Aswath Damodaran

RETURNING CASH TO THE

OWNERS: DIVIDEND POLICY
Companies dont have cash. They hold cash for
their stockholders.

First Principles
2

Maximize the value of the business (firm)

The Investment Decision

Invest in assets that earn a
return greater than the
minimum acceptable hurdle
rate

The hurdle rate

should reflect the
riskiness of the
investment and
the mix of debt
and equity used
to fund it.

Aswath Damodaran

The return
should reflect the
magnitude and
the timing of the
cashflows as welll
as all side effects.

The Financing Decision

Find the right kind of debt
for your firm and the right
mix of debt and equity to
fund your operations

The optimal
mix of debt
and equity
maximizes firm
value

The right kind

of debt
matches the
tenor of your
assets

The Dividend Decision

If you cannot find investments
that make your minimum
acceptable rate, return the cash
to owners of your business

How much
cash you can
return
depends upon
current &
potential
investment
opportunities

How you choose

to return cash to
the owners will
depend on
whether they
prefer dividends
or buybacks

Steps to the Dividend Decision

3

How much did you borrow?
Cashflows to Debt
(Principal repaid,
Interest
Expenses)
Cashflow
from
Operations

How good are your investment choices?

Reinvestment back
into the business
What is a reasonable cash balance?

Cashflows from
Operations to
Equity Investors

Cash held back

by the company

Cash available
for return to
stockholders

What do your
stockholders prefer?
Stock Buybacks
Cash Paid out

Dividends

Aswath Damodaran

I. Dividends are sJcky

4

Dividend Changes at US companies

80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%

Increase
Decrease
No change

20.00%
10.00%
0.00%

Aswath Damodaran

The last quarter of 2008 put sJckiness to the

test.. Number of S&P 500 companies that
5

Quarter
Dividend Increase
Dividend initiated
Dividend decrease
Dividend suspensions

Q1 2007

102

1

1

1

Q2 2007

63

1

1

5

Q3 2007

59

2

2

0

Q4 2007

63

7

4

2

Q1 2008

93

3

7

4

Q2 2008

65

0

9

0

Q3 2008

45

2

6

8

Q4 2008

32

0

17

10

Aswath Damodaran

II. Dividends tend to follow earnings

6

S&P 500: Dividends and Earnings - 1960 to 2013

120.00

100.00

80.00

2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1982
1981
1980
1979
1978
1977
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
Year
0.00

Earnings
60.00

Dividends
40.00

20.00

6

Aswath Damodaran

III. Are aected by tax laws

In 2003

In the last quarter of 2012

As the possibility of tax
rates reverJng back to
pre-2003 levels rose, 233
companies paid out $31
billion in dividends.
Of these companies, 101
had insider holdings in
excess of 20% of the
outstanding stock.

IV. More and more rms are buying back stock,

rather than pay dividends...
8

Stock Buybacks and Dividends: Aggregate for US Firms - 1989-2013

$600,000.00

$ Dividends & Buybacks

$500,000.00

$400,000.00

$300,000.00

$200,000.00

$100,000.00

$-

1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013

Year

Stock Buybacks

Aswath Damodaran

Dividends

V. And there are dierences across countries

9

Aswath Damodaran

Measures of Dividend Policy

10

Dividend Payout = Dividends/ Net Income

Measures the percentage of earnings that the company

pays in dividends
If the net income is negaJve, the payout raJo cannot be
computed.

Dividend Yield = Dividends per share/ Stock price

Measures the return that an investor can make from

dividends alone
Becomes part of the expected return on the investment.

Aswath Damodaran

10

Dividend Payout RaJos

11

Dividend Payout RaCos in 2014

18.00%
16.00%
14.00%
12.00%
10.00%

Global
US

8.00%
6.00%
4.00%
2.00%
0.00%
0-10%

10-20%

Aswath Damodaran

20-30%

30-40%

40-50%

50-60%

60-70%

70-80%

70-90%

90-100%

>100%

11

Dividend Yields: January 2013

12

Dividend Yields in 2014

18.00%
16.00%
14.00%
12.00%
10.00%
8.00%

Global
US

6.00%
4.00%
2.00%
0.00%

Aswath Damodaran

12

13

Aswath Damodaran

Dividend Yields and Payout RaJos: Growth

Classes
14

Dividend Yields and Payout Ra:os: By Growth Class

50.00%

4.00%

45.00%

3.50%

40.00%
3.00%
35.00%
2.50%

30.00%
25.00%

2.00%

Dividend Payout raJo

Dividend Yield

20.00%

1.50%

15.00%
1.00%
10.00%
0.50%

5.00%
0.00%

0.00%
0-3%

Aswath Damodaran

3-5%

5-10%

10-15%

15-20%

20-25%

>25%

14

Dividend Policy: Disney, Vale, Tata Motors,

Baidu and Deutsche Bank
15

Dividend Yield - Last 12 months

Disney
1.09%

Vale
6.56%

Tata Motors
1.31%

Baidu
0.00%

Deutsche Bank
1.96%

Dividend Payout ratio - Last 12 months

Dividend Yield - 2008-2012

21.58%
1.17%

113.45%
4.01%

16.09%
1.82%

0.00%
0.00%

362.63%
3.14%

Dividend Payout - 2008-2012

17.11%

37.69%

15.53%

0.00%

37.39%

Aswath Damodaran

15

Three Schools Of Thought On Dividends

1.

If there are no tax disadvantages associated with

dividends & companies can issue stock, at no issuance
cost, to raise equity, whenever needed

Dividends do not maGer, and dividend policy does not aect

value.
2.

If dividends create a tax disadvantage for investors

(relaJve to capital gains)

Dividends are bad, and increasing dividends will reduce value

3.

If dividends create a tax advantage for investors

(relaJve to capital gains) and/or stockholders like
dividends

Dividends are good, and increasing dividends will increase value

Aswath Damodaran

16

The balanced viewpoint

17

If a company has excess cash, and few good

investment opportuniJes (NPV>0), returning money
to stockholders (dividends or stock repurchases) is
good.
If a company does not have excess cash, and/or has
several good investment opportuniJes (NPV>0),
returning money to stockholders (dividends or stock
repurchases) is bad.

Aswath Damodaran

17

The Dividends dont majer school

The Miller Modigliani Hypothesis
18

The Miller-Modigliani Hypothesis: Dividends do not aect value

Basis:

If a rm's investment policies (and hence cash ows) don't change, the value of the
rm cannot change as it changes dividends.
If a rm pays more in dividends, it will have to issue new equity to fund the same
projects. By doing so, it will reduce expected price appreciaJon on the stock but it
will be oset by a higher dividend yield.
If we ignore personal taxes, investors have to be indierent to receiving either
dividends or capital gains.

Underlying AssumpJons:
(a) There are no tax dierences to investors between dividends and capital gains.
(b) If companies pay too much in cash, they can issue new stock, with no otaJon costs
or signaling consequences, to replace this cash.
(c) If companies pay too lijle in dividends, they do not use the excess cash for bad
projects or acquisiJons.

Aswath Damodaran

18

II. The Dividends are bad school: And the

evidence to back them up
19

Tax rates on dividends and capital gains- US

100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
2013

2011

2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

1980

1978

1976

1974

1972

1970

1968

1966

1964

1962

1960

1958

1956

1954

1952

1950

1948

1946

1944

1942

1940

1938

1936

1934

1932

1930

1928

1926

1924

1922

1920

1918

1916

0.00%

Dividend tax rate

Aswath Damodaran

Capital gains tax rate

19

What do investors in your stock think about

dividends? Clues on the ex-dividend day!
20

Assume that you are the owner of a stock that is approaching an ex-
dividend day and you know that dollar dividend with certainty. In
addiJon, assume that you have owned the stock for several years.
Initial buy

At $P

Pb

Pa

Ex-dividend day

Dividend = $ D

P = Price at which you bought the stock a while back

Pb= Price before the stock goes ex-dividend
Pa=Price aper the stock goes ex-dividend
D = Dividends declared on stock
to, tcg = Taxes paid on ordinary income and capital gains respecJvely
Aswath Damodaran

20

Cashows from Selling around Ex-Dividend Day

21

The cash ows from selling before ex-dividend day are:

Pb - (Pb - P) tcg

The cash ows from selling aper ex-dividend day are:

Pa - (Pa - P) tcg + D(1-to)

Since the average investor should be indierent

between selling before the ex-dividend day and selling
aper the ex-dividend day -
Pb - (Pb - P) tcg = Pa - (Pa - P) tcg + D(1-to)

Some basic algebra leads us to the following:

Pb Pa 1 t o
=
D
1 t cg

Aswath Damodaran

21

IntuiJve ImplicaJons
22

The relaJonship between the price change on the ex-

dividend day and the dollar dividend will be determined by
the dierence between the tax rate on dividends and the tax
rate on capital gains for the typical investor in the stock.
Tax Rates

Ex-dividend day behavior

If dividends and capital gains are

taxed equally

Price change = Dividend

If dividends are taxed at a higher

rate than capital gains

Price change < Dividend

If dividends are taxed at a lower

rate than capital gains

Price change > Dividend

Aswath Damodaran

22

The empirical evidence

23

1966-1969
Ordinary tax rate = 70%
Capital gains rate = 28%
Price change as % of Dividend = 78%
1981-1985
Ordinary tax rate = 50%
Capital gains rate = 20%
Price change as % of Dividend = 85%
1986-1990
Ordinary tax rate = 28%
Capital gains rate = 28%
Price change as % of Dividend = 90%
Aswath Damodaran

23

Dividend Arbitrage
24

Assume that you are a tax exempt investor, and that

you know that the price drop on the ex-dividend day
is only 90% of the dividend. How would you exploit
this dierenJal?
a.
b.

c.
d.

Invest in the stock for the long term

Sell short the day before the ex-dividend day, buy on the
ex-dividend day
Buy just before the ex-dividend day, and sell aper.
______________________________________________

Aswath Damodaran

24

Example of dividend capture strategy with tax

factors
25

XYZ company is selling for $50 at close of trading May 3.

On May 4, XYZ goes ex-dividend; the dividend amount is
$1. The price drop (from past examinaJon of the data) is
only 90% of the dividend amount.
The transacJons needed by a tax-exempt U.S. pension
fund for the arbitrage are as follows:
1. Buy 1 million shares of XYZ stock cum-dividend at $50/share.
2. Wait Jll stock goes ex-dividend; Sell stock for $49.10/share
(50 - 1* 0.90)
3. Collect dividend on stock.

Net prot = - 50 million + 49.10 million + 1 million =

$0.10 million

Aswath Damodaran

25

Two bad reasons for paying dividends

1. The bird in the hand fallacy
26

Argument: Dividends now are more certain than

capital gains later. Hence dividends are more
valuable than capital gains. Stocks that pay
dividends will therefore be more highly valued than
stocks that do not.
Counter: The appropriate comparison should be
between dividends today and price appreciaJon
today. The stock price drops on the ex-dividend day.

Aswath Damodaran

26

2. We have excess cash this year

27

Argument: The rm has excess cash on its hands this

year, no investment projects this year and wants to
give the money back to stockholders.
Counter: So why not just repurchase stock? If this is
a one-Jme phenomenon, the rm has to consider
future nancing needs. The cost of raising new
nancing in future years, especially by issuing new
equity, can be staggering.

Aswath Damodaran

27

The Cost of Raising Capital

28

Figure 10.12: Issuance Costs for Stocks and Bonds

25.00%

Cost as % of funds raised

20.00%

15.00%

10.00%

5.00%

0.00%

Under $1 mil

$1.0-1.9 mil

$2.0-4.9 mil

$5.0-$9.9 mil

Size of Issue

Cost of Issuing bonds

Aswath Damodaran

$10-19.9 mil

$20-49.9 mil

$50 mil and over

Cost of Issuing Common Stock

28

Three good reasons for paying dividends

29

Clientele Eect: The investors in your company like

dividends.
The Signalling Story: Dividends can be signals to the
market that you believe that you have good cash
ow prospects in the future.
The Wealth AppropriaJon Story: Dividends are one
way of transferring wealth from lenders to equity
investors (this is good for equity investors but bad
for lenders)

Aswath Damodaran

29

1. The Clientele Eect

The strange case of CiJzens UJlity
30

Aswath Damodaran

Class A
shares pay
cash
dividend



Class B
shares offer
the same
amount as a
stock
dividend &
can be
converted to
class A
shares
30

Evidence from Canadian rms

31

Company

Premium for cash dividend shares

Consolidated Bathurst

+ 19.30%

Donfasco

+ 13.30%

Dome Petroleum

+ 0.30%

Imperial Oil

+12.10%

Newfoundland Light & Power

+ 1.80%

Royal Trustco

+ 17.30%

Stelco

+ 2.70%

TransAlta

+1.10%

Average across companies

+ 7.54%

Aswath Damodaran

31

A clientele based explanaJon

32

Basis: Investors may form clienteles based upon

their tax brackets. Investors in high tax brackets may
invest in stocks which do not pay dividends and
those in low tax brackets may invest in dividend
paying stocks.
Evidence: A study of 914 investors' poryolios was
carried out to see if their poryolio posiJons were
aected by their tax brackets. The study found that

(a) Older investors were more likely to hold high dividend

stocks and
(b) Poorer investors tended to hold high dividend stocks
Aswath Damodaran

32

Results from Regression: Clientele Eect

D i v i d e n d Y
ie
l d t =
a
+
b

t +
c
A
g e t +
d
I n
c o m e t +
e
D
i f f e r e n t i a l T
a x R a
t e t +

t
V a r i a b l e

C oe
f f i c i e n t

I mp
l i e s

C o n s t a n t

4 . 2 2 %

B e t a C o
e f f i c i e n t

- 2 . 1 4 5

H i g h e r b
e t a s
t o c k s p
a y l o w e r d
i v i d e n d s .

A g e / 1 0 0

3 . 1 3 1

F i r m s w
i t h o
l d e r i n v e s t o r s p
a y h
i g h e r
d i v i d e n d s .

I n c o m e / 1 0 0 0

- 3 . 7 2 6

F i r m s w
i t h w
e a l t h i e r i n v e s t o r s p
a y l o w e r
d i v i d e n d s .

D i f f e r e n t i a l T
a x R a
t e

- 2 . 8 4 9

I f o
r d i n a r y i n c o m e i s t
a x e d a
t a
h
i g h e r r
a t e
t h a n c
a p i t a l g
a i n s , t
h e f
i r m p
a y s l e s s
d i v i d e n d s .

Dividend Policy and Clientele

34

a.

b.

c.

d.

Assume that you run a phone company, and that you have
historically paid large dividends. You are now planning to
enter the telecommunicaJons and media markets. Which of
the following paths are you most likely to follow?
Courageously announce to your stockholders that you plan
to cut dividends and invest in the new markets.
ConJnue to pay the dividends that you used to, and defer
investment in the new markets.
ConJnue to pay the dividends that you used to, make the
investments in the new markets, and issue new stock to
cover the shoryall
Other

Aswath Damodaran

34

2. Dividends send a signal

Increases in dividends are good news..
35

Aswath Damodaran

35

But higher or new dividends may signal

bad news (not good)
36

Dividend IniCaCons and Earnings Growth

45.00%
40.00%

Annual Earnings Growth Rate

35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
-4

-3

-2

-1

Year relaCve to dividend iniCaCon (Before and aUer)

Aswath Damodaran

36

Both dividend increases and decreases are

becoming less informaJve
Market Reaction to Dividend Changes over time: US companies

1.00%
0.00%
1962-1974

1975-1987

1988-2000

-1.00%
-2.00%

Dividend Increases
Dividend Decreases

-3.00%
-4.00%
-5.00%
-6.00%

3. Dividend increases may be good for

stocks but bad for bonds..
EXCESS RETURNS ON STOCKS AND BONDS AROUND DIVIDEND CHANGES!

Stock price rises

0.5!
0!
t:-! -12! -9! -6! -3!
-0.5!15!

0!

3!

6!

9! 12! 15!

CAR!

CAR (Div Up)!

CAR (Div down)!

-1!
-1.5!

Bond price drops

-2!
Day (0: Announcement date)!

What managers believe about dividends

39

Aswath Damodaran

39

First Principles
40

Maximize the value of the business (firm)

The Investment Decision

Invest in assets that earn a
return greater than the
minimum acceptable hurdle
rate

The hurdle rate

should reflect the
riskiness of the
investment and
the mix of debt
and equity used
to fund it.

Aswath Damodaran

The return
should reflect the
magnitude and
the timing of the
cashflows as welll
as all side effects.

The Financing Decision

Find the right kind of debt
for your firm and the right
mix of debt and equity to
fund your operations

The optimal
mix of debt
and equity
maximizes firm
value

The right kind

of debt
matches the
tenor of your
assets

The Dividend Decision

If you cannot find investments
that make your minimum
acceptable rate, return the cash
to owners of your business

How much
cash you can
return
depends upon
current &
potential
investment
opportunities

How you choose

to return cash to
the owners will
depend on
whether they
prefer dividends
or buybacks

40