GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

INSTALLATION & SERVICE

ENGINEERING DIVISION

NATURE AND ASSOCIATION OF

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Most people a r e familiar with the general nature of
electrical energy as transmitted and distributed by
power companies and, perhaps through regular
distribution of electric bills at the start of each
month .
Electrical current can be thought of as a concerted
motion of electrons in a substance (conductor)
caused by the presence of an electric force o r potential, generally referred to as a voltage. Electric voltage is a kind of electrostatic tension o r
pressure which excites electrons to motion in a
concerted fashion in many substances.
It is necessary that an electric potential or voltage
exist in a substance before current flow is possible;
however, current will not necessarily flow even if
an electrical voltage does exist. Assuming that an
electrical potential is applied, two conditions are
necessary to establish a current flow. The electrical path must be through an electrical
"conductor", and it must be a complete, unbroken,
o r closed path which eventually returns to the
voltage source.
Regarding the first condition, depending upon the
nature of the moiecular bond, some substances
conduct electrical current very readily o r with
very little resistance while others resist formation
or flow of electrical currents very strongly and
a r e known as insulators. Thus, the resistance
exhibited by a material to the formation of electric
currents w i l l determine whether the material is a
good o r mediocre conductor; or perhaps an insulator, and the amount of resistance will determine
the quantity or intensity of current flow for a given
amountof voltage applied.

Copper is second only to silver as a conductor of

electrical currents, and, since it is available at
reasonable cost, is used almost exclusively as
conductor material in the manufacture of electrical
apparatus.
Certain definite relationships exist between voltage, current, and resistance in a given electrical
circuit such that electrical energy lends itself
readily to accurate calculation and measurement
of its various parts.
All mass is basically composed of charged electrical particles although the net charge exhibited
by one molecule is generally of a random nature
relative to the charge exhibited by another molecule resulting in a general over-all neutralization
o r cancellation.
If the electrical nuclei of a given substance can be
caused to align themselves uniformly such that
their basic electrical charges reinforce each other
and are additive, a strong overall charged condition will be formed, o r the substance is said to be
magnetized. Thus a magnetic force is established
and the material acts much as a magnetic battery
with a high positive charge at one end compared to
a negative charge at the opposite end depending
upon the basic alignment of the electrically charged
nuclei. Similar to electrical energy previously
discussed this "magnetic voltage" will cause a
magnetic "current" to flow in closed paths from the
source of high magnetic potential, o r north pole,
to the source of low magnetic potential, o r the south
pole.

Therefore, all magnets are characterized by the

presence of north and south poles of unlike polarity
o r charge and it is well known that unlike poles
attract and like poles repel each other. This introduces the very important fact that mechanical
forces may be involved wherever magnetic fields
exist. Lines of magnetic flux or "magnetic
Regarding the second condition, electrical current
and voltage is analogous to water flow and pressure. current" strongly seek the shortest and earliest
path from the north to south magnetic poles. It
Water will not flow against a closed valve even
will divide o r lengthen its course in order to flow
though high pressures be applied. To cause water
through good magnetic conductors, or, material
to flow when a pressure is developed, a complete
which is easily magnetized. Thus, the flow of
path for flow must be established and, if the supply
magnetic current o r flux, similar to electric curis limited a return path to the pumping source is
rent, is determined by the strength of the magnecessary to maintain a continuous circulation.
Such is the case with the flow of electrical currents. netic source and the magnetic resistance, called
Current is said to flow from points of high potential reluctance, of the magnetic conductors available
as a path between magnetic poles.
o r voltage to points of low potential.
@ 1972 General Electric Co.

M -29

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

There are many materials which are f a r better

conductors of magnetic flux than air, and,
accordingly magnetic flux will seek to flow
through such material, and further, will actually
exert mechanical force to align the material in
the shortest and least resistance path possible.
Thus, the familiar "pull" of a magnet upon magnetic materials placed in its flux field as the magnet attempts to align o r move the material to form
the easiest path f o r magnetic flux. This can be
visualized as a bending or distortion of magnetic
flux lines to pass through highly magnetic materials with the f l u x lines functioning somewhat as
springs attempting to straighten themselves to
form the shortest straight line by "pulling" the
magnetic material into the shortest path.
One of the best ways to form a magnet is to pass a
strong direct current through a suitable material.
Electric current causes the charged nuclei of a
substance to align o r orient themselves, thus producing net magnetic charges as in a permanent
magnet. This charge will be found to exist as long
as electric current flows and, of course, will be
proportional to the strength of the electric current.
Permanent magnets may be formed by using high
currents, special materials and methods. Refer
to Figure 1 showing a sketch depicting each molecule of a material as a very small magnet which,
when aligned uniformly similar, results in an
overall positive magnetic charge being exhibited by
the material.

The preceding broad conceptions are intended to

emphasize the general nature of electrical voltage
o r potential, current, and resistance; as related
to similar conceptions of magnetic potential o r
charge, "current" o r flux, and "resistance" o r
reluctance. Of perhaps even more importance is
the interrelation between the familiar electrical
entities such as electric current with magnetic
effects due to the electrical nature of all matter.
Thus, a magnetic field exists simultaneously with
current flow, which will have a definite direction
and strength depending upon the amount of current
flowing and the nature of the conducting material.
A similar and very important manifestation of the
interrelating qualities of electrical and magnetic
effects occurs when a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field of force, or a magnetic field of force
moves across a conductor i.e,there is relative
motion between an electrical conductor and magnetic
flux. When this occurs, electrons are set in motion
in the conductors, an electrical voltage is generated,
o r induced, and a n electrical current w i l l flow if a
complete electrical conducting loop o r circuit
exists. The voltage induced will have a definite
magnitude and direction which will be determined by
the strength and direction of the magnetic field and
the speed and direction of relative motion between
the conductor and the magnetic field; and, a s might
be expected, the number of conductors within the
magnetic field which may be connected in series;
o r connected so that the induced voltage in each add
to result in much higher and stronger voltages.
The principle of induced voltages due to relative
motion between electrical conductors and magnetic
fields governs the design and manufacture of alternating current generators. The study of alternating
current generator is, therefore, a study of the
interaction between electrical and magnetic c i r cuits, and the resulting magnetic forces and elect r i c a l energy. Note Figure 2 illustrating the basic
factors necessary to induce voltage in an electrical
conductor.

I
FIXED
CONDUCTOR

A VOLTAGE IS INDUCED IN THE STATIONARY CONDUCTOR WHEN THE MAGNETIC FIELD MOVES ACROSS
IT. REVERSING THE DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT OF
THE MAGNETIC FIELD WILL CAUSE THE DIRECTION
OF THE INDUCED VOLTAGE AND RESULTING CURRENT
FLOW TO REVERSE.

Figure 1. Magnets and Magnetic Fields

2

Figure 2. Electromagnetic Induction

M-29

GENE RATOR FUNDAMENTALS

RELATIONSHIPS OF ELECTRICAL
VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND POWER

Consequently, all rotating generators are essent ially alternating current gene rators with their
voltage produced by the effects of alternating magA direct current is a current produced by a steady
netic fields and the laws of magnetic induction.
non-oscillating, or uni-directional voltage. In such The so-called dc generators are, therefore, really
an electric circuit the power developed in watts w i l l ac generators with provisions for rectifying or conbe equal to the product of the current and the voltage verting the ac voltages to dc in removing them
measured in amps and volts respectively, or:
from the generator. This function is performed by
the commutator and its associated voltage gathering circuits in dc generators.
w = VI
Where: W = watts, V = volts, and I = amperes
Also, in such dc circuits the voltage across any
selected portion of the circuit will be equal to the
product of the current flowing and the resistance
of that portion of the circuit, or:
V=RI

Where: V = volts, R = ohms of resistance and

I = amperes
These two relationships lead mathematically to
other equally valid relationships. One of the most
important is shown following:
W = I2R
Where: W = watts, I = amperes, and R = ohms of
resistance.
This relationship indicates that the power absorbed
o r developed in any portion of an electrical circuit
will be in proportion to the resistance of the circuit
and to the square of the current flowing. This
power appears as heat. Thus, four times the
amount of power will be dissipated and four times
the amount of heat will be developed if the current
flow is doubled.
In the design of high voltage generators it is, of
course, necessary to insulate the voltage carrying
conductors to keep current flow in the desired path
where it may be controlled and distributed as desired. Very effective insulation is required at all
points to safeguard personnel and machinery or
other equipment from contact with high voltage and
from possibilities of destructive short circuit currents. The insulation necessary to electrically
safeguard generator windings is a major obstruction to removing the I2R losses appearing as heat
and which must be removed to keep temperatures
of generators and windings to satisfactory levels.
Earlier, it was explained that relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field was necess a r y to induce electrical voltages in the conductor.
Since direct current energy is at essentially steady
conditions at any given instant, it is not suited for
direct generation by electromagnetic methods.
M-29

Again, due to the lack of continuously varying magnetic fields, dc current and voltage does not lend
itself to many functions desirable in transmitting
large blocks of electrical power. For instance,
transformers may be used to convert the ac power
output of large generators to extremely high voltages
with corresponding reductions in current with relatively small losses. Power in this form may then
be transmitted for long distances with only a fraction of the losses at normal voltage and current
since the actual current flow is very small. You
w i l l recall that power o r heating loss will be proportional to the square of the current flowing.
Similarly, alternating current energy adapts itself
to many other conversions allowing ease in handling
power and minimizing losses, all by utilizing the
principles of electromagnetic induction.
Thus, alternating current o r voltage continuously
varies and undergoes repetitive reversals in positive and negative cycles. The usual frequency at
which ac power is generated and distributed in this
country is 60 cycles per second. A s has previously
been stated, most modern generators a r e two-pole
generators driven at a constant 3600 rpm to produce 60-cycle power, although some four-pole,
1800 rpm modern units w i l l be found, mainly on
c r o s s compound units where the low pressure turbine and generator runs on steam exhausting from
the high pressure turbine. The size of the turbine
steam path parts a r e apt to be so large to handle
the large volume of low pressure steam that safe
operation at 3600 is not possible, due to centrifugal
force considerations.
Each cycle of alternating current will naturally
have a maximum positive value as well as a maximum negative value and will pass through zero.
It will also have an average value as might be supposed. However, ac current is measured and
referred to in units which will produce the same
amount of power dissipation in heat as corresponding units of dc current. This is called the mean
effective value of an ac current o r the "root mean
square" value. This turns out to be 0.707 times
the peak or maximum value of an ac cycle wave
form of current or voltage. By comparison the
"average" value of the ac wave form w i l l be 0.636
times the maximum valve.
3

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

In power generation and distribution the mean effective value is the only one of interest as this is
the value measured by instruments, used in calculations, etc. All references to ac amps o r volts
automatically refer to this mean heating value.
Note ac wave form shown on Figure 3.
The eff
many adaptions o r uses to facilitate the handling
and use of ac power. Its effects also introduce
some slight complications in power measurement
and calculation which for many years w a s a major
mystery and impediment to the advancement of the
electrical industry.
CURRENT & VOLTAGE IN PHASE

TIME
CURRENT LAGGING VOLTAGE B Y e DEGREES

An amp of ac power is equivalent in most all r e spects to an amp of dc power and the same may be
said of an ac volt relatively to a dc volt. However,
the cycle of ac voltage which produces a given
cycle of current may o r may not reach its maximum
and minimum values at the same instant as the current cycle. If the two waves, current and voltage,
did reach their positive and negative peaks at
exactly the same instant, o r were exactly "in
phase, "the power produced would be equal to the
volts indicated by a voltmeter multiplied by the
amps indicated by an ammeter, just as in a dc
circuit.
In ac circuits the use of coils, condensors, and
other types of devices in the continuously variable
magnetic fields will have the effect of causing slight
lags in the buildup of current compared to the
applied voltage in a given cycle due to the effect of
induced voltages, sometimes referred to as
"counter voltages" since they will be in a direction
to oppose the current flow causing them.
Similarly, some devices such as capacitors o r condensors will have the effect of causing the voltage
to slightly lag the current in an ac circuit due to
the tendency of such devices to store o r "hold" a
charge of voltage yet offer no resistance to current
flow. In any case, the current would be said to be
out of phase with the voltage and would, therefore,
lag or lead the voltage slightly in a given time
cycle. In the case of voltage and current not in
phase, the product of the voltage and current no
longer gives the true power or wattage since the
effective value and current and voltage do not occur
at the same time.
In ac circuits it is entirely possible to encounter o r

TIME
CURRENT LAGGING BY 90 DEGREES

design a circuit which will cause current and voltage to be as much as 90 degrees out of phase in
which case no power could be transmitted although
the current might be very high. Refer to Figure 4
showing phase relationships in ac current and
voltage. and note that when phase relationship between current and voltage is different by 90 degrees
the current wave is at zero whenever the voltage
wave is at its maximum and vice versa.
These considerations lead to the following relationship f o r computing power in ac circuits due to the
possible effects of voltage and current not "working
together" o r being out of phase.
W=VIXPF

Where: W = watts, V = volts, I = amperes. and

PF = power factor.
TIME

Figure 3. Phase Relationship in AC Circuits

4

and power factor is the cosine of the angle of lag

o r lead (phase angle) between the voltage and
current.
M-29

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

Note Figure 4 for a visual analogy of phase angle

and power factor in relation to the power produced.

to some extent by controlling the excitation circuits

of the generator.

It should be noted, however, that the expression

for power dissipated in heat as shown in (3, for dc
circuits will still be valid in ac circuits since one
ampere of ac by definition will produce the same
amount of heating as an ampere of dc. This is
repeated as follows:

Also of importance is the fact that low power factor

operation tends to produce severely distorted magnetic fields in the generator. This is particularly
true in the case of leading power factors which tend
to cause overheating in some parts of the generator
windings, or a loss in "synchronizing" power of
the generator; i.e., it may tend to drop out of
synchronism with the system if sudden loads are
imposed.

W = I R

Where: W = watts, I = amperes, and R = ohms of

resistance.

Alternating current generators are always manufactured and their ratings, guarantees, etc.
Consequently, operators of alternating current
established based upon lagging power factor operaturbine-generators carefully monitor the power
tion
over a relatively small range from unity power
factor at which ac power is supplied. They are
factor of 1.0 to 0.8 or 0.85 lagging power fa ctor.
paid by the kw-hour and many of their circuit
These values are consistant with the load characlosses will be in proportion to the current flow
teristics of most users and offer no particular difsquared. Since power output is low for a given
ficulties or limitations to operators in supplying
current flow, and losses high at low power factors
this type of operation is avoided and may be adjusted distribution systems except in unusual cases.
0'

90'

180

270

360

TIME

= VOLTS
= AMPERES
= PHASE ANGLE
W
= WATTS(POWER)
VARS = REACTIVE VOLT-AMPS
(PRODUCES NO POWER BUT
MAI NTAl NS VOLTAGE )
V

90'

= Vlxpf

270

Figure 4. Power and Reactive Volt-Amperes in AC Circuits

M-29

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

MAJOR GENERATOR PARTS AND

THEIR FUNCTION

8. Stator coil end turns are formed when coils

leave one slot in the stator core and a r e returned to a different slot.

A. Refer to Figure 5 for reference in considering

the major generator parts.

9. The end turn support structure provides for

bracing and ties to secure the stator coil end
turns against magnetic forces.

B. These a r e defined further as follows:

1. The generator frame provides the structural

strength and rigidity for the generator and
serves a s a housing to guide cooling air o r
gas flow.
2. The inner air shield is a baffle used to form
a path for cooled air or gas.
3. The generator fan, mounted on the rotating
field causes continuous circulation of cooling
air o r gas.
4. The rotating field forms a strong polarized,
rotating magnetic field when energized by an
external source of dc power.
5. The stator core carries the stationary high
voltage windings and forms a magnetic patch
for magnetic fields.
6. The air gap is the radial clearance between
the rotating field and the stator core.
7. Stator core spring bars act as somewhat
flexible support f o r the stator core assembly.

10. The high voltage terminal leads serve to conduct the three phase voltage and current flow
from the generator stator to the external
system.
11. Collector rings are used to provide a connection and path for dc power into the rotating field windings.
12. The outboard end stub shaft is sometimes
used to drive a small dc generator used t o
supply dc power to the rotating field.
13. Field conductor end turns are securely

blocked and serve as connection points for the

dc power applied to the field windings.
14. The main coupling is bolted to the driving
turbine shaft.
15. Generator coolers serve to remove heat from
the generator cooling air or gas after it has
passed over or through the stator and rotating
field.

16. Cooling water connections a r e supplied to the

generator a i r coolers.

C I
Figure 5. Major Parts of Alternating Current Generators
6

M- 29

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

FUNDAMENTALS OF GENERATORS

Alternating current generators, as has been indicated, are designed to utilize the principles of
electromagnetic induction to generate electrical
energy. From the previous discussions throughout
this course it will be clear that alternating current
generators may be, and frequently are, built in
large sizes and ratings, and generally operate at
high rotating speeds. Further, such generators
operate with very high efficiency in the neighborhood of 98 to 99 percent.
Also, it will have been seen that alternating current
generators utilize definite, carefully designed magnetic paths o r circuits a s well as the electric circuits which would normally be expected. In considering the operation of generators, the path and
function of magnetic fields involved should be
visualized as closely as possible. Magnetic paths
link both the rotating field windings and the stator
coils and therefore, must cross the air gap. It
should be kept in mind that leakage flux from the
desired magnetic path tends to reduce efficiency
and may cause heating of some generator parts such
as structural sections. Abnormal magnetic flux
leakage or abnormal f l u x patterns may also be
caused by unusual operating conditions on the
generator.

sulated from adjacent sheets to allow unrestricted

flow of magnetic flux while stopping the right angle
flow of Eddy currents.
Two electric circuits are involved in alternating
current generators. The first is the externally
supplied dc circuit through the-rotating field coils.
After the field has reached running speed the rotating field circuit is gradually energized or, "field
excitation" is established which effectively converts
the generator field into a huge and powerful electromagnet. It will, therefore, have a north and south
magnetic pole and a strong flow of magnetic flux
will exist from field poles, across the air gap, and
through the generator core; thereby linking o r
crossing the stator windings. Note Figure 6.
Since the field rotates at 3600 rpm (usually), a rotating magnetic field traverses the stator windings
and core. Each stator coil will have an alternating
voltage induced each rotation of the generator field
which w i l l be essentially as shown on Figure 4,
with respect to time and to positive and negative
half-cycles.

Generator stator windings will be imbedded in slots

in the stator core, usually two coils o r winding bars
to the slot. Each bar o r winding must be suitably
insulated for the rather high terminal voltages of
the stator winding. All bars will be symmetrically
Considering the importance and key function of mag- connected to form three phase belts in the generator windings. Thus, three windings are formed
netic circuits, it would be well to carefully study
which are symmetrically displaced from each other
the construction and intended operation of the genby 120 F and which have symmetrically similar
erator core where the intensified magnetic field is
purposely confined as much as possible to reduce
generator losses and t o eliminate stray o r extraneous magnetic fields.
Certain definite losses do occur when iron based
material is subjected to magnetization which is due
to the internal energy used in orienting charged
molecules. This will also cause a slight lag in the
magnetizing flux flow relative to the formation of
5 .
the magnetizing force. Also,varying magnetic
flux, in flowing through magnetic materials, will
cause small voltages to be induced in the magnetic
material itself These tiny voltages will be induced
in a direction at rightangles to the flow of magnetic
flux and consequentlywill cause internal circulating
currents to be set up in the material at right
3
angles to the flowof megneticflux. Since energy
is dissipated in the phenomena described above,
losses and heating are involved, generally lumped
together and called core losses. Core losses a r e
basically hysteresis losses and Eddy current
losses described above.
Eddy current losses are largely eliminated or
minimized by constructing the generator core of
hundreds of thousands of thin, insulated, steel
sheets or "punchings" compressed and bolted together. Each sheet it a few mils thick and is inM-29

1. STATOR CORE
2. ROTATING FIELD
3. A I R G A P

4. STATOR COILS

5. ROTOR COILS
6. ROTATION

Figure 6 . Generator Magnetic Circuit Due to Field

Current
7

GENE RATOR FUNDAMENTALS

terminal voltages due to electrical connections of

bars in each phase belt.

erator in electrical "step" synchronism through the

medium of the generator magnetic circuits.

For each revolution of the energized rotating field,

there will, therefore, be three symmetrical terminal voltages induced in a three phase sequence
which may be suitably connected to furnish electrical energy to an external system.

The actual force or torque necessary to cause the

generator to depart from electrical synchronism
will depend upon the electro-magnetic characteristics built into the generator circuits, and,
the operating conditions imposed upon the generator.
Capability curves are furnished by manufacturers
to define abnormal operating conditions. For instance, the abnormal condition of generators
furnishing substantial power at high "leading" power
factors (current leading voltage with respect to
phase relationship) causes a weakening of the generator magnetic fields and results in reductions in
synchronizing power or stability, and abnormal
magnetic field patterns.

Improved magnetic materials, electrical-insulating

materials, and cooling methods have allowed the
ratings of single alternating current generators to
approach 500,000 kw. Generator terminal voltages
have also tended to increase and may be around
20,000 volts for some utility turbine-generators.
Most industrial power generation is done at 2400 to
13, 800 volts.
Since the alternating current generator supplies
three phase power into existing systems, it is
necessary to carefully "match" electrical conditions
of the generator to the system before closing the
generator output breaker to electrically connect the
two. The terminal voltages of the generator should
exactly match the voltage of the system at every
instant to avoid large inrushes o r exchanges of
electrical power, severe distortion of generator
magnetic fields, and high instantaneous torques on
generator and turbine shafts. Accordingly, the
turbine governor is adjusted until the generator
electrical frequency, and the generator field excitation is varied until generator terminal voltage
exactly matches the system voltage.

If the turbine governor setting is now increased, a

momentary speed or frequency increase occurs
which causes the phase relationship of the generator
voltages to advance with respect to the phase relationship of the system and current will flow into
the system; o r power may be delivered to the system. Thus, the generator may be "loaded" o r
"unloaded'' by adjusting the turbine governor.
The generator, while operating at a fixed govenor
setting, will also share with other connected generators in supplying any additional electrical load
placed on the system up to the limit of the turbine
generator sets capacity.

Finally, when the generator begins to deliver current, new magnetic fields a r e established due to the
large currents flowing in the stator or armature
Finally, an instrument known as a synchroscope is
windings.
The magnetic fields due to armature
used to indicate when these conditions exactly
current, called "armature reaction, or, armature
parallel in magnitude and time, at which time the
reaction flux immediately effects the main field
generator is said to be synchronized and may be
flux.
Thus, it may strengthen, weaken, o r disconnected to the system without disturbance.
tort the flux; in effect forcing it from its desired
At the instant the generator breaker closes, if con- path. The strength of the main field magnetic flux
will attempt to realign itself to its desired path,
ditions of the generator output voltage exactly
and mechanical torque is necessary to prevent this
matches the system voltage in magnitude, frerealignment in order to sustain the desired'current
quency, and timing: the generator will "float" on
flow. The turbine must increase steam flow and
the line. That is, it will be electrically connected
and synchronized but is neither taking nor receiving power output to maintain the phase advance of generator armature voltage necessary to cause curpower from the external electrical system. The
conditions of the rotating magnetic field in the gen- rent to flow into the system. Figure 7 indicates
the relative alignment of magnetic fields due to
erator will be as shown in Figure 6. The magnetic
field current and to armature current.
field will be seen to be symmetrically aligned with
the magnetic axis of the rotating field at each inThe electrical explanation of the internal factors
stant, and the terminal voltage of the generator
involved in operating generators electrically conproduced by the magnetic field is in exact synchronism and timing with the system voltage. The gen- nected to large electrical systems is not unduly involved when key principles previously discussed
erator may be thought of as being electrically
'locked" into the external system. Of course, all a r e kept firmly in mind. This is shown on Figure
9 along with a summary of the factors involved.
locks may be broken, but unusual effort w i l l generally be required. Such would be the case with
the electrically connected, three-phase, alternating By carefully studying vector diagrams shown on
Figure 8, most of the following operating fundacurrent generator as energy available in the extermentals may be verified.
nal electrical system is available to hold the genM-29
8
"

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

SUPPLYING
CURRENT
IN
PHASE
'A

IR

I
SUPPLYING
LAGGING
CURRENT

- -

1. ROTATING FIELD
2. STATOR CORE
3. ROTATION
4. MAGNETIC FLUX PATTERN DUE TO FIELD CURRENT
5. MAGNETIC FLUX PATTERN DUE TO ARMATURE CURRENT

FR

Eo

Figure 7. Relationship of Magnetic Fields Due to

Field Current and Armature Current

SUPPLYING
CURRENT

(a) Lagging power factor operation causes high

field currents and may cause heating of the
generator field to be the limiting factor in high
load operation.

FA

(b) Leading power factor operation causes relatively weak magnetic fields with lower field
currents; and armature reaction flux weakens
and causes distortion of the main field. Heating at the ends of generator core or windings
maybe the limiting factor in high load operation.
(c)

(d)

The power factor may be varied on a generator

connected to a large system by changing the
field current. Increasing field current will
cause more lagging reactive kva to be furnished and decreasing the field current will
cause l e s s lagging reactive kva to be f u r nished (or more leading reactive k v a ) . Reactive kva is defined as kva caused by current
flow which is not effective in producing power.
As has been noted, increasing steam flow
through the turbine will cause an increase in
generator load, or decreasing steam flow will
cause generator load to decrease. Increasing
load by increasing steam flow through the turbine will tend to increase lagging power factors
(cause less lag in current) or increase leading
power factors.

M-29

Figure 8.

IR

I
Generator Electrical and Magnetic
Relationships at Different Power
Factors

(e) If field current is increased on several generators, the effect would be to raise the system
voltage.
Figure 9 shows the components of a basic excitation system which might be used with an ac generator. The exciter is a relatively small dc generator which is driven directly by the main generator shaft in many cases. The output of the exciter
is used to supply excitation for the generator field
through the field collector rings. Field excitation
may, therefore, be varied by adjusting the exciter
field rheostat. In practice this is automatically
done to hold generator output voltage within extremely close limits due to the action of the voltage
regulator in adjusting output of the exciter whenever a variation in voltage output from the generator occurs.
9

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

EXCITER
FIELD-

GENE RAT0 R "V" CURVES

GENERATOR

,FIELD BREAKER

LIMITED BY
ARMATURE
HEATING

140

GEN ERATOR

ARM

COLLECTOR RING

GEN.

POT ENTI AL
TRANSFORMER

U VOLTAGE
REGULATOR

Figure 9. Basic Excitation System

FIELD AMPERES

A s a n aid in understanding typical operating limits

for generators, Figure 10 is shown which gives the
recommended operating limits in t e r m s of kva output, field amps, and power factor of the generator.
These curves a r e called "V" curves due to their
shape. Also shown on Figure 10 is a typical generator capability curve defining recommended
operating conditions on the generator in t e r m s of
kw output, kvar output, and power factor.

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS AND

LIMlTATIONS OF GENERATORS
Alternating current generators incorporate a cooling system utilizing fans, coolers and suitable
structural passages to remove heat caused by
stator core magnetic losses, due to windage of
rotating parts, and due to copper heating losses
caused by current flow (12R losses) in the stator
windings as well as the rotating field windings.
Adequate cooling of generators tends to become a
limiting factor in their maximum rating and has a
governing effect upon the physical size of generator
parts. Generator cooling systems are significantly
more effective with some cooling mediums other
than air. For instance, hydrogen, certain oils,
o r chemically pure water is much more effective
than air and all are satisfactory electrical insulators. Of course, oil o r water, would not be
circulated in the generator casing as would air o r
hydrogen, rather it would be pumped directly
through hollow windings. With such intimate contact and superior heat conducting properties, the
amount of copper in generators can be reduced
appreciably, due to the improved cooling. Such
conductor cooling of windings may be used in conjunction with circulating gas cooling. The effect is
10

100 I

CURVES SHOWN ARE FOR HYDROGEN COOLED

GENERATORSWITH MAXIMUM RATINGS AT 1/2 PSI,
15 PSI, OR 30 PSI HYDROGEN PRESSURE.

Figure 10. Typical Generator Performance Curves

to allow much larger electrical ratings without
exceeding physical sizes which can be shipped o r
transported satisfactorily.
Since some complication and expense is introduced
with cooling systems more involved than with air o r
M-29

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS
gas cooling, industrial applications have used air
o r hydrogen cooling exclusively and generally find
hydrogen cooling justified in modern units with
ratings over 15000 kw.
Electrical insulation of generator windings limits
the effectiveness of the cooling medium because it
tends to also serve as thermal insulation. Generator winding temperatures are generally measured
at two o r more locations in each phase belt by installing thermocouples or other temperature measuring devices between top and bottom coils in a
given stator slot. These devices do not measure
actual copper temperature but will always indicate
a significantly lower temperature due to the temperature drop across winding insulation. This
reading will be 15 C to 20 C lower (27 F to 36 F)
than copper temperature f o r normal operation in
many generators.
It is normally recommended that the generator
coolers be operated by throttling discharge water
flow from the cooler to result in maintaining cooled
air from the coolers at approximately 40 C (104 F).
This will cause cooler water pressure to be higher
than atmospheric pressures for all operation and
avoid the possibility of air locking coolers to prevent cooling water flow, as well as insure the
cooler is completely filled on the water side. Vents
a r e usually provided near the very top of generator
coolers to allow visual indication of vent flow to
verify that coolers a r e properly filled.
Generator field winding temperatures are even
more difficult to judge due to high rotating speeds
of the field. Sometimes this is done by using an
instrument which essentially provides continuous
measurement of the total resistance of the field
windings. Since the increase in resistance of the
field winding is normally an accurate measure of
the temperature rise in the winding, the instrument
may be calibrated to read in degrees F or degrees
C. This is based upon accurate knowledge of the
field winding resistance at some known temperature, usually ambient temperature or 20 C.
Due to the temperature rise in the copper windings
and to differential expansion between the field
forging and the copper windings, the windings will
be subject to growth as the generator is placed in
service and loaded. For this reason it is wise to
cut cooling water off of generator coolers when
rolling and starting turbine-generators to allow as
much warming as possible of the generator due to
windage losses before going beyond one-half rated
speed. Thus, growth of windings due to increased
temperature may occur before high centrifugal
forces tend to lock the windings forcibly in their
slots. This is more important when starting during
cold ambient conditions, particularly in outdoor
stations and becomes more important with larger

M-29

and longer fields. When excessive growth of windings occurs after the generator reaches rated
speed, scuffing of field coil insulation could occur,
or mechanical s t r e s s e s could be developed in
windings restricted from free expansion.
Similarly, generator forging temperatures will be
allowed to increase substantially before high centrifugal forces at normal operating speeds, or
during overspeed trials, are experienced. Generator field forgings will exhibit better properties
with respect to ductility at temperatures higher
than ambient, particularly in the case of lower
than normal ambient temperatures,
The generator field, functionally an electrical device, is nevertheless a marvelous combination of
electrical and mechanical design to achieve suitability for high rotating speeds. For instance, a
single field coil for a 10,000 kw generator weighs
300 pounds at rest, but exerts a force of over
1,000,000 pounds when operating at 3600 rpm . The
mechanical restraint necessary and the qualities of
the field forging must be of the highest order possible to result in safe operation and perform its
electrical function reliably for the life of the turbine-generator. I f a generator field coil is allowed
to shift or move at all, the effect upon the field
balance will be immediate and high vibrations may
result.
Similarly, the effect of differential temperatures
from one side of the field to the opposite side, even
as small as one o r two degrees centrigrade may
cause a bow in the generator field sufficient to unbalance the field when loaded. Since varnish or
lacquer is often sprayed on the field body to prevent rusting, only a thin coat should be applied to
avoid limiting the heat transfer from the field.
Also, care should be taken to apply a uniform coating so that heat transfer properties will not be
significantly different over the rotor surface.
Generator field coils a r e installed into slots milled
the length of generator forgings. In addition to
electrical insulation, slot armor is used to secure
the coil in the slot as well as slow wedges to retain
the coil and transfer the mechanical force to the
high strength field forging.
At the ends of generator fields, coil end turns are
arranged with sufficient flexibility to accept expansion growth of the coils without excessive mechanical stresses being developed. End turns a r e
separated and held in place with blocking in conjunction with radiating plates to facilitate-heat removal. In addition, ventilation passages for the
cooling air or gas is provided for at the end turn
area.
The whole end turn and blocking assembly is held
firmly in position by retaining rings. These a r e
11

GENERATOR FUNDAMENTALS

essentially cylindrical sleeves installed with very

high shrink fits to centering rings on the generator
shaft which serve to secure end turns and blocking
while positioning this assembly in a permanent,
symmetrical, balanced assembly.

excessive wear, vibration, o r contamination may

cause serious trouble such as heavy sparking,
flashover, o r loss of generator field excitation.

Generator collector rings may be subjected to excessive vibration o r overheating if brushes are not
correctly fitted and installed. These are normally
cooled by a portion of the generator or exciter
cooling air flow. Operation of generator collector
brushes and rings should be checked frequently as

Conditions of stator windings can only be evaluated

after electrical tests and close visual inspection
during shutdown intervals. Of course, periodic
inspection by operating personnel should check
collector operation, vibrations, noise level, and
cleanliness of accessible generator parts.

Stator windings, similar to field coils, are subject

to appreciable growth due to differential expansion
between the copper and the stator core. Coil inGenerator field retaining rings, similar to field
sulation is of the highest order to isolate the high
forgings, are given the utmost in care and testing
alternating current voltages in their desired paths.
throughout their manufacture. Retaining rings a r e Stator windings a r e not subject t o centrifugal
perhaps the key structural part of generator fields
stresses as are field coils and slot wedges and
and a r e the most highly stressed in operation. Sim- filler material will not be as substantial as for
ilar to large turbine wheels, a scratch on a retain- field coils.
ing ring surface would be a matter of concern. The
utmost in mechanical strength is designed for and
Stator windings are subject, however, to magnetic
no sharp breaks in contour o r surface condition
forces which will be somewhat dependent upon the
a r e allowed due to possibilities of introducing
current density in the windings. This could cause
s t r e s s concentrations.
stator bar vibration and damage to insulation if
stator bar wedges became excessively loose.
Terminal connections of generator field windings
are brought through the shaft bore to connect elecGenerator stator windings cannot generally be
trically to collector rings. Terminal leads are
carefully insulated from the shaft or forging as a r e monitored o r their condition judged during normal
the collector rings. The collector rings thus serve operation. Their good condition can best be
assured by careful observance of good operating
as input. terminals for the dc power providing exhabits with respect to the generator. Normal temcitation for the generator field.
peratures can be maintained by proper operation of
the generator cooling system and by reference to
Excitation is introduced into the collector rings,
temperature indications at the stator windings and
which a r e essentially accurately machined and
in the cooling air path.
highly polished sleeves, by means of carbon
brushes which a r e fitted to ride the surface of the
Also, operation of generators outside recommended
rings accurately.
limits furnished by the manufacturer involves certain r i s k s and the possibility of decreasing life of
Generator fan rings a r e installed to the generator
generator windings. Manufacturers normally
shaft to provide a means of circulating cooling air
furnish generator capability curves which define
or gas. The power absorbed by the fans, along
recommended operating ranges with respect to
with other rotating windage losses, represent the
largest single type of loss connected with operation load, field current, and power factor which a r e the
usual operating variables.
of the generator.

GENERAL

12

@ ELECTRIC

M- 29

GE Industrial & Power Systems

AC GENERATORS
In the section on magnetism we found that voltage
would be generated in a coil of wire if we have motion and flux. These three were present in the DC
generator and they also are present in the AC generator. In the AC generator the excitation field resembles the shunt field pole of the DC generator, but
the field poles are usually attached to the rotor and
revolve inside a stationary winding known as the armature. Power for the DC field is supplied with external DC current that passes through carbon
brushes riding on the two rings known as slip rings.

SINGLE PHASE GENERATOR

In the simplest alternator are two poles, one north
and the other south, which sweep past two sets of armature coils located diametrically opposite each
other. These coils are connected in series so that
while one set is being sweptby a north pole the other
armature coils are being swept by a south pole. The
voltage generated in both coils will be of equal magnitude, but with reversed polarity.

f=
RPM =

Poles/2
6

= 600 RPM

The simplest AC generator has two field poles

sweeping past one set of stationary or armaturecoils.
In one revolution of the motor shaft the voltage generated in the armature coils was seen to consist of a
symmetrical sine wave of positive and negative half
cycles spread over one shaft revolution of 360 mechanical and electrical degrees. The end view of
such a single phase unit appears something like Figure 1.

ARMATURE
COILS

Figure 1

FIELD
POLE

AC Generator Single Phase

The left hand armature coil consists of a number of

turns wound in the upper slots of the stator. These are
connected in series with an identical coil in the right
hand slots of the stator. The voltage generated in
these coils in single phase.

= 3600 x 1
60

THREE PHASE GENERATOR

= 60 US

What must be the speed of a generator if it has 12

poles and we need 60-cycle voltage?

60xf
-

= 60x60

Thus, in one revolution the generated voltage alternates from one polarity to the other, producing a sinusoidal wave shape.
If there are two poles and the rotor field turns at 3600
rpm there will be 60 rotations per second or the generated voltage will have 60 alternations a second,
hence the expression 60 CPS. A general expression
for frequency is:
RPM x paors of poles
f=
, cycles per sec
60

RPM x Poles/2
60

This equation can be used for AC motors as well

whether they be synchronous like the alternator or
induction types.

If a second pair of armature coils are wound in diao

metrically opposite slots exactly 120 away along
with a third pair of armature coils 240" further
around the stator, we have three sets of coils which
are spaced 120" apart from the stator. Figure 2.

E-7

AC GENERATORS

GE Industrial & Power Systems

As mentioned above there are three distinct armature coils. When isolated they would be represented
as shown in Figure 4 and 5 .
I

120

Figure 2

AC Generator Three Phase

0B

Figure 4

Wye (left) and Delta (right) Orientation

of Coils

As our two pole rotor turns the field will induce voltage in one set of coils after the other. Thus, in one
revolution the rotor will have been active in three
windings 120 apart. That is, there will be three
identical generating episodes, with one episode in
each set of armature windings.

I
E

Sincethe coils are 120apart and the field passes one

after the other, the voltages in the coils will be timed
120 apart and we have three phase voltages 120
apart as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 5

Delta and Wye Connections

It can be seen that the power for the three isolated

coil generator will be the sum of the power in each
coil. That is,

P = E1I1 Cos el +E2I2Cos

e2+ ~ 3 1 3cos e3

assuming the load current and power factor is different

in each coil. This is likethree single phase generators.
For the wye or delta circuit the total power for equal
loading on each phase is
P =
Figure 3

where E = line to line voltage

I = line current
For the delta connected unit, the coil voltage AB is
equal to the voltage across line AB, but line A current is the vector sum of the current coil AB and AC
and the line current is:

Three Phase Wave Shape of Generator

Output Voltage

Examine the pattern and observe that voltage wave

o
B is rising through the zero axis 120 after wave
A went through. Also, voltage wave C rises
through the zero axis 120o after wave B, which
may be considered 240oafter wave A. Now, 120
after C rises through the zero axis we see wave
A is starting over again, which means 360o have
expired and this can be checked and rechecked by
going over this three phase voltage pattern.
AC GENERATORS

J;j EI cos e

I, =

P =

J!i

I coil, hence power is

E I cos theta,

where E = line to line voltage

I = line current
2

E-7