects the input voltage VIN to the amplifier because it forms a
voltage divider with the source resistance RS.
R

The voltage division rule => V V R R

equation 1
IN

IN

IN

So for example, if the source voltage is 3 V, the source resistance is 500 and the input
resistance is 1 k, then the input voltage would be:
VIN = 3 ( 1000 / 1500 ) = 2 V

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

Analysing the output circuit:

Load

Gain Element
VROUT = IOUT ROUT
IOUT

VOUT

AV VIN

RL

Output Circuit

The presence of RL modifies the behaviour of the amplifier.

The unloaded voltage gain of the amplifier is called AV
AV

VOUT
VIN

equation 2

RL

Note AV is independent of the circuit into which the amplifier is connected

Applying the voltage division rule =>

VOUT AVVIN

RL

ROUT RL

equation 3

RIN

But, the input voltage is V V R R .

Therefore substituting VIN into the VOUT equation gives =>:
IN

IN

VOUT AVVs

RIN
RL

RIN RS ROUT RL

The loaded voltage gain of the amplifier is called AVL and is defined as:
AVL

VOUT
VS

equation 4

Therefore dividing the VOUT equation above by VS gives an expression for the loaded voltage
gain:
R
R

A A

equation 5
R R R
R

VL

IN

IN

OUT

Looking at this equation, it can be seen the loaded gain AVL must be less than or equal to the
open circuit gain AV:

AVL AV
In practice the loaded voltage gain is less than the unloaded voltage gain.

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

The loaded voltage gain will be at its maximum if the amplifier is designed such that:
RIN -> and ROUT -> 0
Thus,

AVL AV

RIN
RL

RIN RS ROUT RL

=> AVL --> AV

Ideal voltage amplifier:

Real voltage amplifier

RIN = , ROUT = 0
AVL = AV

In reality we require:
RIN
>>

VIN

ROUT <<

VOUT

=> independent of source and load

RS
VS
RL
AvVS

Example Problems
Attempt the following example problems. The solutions will be covered during lectures.
Exercise 1
A non-ideal voltage amplifier has an input resistance of RIN = 2 k and
output resistance of ROUT = 0 . The gain AV = 20 and the input current is 1 mA. What is
VOUT?
Exercise 2
A voltage amplifier has the following characteristics:
Gain AV = 10, RIN = and ROUT = 0 .
Calculate VOUT and IOUT if RL = 100 , RS = 1 k, VS = 10 mV.
Exercise 3
Repeat example No. 2 for the two cases:
(a) RS = 500 and RIN = 1.5 k.
(b) RS = 200 and RIN = 800 .
(c) RS = 200 and RIN = 800 . and ROUT = 100 .
(d) RS = 200 and RIN = 800 . and ROUT = 1000 .
Comment on the results obtained
Exercise 4
Calculate the power gain AP and the output power in dBW of a voltage amplifier having RIN =
2 k, AV = 20, VS = 8 V, RS = 200 and RL = 200 . Assume ROUT of the amplifier to be
ideal.

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

Analysis of Amplifier Systems [continued]

The Current Amplifier
A basic current amplifier may be represented as follows:
IOUT (mA)

Transfer Charteristic for Various Gains

of Current Amplifier

40

IIN

IOUT

AI

30
20
10
0

A is the current gain

AI

10

12

IOUT
or IOUT = AIIIN
IIN

Current Amplifier
Current Amplifier
Using Nortons theorem, the following model can be adopted for a current amplifier:

IOUT

IIN

IS

RS

Current Source
Equivalent
Circuit

AIIIN ROUT

RIN

Current Amplifier
Equivalent Circuit Model

VOUT

RL

Load
Equivalent
Circuit

RIN is the resistance seen at the input terminals and is called the
input resistance of the amplifier.
ROUT is the Norton resistance seen at the output terminals and is called the
output resistance of the amplifier
AIIIN is the Norton current produced at the output of the amplifier where AI is the
current gain of the amplifier.

IIN (mA)

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

Analysing the input circuit:

IIN

RS

IS

RIN

Current Source
Equivalent Circuit

Current Amplifier
Input Equivalent Circuit

Amplifier Input Circuit

The input resistance RIN affects the input current IIN to the amplifier as follows:
R

The current division rule => I I R R

equation 6
IN

IN

Analysing the output circuit:

IOUT
AIIIN ROUT

VOUT

RL

Load
Equivalent Circuit

Current Amplifier
Output Equivalent Circuit

The zero-loaded current gain of the amplifier is called AI

AI

IOUT
IIN

equation 7

RL 0

Note AI is independent of the circuit into which the amplifier is connected

Applying the current division rule => I

OUT

AIIIN

10

ROUT

ROUT RL

equation 8

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

RS

But, the input current is I I R R

Therefore substituting IIN into the IOUT equation gives =>:
IN

IN

IOUT AIIs

RS
ROUT

RIN RS ROUT RL

The loaded current gain of the amplifier is called AIL and is defined as:
AIL

IOUT
IS

equation 9

Therefore dividing the IOUT equation above by IS gives an expression for the loaded current
gain:
R
R

A A

equation 10
R R R
R

IL

IN

OUT

OUT

Looking at this equation, it can be seen the loaded gain A IL must be less than or equal to the
open circuit gain AI:
Ideal current amplifier:
Real current amplifier
Ideally:
In reality we require:
RIN
<<
RS
RIN = 0 , ROUT =

IIN

IS
=> AIL =AI => independent of source and load
resistance
ROUT >>
RL

IOUT
VOUT

AIIS
AIISRL

Example Problems
Exercise 5
A non-ideal current amplifier has an input resistance of RIN = 100 ,
output resistance of ROUT = . The gain AI = 10 and the input voltage is 2 V.
What is IOUT if the load resistance of RL = 10 k.?
Exercise 6
A current amplifier has the following characteristics:
Gain AI = 5, RIN =0 and ROUT = .
Calculate VOUT and IOUT if RL = 100 , RS = 2 k, IS = 10 mA.
Exercise 7
Repeat previous example for the two cases:
(a) RS = 2 k and RIN = 2 k.
(b) RS =2 k and RIN = 100 .
(c) RS =2 k , RIN = 100 and ROUT =100 .
(d) RS =2 k , RIN = 100 and ROUT =10 k .
Comment on the results obtained

11

Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 3 Amplifier Modelling

Amplifiers in Cascade
We can see in the previous examples that the amplifier equivalent circuit models are useful
for analysis of source and load effects. These models are also useful to analysis the internal
loading when two or more stages are cascaded to form a single amplifier. Consider the twostage cascaded voltage amplifier shown below. The overall gain is affected by loading effects
from each of the three loops. The loops are simple series circuits, so the voltages can easily
be calculated with the voltage division rule.

Stage 1

RS

Stage 2

ROUT1

+
VS

Load

Two-Stage Cascaded Amplifier

Source

VIN1

RIN1

ROUT

+
AV1 VIN1

VIN2

RIN2

AV2 VIN2

R
VOUT2 L

.
Two-Stage Cascaded Voltage Amplifier
Consider the two-stage cascaded current amplifier shown below. Again, the current can easily
be calculated with the current division rule.
Two-Stage Cascaded Current Amplifier
Stage 1

IIN1

IS

RS

Stage 2
IOUT2

RIN1

AI1IIN1 ROUT1

RIN2

AI2IIN2 ROUT2

Two-Stage Cascaded Current Amplifier

Sample problems covered in class
12

RL