Department of Sociology, Humboldt State University

COMPETING SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGMS: A Contrast of the Sociological Systems of Merton,

Parsons, and Marx
Author(s): Albert Szymanski
Source: Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, Vol. 2, No. 2 (SPRING/SUMMER 1975), pp. 57-65
Published by: Department of Sociology, Humboldt State University
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COMPETING

SOCIOLOGICAL
of the Sociological

A Contrast

of Merton,

Szymanski

(1959).

recently two modes of sociology were hegemonic

in the United States. These were what C. Wright Mills
called Grand Theory and Abstracted Empiricism
The major proponent of the first has been Talcott

Parsons,

and

the

Merton.

The

leading

United

States

originally

"theorist"

major

in

social

the

last

developed

science

Robert

second,

has

however,

Marx.

of

Each

King

these

within

non-Marxist

American

diminished considerably
in some

sociology
and

idealist

critical
in

theory,

others,

Merton
numerous

of sociology

paradigms

important.

Further,

paradigms

and

the

their

versions

such

as

and

phenomenology,

the

the
in

has,

of

Merton

systematic
contrasting

to

discontinuous

and

that

the development

replacement

of some

paradigms

of each

values
from

removed

paradigm.

The

relations,

do

social

natural
not

far

sciences,

involve

in

values

anything like the degree to which they are imbedded in the

its

is

science,
avoid

three

men

social relations. These existential positions will necessarily

either conflict with, or confirm, the existential assertions of
the various political and moral ideologies in contention in
society. It is probably the different value resonances of the

perspectives
recent

years,

various

can

two
throw

consists

by others.1

of a

predominance

taking

positions

that

sociological
paradigms
of sociological

for the

account
at

systems

of

any

given

time.

A paradigm provides its adherents with categories in which

to

remain

competing

relative

because

matter
subject
on the nature

Social

In this paper, I will first develop a modified version of

Thomas Kuhn's notion of a scientific paradigm, adapting his
original schema (which was developed to describe the natural
Volume 2 Number 2

inherent

cannot

of these

of sociology

important

sciences.

Parsons

Marxism

most

relations,

considerable light on the more general question of the role of

sociological paradigms.
The central thesis of this paper is that sociology is not a
theoretically unified discipline, and further, that its
development is not cumulative. Instead, the position I hold is
that sociology
involves a struggle between competing
paradigms,

the
more

of voluntarist

examination

the

social

interactionism

and

of

social

ethnomethodology,

symbolic

One

sciences.

social

that

in favor of formal mathematical

and

circles,

modes

of

sociology

and

Parsons

by

the

innovations in his schema is the introduction of the notion of

been

articulated systematic approaches to doing sociology, which,

following Thomas Kuhn (1964), can justly be referred to as
scientific paradigms. Although the relative pre-eminence
articulated

to

sciences)

of the

outside

perspective

generation,
Karl

by

of the

Systems

and Marx*

Parsons,

Albert

UNTIL

PARADIGMS:

comprehend
units

structural

flow

the

the linguistic
category
these
structural
units
of syntax).

category

of social

in which

social

It provides
experience.
is perceived
(similar

of semantics),

and

to

(similar

each

Each

the
to

reality
other

paradigm

the mode
to

of relating

the
an

represents

linguistic
alternative

way of looking at the social world. Paradigms cannot be easily

criteria

by

judged
under

from

taken

since

consideration,

any
each

paradigm
offers

except

the

own

rules

its

one
of

verification.
The idea of scientific paradigms is opposed to the naive
view of science in which it is implicitly assumed that there is
of

agreement
hypotheses.
disagree,
because
two

what

the

According
it

is

at least

observers

either
one
will

key
to

are

problems

this

because

naive
the

of the observers
necessarily

Spring/Summer 1975

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agree

view,

and

test

was

was

biased.

only

how

if two

to

test

observers

or
inadequate,
But in reality,

if they

subscribe

to

57

the same paradigm.

The

notion

myth

The

of a cumulative
in

perpetuated
courses

sociology

and

good

part

which,

social

integrated

textbooks

through

a process

through

is a

science
and

basic

of selection

and

focus

The Basic Components of a Sociological Paradigm

A sociological

paradigm can be usefully considered

of a system

of concepts,

data

central

ranges,

to

problems,

methods of verification, modes of thinking, and values. We will

discuss

each

in turn.

A concept is the crystallization or reification of an aspect

of the flow of experience. It is the smallest unit in a
paradigmatic definition of social reality. It specifies not only
what

entities

the

universe

does

and

does

not

and

contain

the

meanings attached to them, it further implicitly or explicitly

contains

its

to

relationships

other

paradigmatic system as a whole.

A

data

defines

paradigm

to

refers

range

as

the

area

that

relevant;

of

those

is,

that

experience

one

that

places

should

th e

to

and

concepts

look for data. It should be noted that different

paradigms see quite different things in the same places. For
the

example,

Marxist

accumulation
motivated

the

early

data

general

the

and

Parsonian

to

are

But

the

the

bo

of

th

of

what

these

values

the

data

are

of

range

small

is a two-way

While

process.

the concepts

and

mode

of thinking define what is to be considered relevant kinds of

the

data,

of

type

data

considered

also

effects

the

kinds

of

concepts, theories, methods, and mode of thinking to be

applied to it. For example, the expert of Latin America tends
to apply the categories and theories developed from dealing
with

Latin

The

American

to other

material
can

problem

concept

areas.
within

meaning

paradigmatic framework. A problem exists because (a) a given

paradigm
and

(b)

it as a meaningful
and important
question,
the given state of a paradigm
has not yet been
the phenomena
that it defines
as
satisfactorily

specifies
because

able

to explain
relevant.
For a problem
to be selected
as relevant
is must
both
stateable
and
solvable
in terms
of.
potentially
and

conceptual
a

example,

central
or

Mertonian

or

Parsonian

the

for

problem

consciousness,

proletarian

tools

instrumental

paradigm

is the

Marxist

any

false-consciousness.

central

is

problem

cause
For

the

be
the
For

supplies.

of

is concerned

with

as an important

question.

Every paradigm specifies what it considers

relevant

Research

methods.

a shared

and

paradigm

standards

on

of procedure.

within

normal

source

of

a commitment

Similar

methods

to be the
is based

science
to similar
reflect

on

rules

and

agreement

on

a way of looking at the flow of experience. The decision to

employ

a particular

carries

with

circumstances
consequences

it

method
an

will

and

assurance
occur.

of accepting

to use
that

For
only

it in a particular
only

example,

experimental

certain
methods

or only historiography,
on the range
survey research,
of concepts,
and
theories
that
could
arise.
problems,

58

way

sorts

consider

of
the

or only
and

elements

the key
and

organizing
and

conceptualization
of
the view
of

categorization

dynamic
the

analysis,
the nature

change,

social

as the

categories

of

These

experience.

one

since

paradigms
set

relevant

of

must

a paradigm

employ

classificatory

In

concepts.

to

the

generate

discussion

that

follows we have tried to overcome this problem by using all

the paradigms which we will discuss to generate categories.
This has the advantage not only of being relatively objective,
but

of

that

are

attention

calling
is

exactly

to those

In any

empty.
meant

our

by

before

in opposing
of

modes

concrete

discussing

paradigms

to understand

way

categories

through illustration.
However,

areas

the best

event,

of

what
is

thinking
we

paradigms,

would

like to discuss the standard kinds of mechanisms used by

to

paradigms

for

account

alternative

paradigms

(alternative

definitions of social reality). We will suggest three basic kinds

of such

defense-mechanisms:

The

is the

claim

the

example,

denial

that

of phenomena
that

sciousness

claim

view

and

that

the

are

they

Parsonian

whatever

that

class

don't
the

Marxist

interest.

of

problems

nihilation

Alternatively,

of another

adherents

a paradigm
For
problems.

metaphysical
of

or

phenomena

fit into

are not

paradigm

to

be taken seriously. They are naive, unscientific, ignorant,

ideological, ignoring the facts, or rationalizing their interests at
best,

liars

and

and

Marxists,

at

worst.

For

the Marxist

the

example,

view

view

Parsonian

of

of Parsonians.

Segregation: The assigning of a paradigm or part of a paradigm

to another field. For example, the sociologist's assigning of
and

phenomena
moral

psychologist,
alternative
own

was

classical

of

the

selective

friendly

For
example,
Or
functionalist.

categories

to

economist,

or politician.

it is explained

paradigm

paradigm.

Marx

Through

Integration:

orientations

philosopher,

social

as

of

perception

a special

Merton's

demonstration

Parson's

redefinition

theory

(power,

an

of your

case

that
of

the

state,

prestige,

religion, etc.).
The Application of the Schema

the

deviance. Neither paradigm specifies the problem that the

other

the

of such

of analysis,

categories are all vague and ill-defined because of the great

difficulty of dealing on such a high level of abstraction with
comparisons among paradigms. It is extremely difficult to
formulate categories in which to classify sub-divisions of

certain

have

only

of

of elements,

and

change,

frame

fundamental

mode

interrelations

false-con

group sociology. The relationship of a data range to the rest of

a paradigm

the

the

consist

They

and

explanation,

elements,

interpretations
exist
or the

same

theories

of observation

and
general
specific
of the interrelationships

organization

of experience.

Nihilation:

primitive

with

concerned

different

entirely

of

source

problem

capitalists

range.

counterposed

of

problem

of

the

the

are

thinking

of

toward

of the flow

distortion, represent the previous thinking and research in the

general idea of sociology as building up to the present. The
book which has perhaps had the greatest impact in this regard
has been Parsons' The Structure of Social Action (1937).

consist

modes

orientations

types

Now

let

sociology.

us

were

recently
Robert

to

begin

discuss

concrete

in

paradigms

We will treat the two paradigms which until

Merton

the

most

and

within

important

Talcott

those

sociology,

and

Parsons,

also

that

of

of
Karl

Marx. Quite naturally, as we will present them, they are ideal

types, to which few practicing social scientists would adhere
Nevertheless,

exactly.

it

is

our

of

have

reasonably
distant
from

of these

numbers

sociologists
close
to one

is that

problem

the

other
two).
of interpretation

that

feeling
subscribed
three

Of

considerable
to

paradigms

hence

(and

reasonably
further
major

course,

of the three

paradigms.

Many

will no doubt disagree with specifics of my presentation. I

have,

made

however,

every

attempt

to

be

as

objective

as

possible by trying to submerge myself in each paradigm while

discussing

it.

By

Merton,

HUMBOLDT

we

mean

the

Merton

JOURNAL OF SOCIAL

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of

Social

RELATIONS

and

Theory

by his earlier writings

contradiction;

and

it is not

where

we

by Marx,

are

they

Modes

General
The

of

orientations

general

The

phenomena.

applicable

most

elementary

are

the

to

all

most

of

kinds
of our

aspect

and

abstract

social
is

paradigms

their primary focus of observation and frame of analysis.

Parsons
and

on

focuses

their

analyzes
on

focuses
individuals.

for

consequences
network

Marx

focuses

of

the

on

value-orientations
and

norms.

statuses

four

For

to

and
the

Marx

that

different

within
in

situation
individual

and
of

the same

factory

and

that

the

workers'

organization.

the

role

He

values

the

workers

are

acting

on

the
the

analyze

action

remedial

Parsons

would
and

of

system

to find

tend

not

norms

are

of

industrial

needs
new

from

recruits

obsolete

an

have

managers

the

of the value

functional

the

see

expectations.

sub-groups.

to

to

would
such

in terms

managers'

Perhaps

or

areas,

and

conflicting

adjusted

strains

status

see

industrial

an

tend

rural

19th-century

managerial ideology. Education, understanding, and time are

thus

natural

the

situation

as

instance

specific

see

the

struggle

within

the

would

suggest

would

Marx

remedies.

of

tend

class

to

whole society, and analyze it in terms of opposing class

interests

and

positions.
power
transformation
revolutionary

the

only

Marx

relative

such

eliminate
The
determine

the

system

of the

outline

(class

production

paradigm

denies

element:

each

the

of

is

paradigm
and
the

any

such

assumed

to

of
change
the same
resultant

The

Mertonian

overall

organizing

structure).

existence

element

the

which

and

structure

In the Marxist
social
elements.
major
of production
role is played
by the mode
of

in

dynamic
of value-orientations

all

relations

would

society

element

and

organizing

is
paradigm
the general

Parsonian

all

that

conflict.

industrial

overall

of

be

more

of

less

autonomous.

The mode of conceptualization

in

the

treated

three
in

For

paradigms.

the

same

and analysis varies greatly

Parsons

a universal

way:

all
set

social

are

systems

of abstract

concepts

are interrelated by analytical formulations. All analysis is

either

of

emphasis
contemporary
largely

in

Volume 2

or

analytical
being
U.S.
static,

of
to

given
society,
ahistorical

Number 2

concrete
the
and

social

of analytical

and

systems,

with

Discussion

analytical.

social

non-comparative

systems,
terms,

different

Marx,

there

of
is
i.e.,

and

systems,

a universal

the
total

set

of

(middle-range)

or concrete

analytic
the

in
not

concrete.

systems

The

is

analysis

non-comparative.

from

either

and

that

are interrelated
related

of

levels

some

societies,

or

Marx

is

Merton.

Some

theory.

the level

on

of

analysis

Parsons

For

of abstractness-concreteness

scale

by large

is

of all class

treated

by small-scale

conceptualization

conceptualization
level

to

are

social
Similarly,

is of either

of

quite

of all

societies,

on the level

and

analysis
some

the

on

of particular

kinds

of class societies (esp. Capitalism), and some of the level of

historically specific concrete societies. The analysis is in
general

historical

and

Parsons,

there

For
between
into

comparative.
is

All

elements.

high

which

as organized

nevertheless

common

Social

interrelationship

are seen

phenomena

(through

functions).

of

degree

subsystems

interrelations
and

social

semi-autonomous

values
is

together,

mode

important

class,

paradigms

consider

would

prescribing

phenomena
or

all three

us

managers,

the relevant

the

adequately

and

are

taken

mean,

range,

and

goals

of explanation

let

perhaps

reduction
see

are

(especially

collective

degree

Merton

role

accordingly,

the

would

data

example,

of

terms

functions

categories

factory.

workers

situation
as

various

For Merton, they are individual

same

For

things.

conflict

the

explanation,

of

classifications

at the

in looking

and

structure
for

universal

a lesser

key

and interest.
power,
first two
What these

societal

categories

integration and adaptation).

roles

of

relations

fully articulated
western
(the
society

systems

but

related,

given

static,

social

relevant.

are

being

ahistorical,
The

only

analysis

stress

of concepts,

Merton

structure.

structural

total

system

society.

key

and

a social

consequences

of the total
the

social

social

its

analyzes

parts
component
For
Parsons

of

value-orientations

the

and

dynamic,

the

the

industrial

small-scale

considered

concepts
All

with

all

likewise,

are

theory.

thinking

toward

developing
advanced

However,

way.

societies,

of Thinking

modes

general

of

Merton

same
abstract

The

as

model

U.S.A.).
For

in contradiction.

viewed

analytical

mean

again supplemented by his earlier

the Marx of Capital {1961),

work

the

mean

Comparative

supplemented
in

not

and

Evolutionary

(1966),
are

they

we

by Parsons,

(1961);

Societies:

Perspectives
where

Structure

Social
of

Parsons

and

have

complimentary
are

phenomena

analyzed

accordingly by the separate academic disciplines of history,

economics,

political

corresponding

to

science,

given

each

etc.,

sociology,
of

aspect

the

flow

of

social

experience.
until

For

proven

Merton

otherwise.

all social

as autonomous
are viewed
phenomena
The flow of social
is broken
experience

into

certain

categories

corresponding

to the

various

academic

disciplines: economics, political science, sociology, etc.

According to the Marxist paradigm, all social phenomena
within

overall

given

are

society
or

system

whole.

as

Separate

philosophy,

economics,

science,

are viewed

etc.,

viewed

as artificial

to

According

the

are

change

interrelated

categories

Merton

is

and

this

to an
as

organization
change

sociology

called

The

Marxist

Mertonian

notion.

even

process,

separately.

All

be

not

as

is

class

varying

an

increasing

in

He

totally

sees

opposed
are viewed

inherent

to be

categories

of development.
maintains
paradigm

differentiation

although
For

separately.

extent.

societies

continuing
process
The Parsonian

systematic change.

hinder

organization

distinct

organization

distinct

of

aspects

degrees

change,

analyzed

greater

and

Change

of a single

can

change."
of change

view

of

political

only

change
For

basically
separate
phenomena.
be studied
subfield
by a separate

should
"social

that

analytically

one

as history,

anthropology,

categories

view

as

which

true

example,

Parsonian

considered

of

parts
such

disciplines

sociology,

the understanding of this whole.

and

integral

that

internal

are

viewed

ail

societies

tendency

This tendency is caused

order

to

increase
the

of

generalization

system

to

the

as parts
analyzed
as

in

have

a
in
to

leading

by increasing
and

adaptation,
value

of

in

by

the

order

to

the increasingly
differentiated
structure.
Thus change
integrate
is seen as evolutionary
and moving
towards
increased
gradually
and

adaptation

of the social

integration

system.

contemporary Western society (esp. U.S.A.)

static

terms,

For
systematic
and

as more

Merton,

empirical

or less

there

change.

The

is

the end
no

question

Nevertheless,

is seen in largely

of history.

inherent
of change

tendency

towards

is a problematic

matter.

Spring/Summer 1975

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59

For

Marx,

all class

to the Mertonian
view,
completely
opposed
in varying
an inherent
internal
degrees,

dynamic

are

central

determinants

of

to systematic
societal
This tendency
change.
of class
are referred
relations
(these

integration,

tending

stems

from

the structure

to as contradictions).
of

type

values

have,

again

societies

to be evolutionary

tends

Change

class

However,

society.

basic

within

no
a

(revolution) is likely to occur on the level of the relations of

production in the transition between types of societies (e.g.,
feudalism to capitalism).
Parsons

to

tends

of interest.

see

Societies

members (given

as

harmonies

fundamentally

to function

to the benefit

of all

and

maximum

are

adaptation

overt

the

conflict

central.

other

and

For

in

societies

of covert

and

whose

interest

societies

Marx,

of others,

sees

hand,

struggle,

of

questions

expense

to

structures

conflicts
who

and

tend

the antithesis

as

of

of interest.

has

are

power

benefit

some

of the Parsonian

view.

the

at

addition

to

analyzing

social

terms

the

of

View

of

the

above

phenomena,

ways

observe

they

of

ways
general
we can compare

Man's

Nature:

and

analyze

Parsons

as
personality
Men
are
socialized

culture.

and
sanctioning,
or not important

tension

varying
degrees
of these
needs
most

into

different

has

an

of

are
of social

For

are

status

divergence
distributed

both

in

agree

of

as nonexistent

the

on

there

social

common

are

in terms

other

of

View

of class,

Social

the

from

a system

is

no

is

sanctioning,

the
of

to

response

and

the

as a whole.

system

interest

The

Marxism.

and

sees

The

behavior

as

society

efficiency

and

structure

is nothing

more

roles

and

And

structure.
unequal
power,
View

60

He

statuses.

but
and
of

for

Marx,

integrally

of all other

advance
makes

integration .
than
has

no

social

related

the

For

Merton,
of

summation

structure

view

is the

ordered

parts

in

social

individual
of

social

composite

by exploitation,

and

Beliefs:

of

the focus

proper

subject

as an oppressive

of

the
of

economics.

the

instrument
is

economy

that specializes
to

society

its

environment

Merton

production.
Economic

the

in the
does

not

are

phenomena

the

For

the

are

central

the

to

and

understanding

Parsonian

paradigm,

of

dynamics
interests

of conflict

and

societies.

and

the

Further,

economic

contradictions

change.

We have listed the major concepts of our three paradigms in

Table

1. As is apparent,
very well with
Parsonian
part,

was

from

his

were

developed
and
are

advanced,
set.

terms

paradigm

system,

of primary

the

Parsonian

Parsons

by

paradigm
contains

also
as

after

secondary
his

original

all

built

complex
concepts
are meant
to redefine
and

They

that have

the

one
complement
a
comprehensive
flow
of
experience

paradigm
we
refer
to

which

concepts,

primary

his

part

for

order,

set

found

and

provide
of
the

that
phenomena
The
Parsonian

relevant.

concepts.
system

that

of

whole

interrelated
they

of
social

These

ideas

integration. The

logically

of

central

are

system

of thinking.
all built
up,

are

concepts

the

Together

set

of each
mode

system's

primary

and
are

concepts

the concepts
each

around

adaptation,

general

at the heart

been

up

integrate

of classical

of

mode

of thinking.

are primarily

They

built

around

the

key ideas of role, group, goals, and functions. It should be

that

emphasized

both

Parsons'

and

Merton's

sets

of concepts

are universally highly abstract and meant to apply to all

societies at all times.
The
than
set

Marxist

either
of

societies

mode

of

the Parsonian
and

abstract

at

times,

e.g.,

all
use
of

class

societies,

value.

And

value,

more

further,

concepts
forces
of

etc.

However,

specific

e.g.,

is

conceptualization
or the Mertonian.

universal

production,
second
set

concepts

private
Marxism

property,
provided

more

refined

them,

it has

Like
to

meant

relations

production,
in

addition,

meant

to apply

alienation,
a still more

to all

apply
it

of
has

only

a
to

exchange
set
specified

of concepts for each type of class society with which it deals,

for capitalism:

e.g.,

privilege.
Values

the

Concepts

of the

an increase

possible

overarching

classes

are

into

power.

Parsons

Stratification

societal

is

have

social and political theory.

Merton's list of concepts is similarly integrated with his

differentially

of deviance.

concept

to

alien

and

is seen

or concrete)

phenomena

another

or

to
According
the norms is a product

goals

Structure:

maintenance

state

adaptation

view

concerning
considers

self-sufficient social system, all the parts of which function

towards

the

maximization

categorization

work,

referred to as deviant in the other paradigms is explained as is

any

another.

phenomena.

values.

from

has

is

that

goals

the

most

frustration

for creative

or

alternatively

hand,

of

through

The

The

deviation

common

other

function

to mesh

notion of deviance implies a concept of system, equilibrium,

or

for Marx,

institution (analytic

Innate

means.
on

Marx,

state

not

and

internalization

the needs

between
or

strain,

the

the

serving

of economic

Nevertheless

socialization

between

him

as
does

divergences

of societies.

Parsons,

deviation

paradigm,

For

seen

Merton

of the ruling classes.

serving the interests
View
of Economics:
For
Parsons,

phenomena.

effect

important

conflicts

by

Mertonian
or

types

unsuccessful

by

is

whole.

organization

viewed

structures.

of these

state.

the

in

community.

alternatively
role

by

of Deviance:

View
caused

the

of

is

government

that specializes in goal

further,
as

system

of production.

of

types

role-expectations.

reduction

of social

important
and

dignity,

view

the

Parsons,

or concrete)

determined

basically

our paradigms

Merton

and

product

for the analysis

variety

For

State:

of role-expectations.

the mode

by

that

specific

certain innate ahistorical human needs which are satisfied in

The

of

are

other

analysis of societies. Economic principles determine the overall

Marx sees the individual as highly malleable and socializable

a wide

the

way

ultimately,

Government,

interests

economic

and

observing

factors other then plasticity, sensitivity to

psychological

into

of

by

has

paradigm
than

beliefs

beliefs

ultimate

organization,

subject matter of another discipline. For Marx, however,

social experience. I will call these specific modes of thinking

(or specific orientations).
conceiving

View

and,

and

the

the

Merton's

and

to roles

institution (analytical

have

The Specific Modes of Thinking

In

interests

course,
on

Marx,

however,

of

matter for another discipline, i.e., political science. And of

centrally

important.

The

by class

values

values

are

They

and

of societies.
to

to correspond

Marx,

analysis.

personality,

approach

attainment.

their

the restraints of the situation). Equilibrium,

function,

integration,

societies

tend

tend

they

the

dynamics

systematic

For

discontinuity

and

to

capital.

The

capital,

Parsonian

HUMBOLDT

and

free

labor,

Mertonian

organic

composition

paradigms

JOURNAL OF SOCIAL

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are

forced

of
to

RELATIONS

on

on either
phenomena
The
Marxist
level.
empirical

and

observe

two

provides
thus

intermediate

movement

between

On

level

each

the

of

Marx's

for

see

the

of concepts
and the relation
level
On the most
abstract

to

we

by the central

idea

can

On

the intermediate level they are organized by the central ideas

of power and the division of labor. Finally, on the level of
the

societies,

capitalist

concepts

are

related

to each

the

by

organized

central

idea of capital (as opposed to wage labor). Further, the levels

of conceptualization

are

The

other.

of

concepts

the highest level plus the concept of the division of labor

the

generate
set

concepts

of concepts

the

of the

concepts

intermediate

to

level.
be

can

capitalism
specific
of the intermediate
level

and

than

the

S imilarly

the other

or irrelevant

problems

of the most

three

the

relation

unreal

system

integrated?

for a given

What

2)

structure?

function

did some

of a value-pattern

societies

integration?

Specifically,

orientations

that

factor

what

motivated
in other

lacking

the

was

the

early

and

source

others

and

the

of

was

why
be able to see

We should

the relation of these kinds of problems considered critical by

the Parsonian paradigm to its concepts and mode of thinking:
value-orientations,
are

function
his answers
For

adaptation,

the

Mertonian
the

Some

of

the

major

Why

does

are

does
the

some
to

mode

latent

positive

deviance?

the

The

functions

specific
bureaucracies?

cause

in some

element?

What

of

liberals

units

than

Why

in others?
the

Marxist

of

mode

Marxist
paradigm,
areas.
the key problem
generates
conceptualizing
are:
What
some
of the most important
problems
of class
laws
for the
transformation
accounting

Likewise,

and
thinking
For Marxists,
are

the

societies?
social

What

is

the

How

interests?

structural

between

relation

does

a given
an

ideology

underclass

and

develop

class consciousness? What is the origin of alienation? Some

more specific kinds of problems follow: Why isn't the working
class-conscious?

class

does

Why

to

seem

capitalism

have

stabilized itself? What was the source of primitive

accumulation? Why didn't capitalism develop in China or
India?

What

capital?
wage

the

are

laws

the

that

causes

govern
of

the

crises,

of

accumulation

unemployment,

and

fluctuations?

number

concerning
1)

are

What

The

Parsonian

Volume 2

the

work

The

of

observations

additional
of problems

paradigm

Number 2

generated

seems

can
by each

to generate

fewer

be

made

paradigm:
relatively

real.

the

This

of

the

early

while

same

of

of the

look

same

labor,

and

for

distinction is borne witness

on

the

and

from

lately

religious

to by the

ever

growing

one

growing

of capitalism:

origins

Marx,

and

unrelated,

largely

of the

the

not
free

interests,

primitive

source

are

Parsonians

data

of thinking. For

capitalists
for

the

source

problem

but

apparent

of

treating

and modes

look

of Karl

central

these

theories

to

correspond
they are

the

nothing

problems.

that

attempts

Thus,

the

Parsonian

of Maurice

rise

to

provide

paradigm
the

(with

has

the

answer

be

noted

the
that

"proved

the

the

theories

overall

of profit

primitive

the
for

of reference

proletarian

class

accumulation,

the

and

all attempt
It should

monopoly
the paradigm.
of the Marxist
paradigm
by

generated

parts
by the course

wrong"
and

of

of imperialism

problems
the only

students

of

development

source

and

theories

specific
by his

of

theory
sub-theories

and

bourgeoisie,

to

of
the

of

theory

special

paradigm

in the

relationship

Capitalism,
and
a general

history

to

provides
involved

control,

Mertonian

of

theory

Indeed,
answers

deviance
anomie,
bureaucracy,
to the problems
generated
by the paradigm.
for the Marxist
of the rise
Its theories
paradigm.

Similarly

Data

a
of

paradigms

generates.

influence,

corresponding

the

three

of the value-orientations

world

the

the
each

than

social

of

of

other

the
of

Likewise,

been

each

of problems

relationship,
to

development

of

of

kinds

of the function

theory

statements

to attempt

forth

put

that

are some

of history

to answer

Marx

by

questions
law of the

have
of the

himself

or

raised

by

the

the

paradigm,
e.g., perhaps,
or the iron law of wages.

rate

falling

Ranges

Parsons'

data

everywhere

and

Merton's
very

early

not

whole

range aspires
at all times.

middle

contemporary

world

the kinds

the

separate,

consciousness,
of crises,
theory

was

the

bear

Theories

is the

political

discrimination?

the

with

the

of

of literature

groups,

accommodate
of

Parsonian

each major society).

for

of

many

paradigms

Dobb (1963), and the other growing from the work of Max
Weber (1930) as interpreted by Talcott Parsons (1937).

are:

Or

the

This

of two

doctor-patient

What

influence?

Why
the
function
of racial

army

group?

interrelated

the point of view of

all of the Marxist

although

than
of

problem

Marxists

innovations.

Calvinism

anomie?

reference

source
do

examples:
What
is

is the

response

of an

is the

deals
to

separate

apparent

commerce,

and

of concepts.

set

that

the

a result

Marxist

value-orientations

and
are

problems

Merton

which

a particular
a given
choose

What

more

higher

with

problems

group

What

and

thinking

choose

individual

machine?

of

the

similarly,

paradigm,

an

of

morale

are posed

his problems

more

and

mechanisms

by

cause

integration,

equilibrium

in which

given.

generated

Why

ideas

the key

noted

by

is

the

accumulation

value

and

capitalists,

societies?

not

of adaptation

incresingly better mechanisms

develop

this

is the

3) Why

From

paradigms

range by different concepts

example,

from

that his paradigm generates are: 1) How is a given social

is

similarity

expanded

of problems

kinds

important

Parsonian

and

systematic
3)

to

seems

paradigm

superficial relationship to those generated by other paradigms,

bodies
Parsons

and

generated

existence

For

Mertonian

less

paradigms.

(segregation).
it should
be

Further,

of wage

Problems

two

are

problems are unreal (nihilation), wrongly stated (integration),

problem.

labor.

The

2)

that

problems

do

from

generated

the concept

Marxist.

Mertonian

the

of production.

or

generate
the

conceptualization
set

of thinking.

are interrelated

concepts

of abstraction.

analysis,

by providing

specific (and hence empirically testable) problems than do the

Mertonian

however,

paradigm,
and

levels

or

abstract

observation

of refinement

of the

mode

of

degree

many

integration

general

levels

a greater

permitting

internal

a highly

analyze

a concrete

data

range

writings)
societies.

of contemporary,

Marx's

data

class

range

to

to comprehend
he
However,

systems
on

heavily

America.

is restricted
small-scale

Further,
middle
is all

all social
focuses

contemporary

he

also

class

societies

for

(except
tends

some

of his

phenomena,
to

on

the

mostly

his

focus

America.
at all times,

but

analysis deals with Capitalist societies. Much more than the

other

two

paradigms,

the Marxian

Spring/Summer 1975

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paradigm

is comparative

and

61

However,

the

study

of England

of

France

for

of ideological

being

the most

he tended

work

to focus
on

for economic

political

study

own

in Marx's

historical.

phenomena,
on Germany
and

phenomena,

focuses

These

phenomena.

were

the

on

concepts

developed

of the relevant

majority
of power,

structures

aspects.

Parsons

himself

Parsons

sense

relies

to

on

principally
illustration

give

marginal

is compatible

paradigm

of values

information
research
recently,

with

and

on

data

(for

beliefs),

he

and

sanctioned

other

hand,

to a lesser

methods

illustrate

(to

his

evolutionary

small

research

group

and

and

method

of

resonant

with

and

methods

survey

structural

correlations,

research

survey
what

who

need

method,
data

are

it

makes

C. W. Mills

researchers,

their

of

analysis

called

and

most

to survey

to

and

Empiricists.
to

application

normally

or Marxist
in the

help

of their

interpretation

well

fits

research

Survey

application.

as irrelevant,

variety)

concepts and mode of thinking.

Marx relies principally on
the

and

analysis,

use

of

it does

since
the

documents

of

treatment

kinds

the

conscious

and

matters

more

probably

Marxian

of

its

of special

inaccuracy

statistical

its

generates.
paradgim
of
as
a recorder
and spatial
temporal
in controversial

to Marxism),

concern
the

answering

(However,

paradigm.
most

in

nature

of its limited

because
are

(which
use

marginal

the

problems
of its

because

opinions,

application,

of

because

research,

questions

use

as

with
the
compatible
of survey methods

is only

of

is
tool
supplementary
than
Marxist
paradigm

critics

realize.)

Values

An integral part of our paradigms is the implicit set of

values

that are a part

For

Parsons,

mode

of

commitment

and

of all of them
for

Merton

thinking and

equally.
in a lesser

conceptualizing

to the maintenance

of the status

the whole

degree,

b asic

reflects a
The

quo.

natural

harmony

basically

good.

does

absolve

not

The
the

exact

Marxist
opposite

is a fundamental

62

to the working

contributes

(Merton's
him
mode

from

and

i.e.,
of

there

is a

of things

order

is

dysfunction

this evaluation.)

of thinking

evaluations.
hostility

of society,

the present
theoretical
concept

of interests

to all

and

conceptualizing
the entire

Permeating
class

societies

implies

The

and

liberated

from

in a classless

only

social
societal

communist

action

and

the

destruction

is

progress

is gradually
adaptation

and

good.

corrected

being

integration.

would

therefore

be

bad.

other

hand,

The

good.

only

and

revolutionary

of the existing

of man
the

through
class

exploitative

with

compatible

exploitation
is

being

is both

change

a society

way

without

into

brought

or

change

societies

of increasing

potentiality,

to be

into

the

ought

to

values

dominant
be

and
to

readjusted

The

of

of any

by man,

revolutionary

structure

together

norms.

the

Briefly,
For

society.

Merton,

is

In

the

the

Parsonian

control

structural

as

causes

of

and

acceptable

society

as

that

Merton

call

natural

reaction

to

exploitive

class

relations.

In

to

the
as

and

ought

paradigm,

implies

Parsons

rather

and

mechanisms

deviance

against

is

structure

individual.
social

that

it

bad,

Marx,

the
are

society

behavior

not

social

for

to alleviate

any

other.

the

Marx,

suppressive

of

goals

as those

brief,

more

around

spread

deviance.

idea

be

adjusted

of

the

the

use

of force

the
of

necessity

line

secondary

to

by

of

defense

the

state

is

basically good. For Marx, on the other hand, since the use of
the

force

by

ruling

class

state

that
as

course,

is

controls

in

fundamentally
the state,

tactical

the

interests

it is basically
to destroy

mechanism

bad
the

of

the

(except,
repressive

structure).

Parsons' definition of power as the ability to accomplish

collective
control

that
implies
other
hand,

goals
on

Marx,

the

of some

by others

its

is

exercise

the

definition
that

implies

While
good.
of power
as

power

for
the

is fundamentally

bad (although again tactically necessary to destroy a system of

institutionalized violence).
The division of labor, in the Parsonian paradigm, is defined
in terms of increasing adaptation. This definition again implies
that the division of labor is good. For Marx the opposite is
true. For him the division of labor is the first cause of
alienation in all its forms, and is therefore fundamentally bad,
to be

society

is

opposite

evaluation

Parsons'

Marx,

of

is consonant

religion

since

communal

by

supplanted

society.
Parsons'definition

effectiveness

paradigm

as producers

to be

ought

Marx,

bad.

socialization

by

occur

For

basically

with all the muck of the ages.

For Parsons deviance is basically bad. The deviant should be

and

central

ideas of equilibrium, order, system, and function all imply that

everything

and

be

can

on

Marx,

human

of

the

by

generated

For

For

The
use of these
methods
naturally
in the
central
with overall
societies
concern
paradigm's
of
economic
phenomena).
process
development
(emphasizing
is
irrelevant
for
the
Small-scale
research
experimental
Survey

is

or revolutionary

process
foolish,

"deviant"

factory
(e.g.,
stems
from the

reports).
Marxist

man

with

radical

necessary

good

Mertonian

historiography,

official

not

for practical

data

with

good.

similarly, deviance is basically bad. Institutional means ought

who

pay their salaries. They shun high-level theorizing (of either

the Parsonian

the

drastic

individual

interpret

for those

is to be possible.

control

evolutionary

is wrong

resocialized

alone

research

theory

practical

its practical

cutting

useful

the Abstract

committed

simple

to maximize

cross

e.g.,

on

data

(for

paradigm with the

This fit of the Mertonian

cleavages).

as

their

experimental
role sets
individual

if society

can

Parsons,

unnecessary,

with

compatible

the

(for

structures)

group

attitudes

These

is most

paradigm

is basically

society).

Any

schema).
Merton's

suppression

through

most

social

bad.

are therefore
control

suppressed

Marx,

(which

Whatever

group

and,

For

For

acquire

small
etc.),

of

social

social

are

needs

structure.

extent,

(to

experimental
integration,

individual's

and

develops

the method

to

but

survey

adaptation,

historiograph

models

(similar

However,

economics).

utility

sources

secondary

to the

through rationalistic methods

his

the

on

common

Merton

and

Marxist

that

imply

The individual is born as a tabula rasa, and needs to be

socialized

Methods

and

The

class.

all

interest

the individual

suppress

For

and

class,

the exploitation

and

potential

of the ruling

in the interests

for the
generated

inner

of man's

suppression

of the

by his paradigm which depicted each of the three countries as

in each

the

study

religion

with

the

definition
of course
class

an

that

in communist

integrating
it is good.

therefore

bad;

force
For

in

Marx,

again,

the

Parsons.

of stratification
implies

structure

HUMBOLDT

as

idea
and

false-consciousness,
from

production

that

is defined

as increasing
stratification
in terms

JOURNAL OF SOCIAL

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a society's
is good.

For

of exploitation

RELATIONS

and

of

domination
Parsons'

Lastly,
collective
And

the

weak

the

by

it

strong,

is

seen

as

the social

system

of

Summary

and

goal

bad.

implies

it is a positive
state

that

the state

is innately

be

about

values

in

the

to

observation

outstanding
is the
comparison

implicit
cannot

further

be

summarize

total

and

Parsonian

made

complete
Marxist

and

dealt

by

here.

with
that

the
of

polarization

This

paradigms.

noting

it is enough

However,

the

conservative-liberal
overwhelmingly
while
Marxist
the
is,
system

Parsonian

of

course,

is

system

its value

in

to

implications,

The

small-scale

only

analysis

of total

status

about

the

societies,

apologists

abdication

the

is

quo,

and

overall

an

of

the acceptance
has

to say

nothing

to common

open

sense,

That

politicians.

the

is,

omission.

by

This

claim

Mertonian

is

that

of

the

course

scientific

study of total societies is not yet, if ever, possible, thus giving

legitimacy to the utterances of the apologists and politicians.
Further,
variables
effect

are

cannot

be

claim

not

relevant

used

is consonant

that

the
omission.

by

the

economic

for the study

If

as

with

In addition
evaluations

implicit

fundamental
in

his

again

as good.

social

definition

consonant

The

of

theories.

from

be

of

these

and

more

specific

The

idea

of

alternatively,
so

that

This

satisfy).

above

are problems
or

of

social
social

the

to
means

out

cumulative

sociology

is
the
its

attempts
the

of goals

Mertonian
innate

the

denial

of

evaluation

of

of

not
the

overall

leading
paper

these

three

that

an

systems
in

sociological

scene

Formal

and
the

at

one
and

1960's

other

sociological

that,

with

late

numerous

middle-range

and

competed
the

and

integrated

this period

during

serious

as

mathematical
of

expense

theory

both
more

among

prestigious sociologists, while a wide variety of idealist and

such

approaches,
critical

phenomenology,
have

become

the

other

current

among

which

hand,

as

and

theory,

younger

interactionism

sociologists.

Marxism,

on

much

of

taken

was

ethnomethodology,

symbolic
seriously

by

American social science in the 1930's and 1940's before it was

the

from

purged

Marxism
once

has
in

and

again

with

a significant

academic

in the

assistance

of

Although

still

This
offer

has

paper
to

within

1970's

at

any

deal

of knowledge.
a given

with

it

at

questions
not

tried

to
are

or paradigms,
has

Neither

than

open

It has

paradigm,

time.

given

is

sociology

is more

to

attempted

of why

explanations

predominant

not

the sociology

between

competition

paradigms

major

Sociology

the

comeback.
the

circles,

other

the

real.

universities

made

any time since the 1940's.

dealt

with

empirical questions concerning which paradigm is in the last

rapid

the

most

are

changes

of the 20th
with

theory
workings

social

In

with

consistent

of course
in the

century

social

of extreme

of paradigms

positions
suggest

that

Both

reality.

during

the question

these
the

However,

importance.

the

course

of predominance

of
of

to

determine

at

predominant
resonance
of each
and

fall

decline
changing
which

and

reality.

order

believe,

good.

possibility

a systematic

of the

the

since,

King

among

considerably

gained
and

Theory

voluntarist

the

is fundamentally
the

Grand

the

Robert

differences

predominance.

have

sociology

and

This

exist

the

two

Marxism.

1970's

entered

for

and

Beginning

the

during

paradigms

not

the
were

sociology

demonstrate

did

1960's

been

has

sociological

have

and

exist.

another

has little or nothing to do with the question of correspondence

could

they

to

not
one

with

Parsons

time
U.S.

hegemony.

increasingly

questions

disparity

as basically

for

analysis

that

goals

paradigm

at developing

comprehension

Number 2

with

consonant

all,
that

not learn

order

1950's

by Talcott

systematic

incompatible

is

social

the

paradigms

as

faulty

American

of the

in

structure)

implies

and

the

the

within
that

outside

drawn

structure

from
stemming
and not
control,

the

would

the system

in

hinders

Volume 2

social

stemming

the

response
institutional

and

of all

legitimacy

people

again

structure

conservative

of

from

During
articulated

does

sociology
compete

systems

Throughout

appropriate

everything
goals,
were available
means
(or
right if only adequate
were
if
socialization
and
communication

acceptability
all

controlled

than

or dynamics).
anomie
as a

goals

fundamental

society

rather

evaluation

(since

idea

But,

interpreted

as

communication,

common

social

the

interests

structural

would

of reality

good

education,

are

(which
with

basically

has

in the

implicit

number

various

they

This

quo

evaluations

are

there

relevant,

of society.

of the status

a similar

has

self-fulfillingprophecy as a cause of racial discrimination and

failures

Merton.
perspective

McCarthyism,
rather
weak

psychological

not

are

for criticism

basis

to these

paradigm,

and
of society

factors

these

the evaluation

Mertonian

bank

best

paradigms

contenders

of a systematic view of social

the

by

with

by

paradigm,

omitting

sociology
is left

conservative

reinforced

and

field

status

by sociology

phenomena
strongly

Because

is more

paradigm

Mertonian

is consonant

societies,

for

The

two.
problems

as good.

quo

total

in the Mertonian

of the other

that

studying

contenders

major

cumulative

sociological

predominance.

another

of evaluation

mode
than

and

integrated

instead,

overwhelmingly

radical-revolutionary.
subtle

structure.

Conclusions

Incompatible

point has of course essential ideological significance which

the

An

the

the

for
most

above

institutional-class

its dominant

good.
as

of

definition
class

as the mechanism

that

implies

Marx's

of the ruling

dictatorship

of the state

definition

attainment

naturally,

The

and

bad.

fundamentally

of

given
paradigm.

sociological

of

political
needs
of the

demonstrate
are

the

why
time

particular
we

A careful

paradigms,

examination

together
and

ideologies

corporate
upper
it is indeed
link

with

class

between

are
value

of the rise
the

movements,

that

explanatory

perspectives
to the

look

must

in America

rise
and

and
the
I

will,

values
paradigmatic
social
and
reality

sociological
paradigms, and further, that it is political
developments outside of sociology which induce changes
within sociology.^

Spring/Summer 1975

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63

TABLE

CONCEPTS

Parsons
(Primary)
Value-Orientations
Action Frame of
Reference

I.

Role
(sum of role expectations)
Status (position)
Role Set (of a status)

Norms/Beliefs/Goals
Functional
Imperatives

Group (26 dimensions)

Collective

Adaptation

Role

Integration
Goal Attainment
Pattern Maintenance

Status

Pattern Variables
(as modes

of

(organization)
Relations
of Production
Consciousness
Use Value

Strain

Values

Property

Common Goals
Institutional
Means

II.

Anomie
Reference
Authority

Personality System
Cultural System

(pattern of influence)
Social Structure

Equilibrium
Instrumental

(sum of roles and statuses)

Manifest Function

Evaluative

(intended and recognized)

Latent Function

Expressive
Collectivity
Sanction
Differentiation

Power (A over B)
Private Property
Division of Labor
Exploitation
State (A against

Surplus

Commodity/Price
Exchange Value

( Secondary)
Power - (ability

Ilia.

to

Mercantile Capital
Industrial Capital
Money Capital
Productive Capital
Commercial
Capital

collective

goals)
- (institution
Family
in pattern
specializing
maintenance
and tension

Organic Composition
Capital
IHb.

management)
(institution
in adaptation
specializing

(Applicable

of

only to

Feudalism)
Guild

Economy

Manor

to the environment)
- (institution

Peasant

Religion

Lord

in
of the

integration
social system)
Stratification

IIIc.

(Applicable
only to
Ancient Societies)
Master

of
(differentiation
function to increase

64

only to

Expanded
Reproduction
Concentration
of Capital
of Capital
Centralization
of Capital
Circulation
Realization
of Capital

interaction)
State - (institution
in
specializing

adaptation

(Applicable

Capitalism)
Capital
Free Labor/Wage
Labor
Primitive Accumulation

collective

goals
- (allocation
Prestige
of generalized
rewards)
Wealth - (generalized
capacity to command
goods and services)
Influence
(generalized
mechanism of social

specializing

Value/Profit

Labor/Cost

Institution

achieving

n scious

Superstructure
Alienation

Mechanisms

accomplish

B)

(false-co

Ideology
ness)

(against system maintenance)

Status Set (of individual)

Control

of A

by B)
Class Interest

(toward system maintenance)

Negative Function

Allocation

to all Class

(Applicable

Societies)
Class (exploitation

Group

(unintended,
unrecognized)
Positive Function

Socialization

to all
(Applicable
Societies)
Forces of Production
(energy, machines)
Mode of Production

Strain

orientation)
Social System

Social

Marx

Merton

Slave

and integration)

HUMBOLDT

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RELATIONS

FOOTNOTES
*An

earlier

translated

version

of this paper appeared

in a student journal
in The Soviet Bulletin of Sociology
(1969).

and published

circulated

at Columbia

University

This

(1967).

version

was

and Horton (1964,

Others who have
lln addition
to Kuhn (1964)
I have drawn heavily on Berger and Luckman
1966).
(1966)
Gouldner (1970),
and Nisbet (1966).
dealt with the general issues of competing sociological
Friedrichs (1970),
paradigms include:
~ For
documentation

of this thesis see Baritz (1960),

Cornforth

(1963),

Robinson

(1963),

Lange

(1964),

and Szymanski

(1971).

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65