Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REVIEW ARTICLE
NOMENCLATURE R0 resistance at T 0
B constant RT resistance at T
c speed of light (3⫻108 m/s) T temperature
h Planck’s constant (6.626⫻10⫺34 J s) V volume
E Young’s modulus Vv variable volume
E ,b blackbody emissive power u speed of sound
k Boltzmann’s constant (1.38⫻10⫺23 J/K) ␥ isentropic index
K bulk modulus wavelength
p pressure density
R characteristic gas constant Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.67⫻10⫺8 W/m2 K4 )
R resistance frequency
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2960 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2961
niques illustrated in Fig. 3 operate on the principle of main- ITS-90 between 3 and 24.5561 K.1 Corrections to account
taining either a constant pressure or a constant volume and/or for the behavior of the measuring apparatus include
a constant bulb temperature. In Fig. 3, T 1 refers to an accu-
共1兲 the dead space in connection tubes;9
rately known reference temperature, as defined by, say, a
共2兲 thermal expansion of the gas bulb;17,18
triple point, and T 2 is the temperature to be measured. The
共3兲 the difference in density of the gas at different levels in
diagrams on the left side show the schematic arrangement
the pressure sensing tubes;9,17
and thermodynamic properties at the reference condition;
共4兲 a thermomolecular pressure correction to account for
those on the right side, at the measuring condition.
temperature differences along the pressure sensing
The most common method is constant volume gas ther-
tube;9,19,20
mometry. For this method, a bulb containing the gas is im-
共5兲 the absorption of impurities in the gas.9,17,21
mersed into a fluid at the known reference temperature T 1 ,
and the pressure p 1 is measured under conditions of thermal Gas thermometers are mostly used for measurements in
equilibrium and again at temperature T 2 , from which the range of a few K to approximately 1000 K. At the lower
p2 temperatures, better accuracy may be obtained by measuring
T 2 ⫽T 1 . 共1兲 the vapor pressure of a cryogenic liquid.22–24 The use of such
p1
vapor pressure thermometry over gas thermometry at tem-
For a constant pressure gas thermometer, there are two peratures below 4.2 K was recommended by Pavese and
bulbs and one is always immersed at the reference tempera- Steur.17
ture T 1 共where for T 2 ⬎T 1 , V v ⫽0兲. When the sensing bulb The accuracy of gas thermometry measurements de-
is at T 2 , the pressure is maintained constant by allowing the pends on the care taken and the temperature range. For ex-
volume V v to vary. The temperature T 2 is then given by ample Pavese and Steur17 reported an accuracy of 0.5 mK for
temperatures between 0.5 and 30 K. The method is generally
VT 1 expensive and restricted to detailed scientific experiments,
T 2⫽ . 共2兲
V⫺V v calibration and standards laboratories.
In a constant bulb-temperature device, one bulb is al-
2. Liquid-in-glass thermometers
ways immersed at T 1 and the other always at T 2 . At the
reference condition the variable volume V v ⫽0; at the mea- Liquid-in-glass thermometers permit a quick visual indi-
suring condition V v expands until the pressure reaches half cation of temperature that can with care be very accurate.
that at the reference condition and so The traditional liquid-in-glass thermometer comprising a res-
ervoir and capillary tube supported in a stem follows the
VT 1 designs proposed by Daniel Fahrenheit in 1714. A number of
T 2⫽ . 共3兲
Vv types of thermometer exist including total, partial, and com-
plete immersion, depending on the level of contact between
In the two-bulb device, the separate pressures p 1 and p 2
the medium and the sensor.
are measured at the reference condition and the common
Liquid-in-glass thermometers can be calibrated at a
pressure p at the measuring condition from which
number of fixed points and a scale applied to a stem support-
V 2 T 1 共 p⫺p 2 兲 ing the capillary tube to indicate the range and value of the
T 2⫽ . 共4兲 temperature. The accuracy for industrial glass thermometers
V 1 共 p 1 ⫺p 兲
depends on the actual device and values range from ⫾0.01 to
Use of Eqs. 共1兲–共4兲 to determine T 2 of course assumes ⫾4 °C.25 Laboratory glass thermometers can achieve accu-
ideal behavior of both the gas and the equipment. The prac- racy levels of ⫾0.005 °C. Inaccuracy can occur due to non-
tical application is not so simple and for accurate measure- uniformities in the manufacture of the capillary bore. If the
ments consideration must be given to both the nonideal na- capillary has a given diameter at the calibration points but
ture of real gases and inherent inadequacies of the equipment varies in between, then the device will appear accurate at the
used. The behavior of real gases may be modeled using the calibration points in use but will be inaccurate at intermedi-
virial equation. This can be expressed in a number of ways; ate temperatures. The design and use of liquid-in-glass labo-
a form appropriate to constant volume gas thermometry 共and ratory thermometers are detailed by Refs. 25–29. Mercury-
for modifying the gas thermometry equations given above兲 is in-glass thermometers are increasingly being replaced by
冉 冊
relatively cheap resistance devices 共see Sec. II C兲 giving a
RT B 共 T 兲 C 共 T 兲 D 共 T 兲 digital readout or by thermally sensitive paint devices which
p⫽ ⫹ 2 ⫹ 3 ⫹ ⫹... , 共5兲
V V V V4 give an obvious visible indication of the temperature 共Sec.
III A兲. Nevertheless there is still an abundance of liquid-in-
where B(T), C(T) D(T), etc. are the second, third and
glass devices and their use, due to simple like for like re-
fourth virial coefficients. These coefficients have been evalu-
placement, will continue.
ated for a wide range of gases at various temperatures 共see,
for example, Refs. 6–12兲.
Examples of the utilization of constant volume gas ther- 3. Thermal expansion of solids
mometry are reported by Guildner and Edsinger,7 by Berry,9 These devices take advantage of the difference in ther-
Kemp et al.10 and in Refs. 13–16. It is used to define the mal expansion between different materials, usually metals.
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2962 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
Strips of different metals are bonded together to form a bi- higher temperature applications, the refractory metals such as
metallic strip and when heated the side with the higher co- tungsten, rhenium, some tungsten and rhenium alloys, and
efficient of thermal expansion will expand more causing the molybdenum can be used. Tungsten and rhenium have very
assembly to bend.30–32 This bending can be translated into a high melting points, 3410 and 3280 °C, respectively, and
temperature reading by a mechanical linkage to a pointer have either been used alone or alloyed with other material for
with an accuracy of approximately ⫾1 °C. An advantage of thermocouples. Such metals oxidize easily and must not be
these devices is that they do not require a power supply. exposed to oxidizing atmospheres at high temperatures or
Their use as temperature controllers is widespread. oxidizing agents. Nonmetals such as carbon, boron, and car-
bide and boride compounds are generally brittle and have
low tensile strengths. Practical thermocouples using nonmet-
B. Thermoelectric devices als can result in relatively large composite rods.
Thermocouples are frequently referred to as the work- The number of thermocouple material combinations
horse of temperature measurement with different devices ca- available is extensive; the characteristics of over a 150 were
pable of monitoring temperatures between ⫺270 and tabulated by Kinzie.36 The criteria for thermocouple selec-
3000 °C. Thermocouples are commonly used because of tion include cost, maximum and minimum operating tem-
their low cost, simplicity, robustness, size, and temperature peratures, chemical stability, material compatibility, atmo-
range. Their sensitivity is adequate for many applications as spheric protection, mechanical limitations, duration of
is their speed of response but they are less accurate than exposure, sensor lifetime, sensitivity, and output emf.37
resistance temperature devices; they require an independent Descriptions of the various commonly available standardized
measurement of junction temperature and extension cables thermocouples are presented in Table I. It should be noted
can be expensive. The basis of these devices is the Seebeck that only type E, T, and K thermocouples have proven them-
effect. This is the production of an electromotive force 共emf兲 selves useful for cryogenic use.38 There are several special
in a circuit of two dissimilar conductors experiencing a ther- gold–iron alloys that supplement the type E in the cryogenic
mal gradient. region. The properties of a variety of thermocouples for
The variation of thermoelectric power is illustrated in operation at more elevated temperatures are presented in
Fig. 4 which gives the emf generated by a thermoelement Table II.
relative to platinum with one junction held at 0 °C and the Variations in the homogeneity of the alloys used for
other at an increasing temperature. This chart can be used to thermocouple cable have resulted in the use of standards for
aid the selection of combinations of materials in the design defining thermocouple wire conformity see, for example,
of thermocouples. Often the goal is maximum thermoelectric Refs. 46–48. For type K and N thermocouples class 1 ther-
emf in which case a thermocouple pair should be selected, mocouple wire material conforms to ⫾1.5 °C or 0.004T for
one with a large positive and one with a large negative emf. T⬎375 °C; class 2 thermocouple wire material conforms to
The thermocouple materials must however be chemically ⫾2.5 °C or 0.0075T for T⬎333 °C.
compatible and Miedema33 and Pollock34 have provided in- Practical monitoring of a thermoelectric emf requires
formation on many suitable alloy combinations. some form of circuit.49 The circuits in Fig. 5 with T 1 ⬎T 2
Thermocouples can be categorized as noble metal, base illustrate the modifications to the basic circuit to form a prac-
metal, high temperature or refractory metal, and nonmetal.35 tical measurement circuit. Figure 5共a兲 shows the generation
Noble metals are relatively inert, although platinum, for ex- of a thermoelectric emf in a circuit formed by two homoge-
ample, oxidizes at 600 °C. Their use in thermocouples stems neous but dissimilar metals experiencing a thermal gradient.
from their chemical stability and thermoelectric power 共see The introduction of a third metal in the circuit, as illustrated
Fig. 4兲. Certain base metals such as copper, iron, nickel, in Fig. 5共b兲, does not change the thermoelectric emf pro-
aluminum, and chromium, as well as their alloys with addi- duced if there is no net thermal gradient across its junctions.
tional impurities, can be used to produce materials, e.g., con- The circuit shown in Fig. 5共c兲 uses an extension of the prin-
stantan and Chromel, with desirable thermoelectric charac- ciple illustrated in Fig. 5共b兲 where a conductor that does not
teristics, particularly for low and moderate temperatures. For experience a net thermal gradient does not contribute to the
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2963
Stability
over the
Temperature temperature Standardized
range Output range letter Common
共°C兲 共V/°C兲 Cost specified designation name Brief description
⫺262→850 15 at ⫺200 °C Low Low T Copper/a copper Type T, copper constantan, thermocouples are useful for
60 at 350 °C nickel alloy the ⫺250–350 °C range in oxidizing or inert
共constantan兲 atmospheres. Above 400 °C the copper arm rapidly
oxidizes. Care needs to be taken to avoid problems
arising from the high thermal conductivity of the copper
arm. As one lead of this thermocouple is copper, there is
no need for special compensation cable. Note that
constantan is a general term for a copper nickel alloy
with between 35% and 50% copper. The thermoelectric
characteristics of each alloy will vary according to the
alloying proportions. Although constantan is used in type
T, J and E thermocouples the actual material for each is
slightly different.
⫺196→700 26 at ⫺190 °C Low Low J Iron/a copper Type J thermocouples are commonly called iron
63 at 800 °C nickel alloy constantan thermocouples and are popular due to their
共constantan兲 high Seebeck coefficient and low price. These can be
safely used in reducing atmospheres from 0 up to 550 °C
beyond which degradation is rapid. The maximum
temperature for continuous operation is 800 °C.
⫺268→800 68 at 100 °C Low Low to mid E Nickel chromium Type E, Chromel constantan thermocouples give high
81 at 500 °C alloy 共chromel兲/a output for the range of ⫺250–900 °C. They are ideally
77 at 900 °C copper nickel alloy suited to temperature measurement around ambient
共constantan兲 because of the large Seebeck coefficient, low thermal
conductivity, and corrosion resistance.
⫺250→1100 40 from 250 to Low Low K Nickel chromium The type K thermocouple is commonly called Chromel–
1000 °C alloy 共Chromel兲/nickel Alumel. It is the most commonly used thermocouple and
35 at 1300 °C aluminum is designed for use in oxidizing atmospheres. Maximum
alloy 共Alumel兲 continuous use is limited to 1100 °C although above
800 °C oxidation causes drift and decalibration. Note
that the type K thermocouple is unstable with hysteresis
between 300 and 600 °C, which can result in errors of
several degrees.
0→1250 37 at 1000 °C Low Mid to high N Nickel chromium Type N thermocouples have been developed to address
silicon the instability of type K 共Ref. 39兲. These trade linear
共Nicrosil兲/nickel response for stability and an algorithm is required for
silicon magnesium conversion between the generated emf and temperature.
alloy 共Nisil兲 The voltage temperature curve for type N thermocouples
is slightly lower than that for type K thermocouples.
100→1750 5 at 1000 °C High High B Platinum-30% Type B thermocouples can be used continuously to
rhodium/platinum-6% 1600 °C and intermittently to 1800 °C. However, due to
rhodium a local minimum in its thermoelectric emf, this thermo-
couple exhibits a double value ambiguity between 0 and
42 °C. However the emf below 100 °C is very low and
little concern need be given to cold junction com-
pensation.
0→1500 6 from High High S Platinum-10% Type S thermocouples can be used in oxidizing or inert
0 to 100 °C rhodium/platinum atmospheres continuously at temperatures up to 1400 °C
and for brief periods up to 1650 °C.
0→1600 10 at 1000 °C High High R Platinum-13% Type R thermocouples give similar performance to type
rhodium/platinum S, but give slightly higher output and improved stability.
thermoelectric emf. This circuit can form the basis of a prac- 0 °C. The circuit is mounted at the location of the measuring
tical thermoelectric measuring circuit as shown in Fig. 5共d兲 instrument’s input terminals where the resistance tempera-
where additional electrical elements are added to monitor the ture device can sense that temperature. The measuring instru-
potential difference. For this circuit to provide meaningful ment can be a digital voltmeter 共DVM兲 or the amplifier/
results the temperature T 2 must be known and is often called analog digital converter combination of a direct reading 共in
the reference junction temperature. In some laboratory con- temperature兲 temperature controller or readout. The input
ditions, an ice water bath or Peltier cooler is used to maintain impedance of the voltage measuring instrument has to be
T 2 at 0 °C. In the vast majority of applications, however, a large compared to the resistance of the thermocouple and its
reference junction voltage corresponding to T 2 is provided extension wires. This condition is easily met in practice and
by an electronic bridge circuit incorporating a resistance tem- will prevent a significant current from flowing through the
perature device; it is usually, but not always, adjusted to circuit, which could cause other thermoelectric effects and/or
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2964 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
Temperature
limit Output 共mV兲 Oxidizing Reducing
Material 共°C兲 at 1000 °C atmospherea environmentb Source
cause an IR drop across the thermocouple and its leads. Volt- when using thermocouples include cable specification, spu-
ages produced by metallic thermocouples are not high, gen- rious intermediate junctions, cold junction temperature mea-
erally about 10–80 V/°C, however, a DVM with a not un- surement, voltmeter sensitivity, and cable drift.36,37 If a wire
common resolution of 10 V can resolve 0.25 °C for a type is subjected to high temperatures or stresses the lattice can
K thermocouple. become modified. Drift caused by annealing of thermocouple
Many applications require the thermocouple wires to be materials used in high temperature applications is a common
electrically or chemically isolated from the environment or problem. Recalibration may not compensate for this, since
medium of interest. Examples of insulation materials include the thermal gradients along the thermoelements in the labo-
PVC for temperatures between ⫺30 and 105 °C, Teflon for ratory calibration may be different from the thermal gradi-
⫺273–⫹250 °C, glass fiber for ⫺50–400 °C, and polyimide ents in the application.
for ⫺269–400 °C. Alternatively, a metal sheath encapsulat-
ing a mineral insulation such as magnesium oxide which C. Electrical resistance devices
supports and electrically isolates the thermocouple can be
The temperature dependence of electrical resistance is
used to 1250 °C.50 Higher temperatures can be achieved us-
fundamental to the operation of many devices. The resistance
ing all-ceramic sheaths. The external noise effects of electri-
of a conductor is related to its temperature because the mo-
cal and magnetic fields on low emf outputs can be of great
tion of free electrons and of atomic lattice vibrations is also
significance. Twisted pair cable can be used to cancel spuri-
temperature dependent. Any conductor could in theory be
ous emfs. Grounding of thermocouple circuits is therefore an
used for a resistance temperature device 共RTD兲. But practical
important consideration and was discussed by Benedict and
considerations of cost, temperature coefficient of resistance
Russo51 and by Claggett et al.52 The requirements of electri-
共a large value leads to a more sensitive instrument兲, ability
cal or chemical isolation and good thermal contact are often
to resist oxidation, and manufacturing constraints limit
in conflict, giving rise to thermal disturbance errors.
the choice. Copper, gold, nickel, platinum, and silver are
Major contributions to the uncertainty in measurement
the most widely used. The relevant properties for these ma-
terials are given in Table III. Copper is sometimes used
for the range ⫺100–100 °C and is relatively cheap. Nickel
and its alloys are also relatively low in cost, and have high
resistivities and high values of temperature coefficient of
resistance. However the variation in electrical resistance
with temperature is nonlinear and sensitive to strain. The
resistivity of platinum is six times that of copper, it is rela-
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2965
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2966 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
of comparison with another device or against a number of nese, iron, copper, cobalt, magnesium, titanium, other met-
fixed points. For temperatures between ⫺40 and 250 °C, als, and doped ceramics. They are manufactured by sintering
comparison can be made against another thermometer 共for particles in controlled atmospheres. Thermistors can have
example, a SPRT兲 in a stirred liquid bath containing, both positive or negative temperature coefficients. A typical
say, silicone oil, water, or alcohol, depending on the tem- resistance temperature characteristic is 1 ⍀/0.01 °C. Ther-
perature range. For higher temperatures fluidized beds and mistors are commercially available in bead, disk, rod,
heat pipe furnaces are more suitable. The ice point of water washer, and flake form. Beads as small as 0.07 mm in diam-
provides a reference temperature with an uncertainty of eter on leads of 0.01 mm diameter are possible. These de-
0.002 °C, assuming appropriate procedures are followed. vices can be encapsulated in epoxy resin, glass, or be
There is an alternative calibration point 共now preferred兲: the painted. Stable thermistors are available using mixed metal
commercially available water triple point cell with its lower oxides for temperatures less than approximately 250 °C. For
uncertainty.65 temperatures above 300 °C the refractory metal oxide de-
Errors inherent with a PRT include self-heating, oxida- vices are appropriate, while for temperatures of the order of
tion, corrosion, and strain of the sensing element. In order to 700 °C, devices utilizing zirconia doped with rare earth ox-
measure the resistance a current must be passed through the ides can be used. For low temperature applications, nonsto-
device and this can result in local heating.50 Minimizing the ichiometric iron oxides can be used.
current and ensuring good thermal contact between the sen- To a first approximation the temperature can be deter-
sor and surrounding medium reduces self-heating errors. mined from the relationship given in Eq. 共8兲 as follows:77
冋 冉 冊册
Platinum although considered relatively stable can oxidize at
1 1
elevated temperatures.66,67 The combined effects of changes R T ⫽R 0 exp 1⫺B ⫺ , 共8兲
in the overall composition of platinum due to oxidation and T T0
thermally induced strain have been investigated by Trietly.68 where R 0 is the resistance at T 0 and B is a constant for the
Errors equivalent to several degrees were reported as a result particular thermistor material.
of repeated cycling above 500 °C. The resistance characteristic of a thermistor expressed
The PRT is suitable for use at low temperatures as iden- by Eq. 共8兲 is negative and nonlinear. This can be offset if
tified by its use for the ITS-90 down to 13.81 K. Below 20 K desired by using two or more matched thermistors packaged
the sensitivity drops off, but there are other resistance de- in a single device so that the nonlinearities of each device
vices with favorable characteristics at low temperatures such offset each other. Thermistors are usually designated by their
as rhodium iron, doped germanium, and carbon resistors. resistance at 25 °C, with common resistances ranging from
Above 30 K, rhodium iron alloy 共0.5% iron in rhodium兲 470 ⍀ to 100 k⍀. The high resistivity of thermistors negates
provides a similar resistance–temperature characteristic to the need for a four-wire bridge circuit. The accuracy of these
platinum. Below 30 K, the sensitivity drops to a minimum devices can be as good as ⫾0.01–⫾0.05 °C,78 although com-
between 25 and 15 K and then rises again giving a thermom- mercial applications often result in an accuracy of the order
eter with good sensitivity at low temperatures.69,70 Germa- of ⫾1 °C. The disadvantage of thermistors is their suscepti-
nium resistors are commercially available and have a rela- bility to decalibration and drift due to changes in the semi-
tively wide temperature range, 0.05–325 K. Doped conductor materials.
germanium is commonly used with commercial devices,
typically consisting of a chip of the semiconductor encapsu-
lated in a 3 mm diam 8.5 mm long cylinder 共e.g., GR-200A, D. Semiconductor devices
from Lake Shore Cryotronics Inc.兲. Germanium RTDs are For applications in the temperature range of ⫺55–
particularly suitable for temperature measurements in the 150 °C where a stable device with an accuracy of about
range of 0.05–30 K, giving sensitivities of approximately ⫾0.8 °C is desired, a junction semiconductor device can be
102 – 104 ⍀/K at 1 K. Certain types of carbon radio resistors useful. Junction semiconductor devices such as transistors
from Allen–Bradley have been identified 共following the and diodes exhibit temperature sensitive characteristics that
original work of Clement and Quinnell71兲 as having a useful can be exploited for temperature measurement. A band gap
resistance–temperature characteristic at low temperatures. voltage reference79 can be used to generate a temperature
Other RTDs widely used in cryogenics include ruthenium sensing output proportional to absolute temperature. One
oxide thick film resistors, Cernox zirconium oxynitride sen- such device, the LM335, is a two terminal integrated circuit
sors, and carbon glass thermometers, which consist of fibers temperature sensor that behaves like a Zener diode with a
trapped in a glass matrix. All three types are commercially voltage output of 110 mV/°C. Another device, the LM35,
available and were developed to minimize high magnetic behaves like a three terminal reference and has an internal
field effects on the thermometers.72–76 offset so that the voltage is zero at 0 °C, with the device
output being 10 mV/°C and an accuracy of ⫾0.8 °C. The
2. Thermistors AD590 is a two terminal device that acts as a constant cur-
If accuracy is less critical, then a cheaper form of resis- rent element passing a current of 1 A/°C. The temperature
tance temperature device than platinum resistance thermom- range of these devices is limited by the silicon transistors
eters is the thermistor. Thermistors consist of a semiconduc- used. For the AD590 the temperature range is ⫺55–150 °C.
tor whose resistance is sensitive to temperature. Modern The advantages of these devices are their linearity, simple
thermistors are usually mixtures of oxides of nickel, manga- circuitry, and good sensitivity.
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2967
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2968 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
encapsulated samples of the material 共with a capacitance of a a small thermometer and Hewlett Packard has produced a
few nanofarads兲 and lead wires to a bridge circuit energized commercial quartz thermometer 共model 2804 A兲.
at approximately 100 V. Capacitance thermometers provide
good sensitivity below 100 K but the output voltage becomes I. Paramagnetic and nuclear magnetic resonance
irreproducible after thermal cycling, so calibration against thermometry
another type of sensor is often necessary. Capacitance ther-
For many materials the magnetic susceptibility, defined
mometers do however exhibit virtually no magnetic field de-
as the ratio of magnetization to the applied magnetic field,
pendency. They are thus useful as control devices in high
varies inversely with temperature as defined by
magnetic fields where other types of device may fail or pro-
duce erroneous signals.88 The permittivity–temperature char- C
acteristics have been studied for a variety of materials.89–97 ⫽ , 共9兲
T
Commercial devices are available from Lake Shore Cryoton-
ics Inc. where is the susceptibility, C is the so-called Curie con-
stant, and T is the absolute temperature. The procedure used
in paramagnetic thermometry involves placing an appropri-
G. Noise thermometry ate sample of material, which is in close thermal contact with
The fundamental principle exploited in noise thermom- the medium of interest, between the coils of a mutual induc-
etry is the random voltage generated by Brownian motion of tance bridge. A Hartshorn mutual inductance bridge was
conduction electrons.98,99 The method, the measurement of used by Durieux et al.110 More recently a ratio-transformer
the mean square Johnson noise voltage across a resistor, rep- version has been utilized.111 The sample must be a paramag-
resents one of the few practical alternatives to gas thermom- netic material such as cerium magnesium nitrate 共CMN兲,
etry for the precise determination of thermodynamic tem- chromic methyl ammonium 共CMA兲, or manganous ammo-
perature. The sophistication required for the instrumentation nium sulfate 共MAS兲. CMN is the most common and is useful
to do this has limited the technique to mostly standards labo- at temperatures up to 4.2 K and in particular for the measure-
ratory applications. This is in part due to the small value of ment of 3 He and 4 He temperatures, 共see e.g., Refs. 112–
noise voltages 共for T⫽1 K, 7 V across a bandwidth of 2 115兲. Klemme et al.116 reported on the development of new
MHz, with R⫽1 M⍀兲100 and also the need to eliminate or materials, PdMn and PdFe, that allow high resolution mea-
compensate for other types of noise. Except at low tempera- surements in the range 1.5–3 K with application to measure-
tures the accuracy obtained from noise thermometry does not ments in outer space. The reproducibility of this method can
match that from other, often easier, methods such as the be better than 0.5 mK below 50 K with an uncertainty of 1
RTD. mK in the range of 18–54 K.117 The overall uncertainty also
In principle the temperature range of application of noise depends on the bridge circuitry and the stability and accuracy
thermometry is wide, from a few mK to over 1500 °C. The of the associated constants. Cetas117 has demonstrated this
type of circuitry used depends on the temperature range and method for measuring temperatures up to 90 K.
was reviewed by Kamper,101 by Blalock and Shepard,102 and
by White et al.103 For low temperature measurements, at less III. SEMIINVASIVE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
than 1 K, two types of absolute noise thermometers have TECHNIQUES
proved useful according to Soulen et al.104 Both measure the Some temperature measurement scenarios permit the ap-
noise voltage generated by a resistor using a superconducting plication of a temperature sensitive material to a surface. The
quantum interference device 共SQUID兲. In one type the resis- variations in optical properties of the surface coating can
tor is inductively coupled to the SQUID. In the other, a re- then be observed remotely. These surface coating methods
sistive SQUID 共RSQUID兲, the resistor is connected directly are classed as semi-invasive here since the technique in-
across a Josephson junction 共two superconductors separated volves modification of the component of interest and there-
by a thin insulating layer兲. Menkel et al.105 reported on fore some disturbance to the temperature field. A number of
the use of a RSQUID device for temperatures up to 4.2 K; heat sensitive materials exist, including thermochromic liq-
Macfarlane et al.106 have for the range of 10–50 K. uid crystals, heat sensitive crystalline solids and paints, and
Above 273.15 K there are two options. The first com- thermographic phosphors.
pares the measured open-circuit Johnson noise voltage 共at
the unknown temperature兲 across a sensing resistor to that of A. Thermochromic liquid crystals
a reference resistor. In the second, the temperature is ob- Liquid crystals have proved useful for experimental in-
tained by measuring the open-circuit Johnson noise voltage vestigations and medical applications where the range of
and the short circuit Johnson noise current.102 temperature variation of interest is limited. Liquid crystals
are substances with a molecular structure intermediate be-
tween that of a crystalline solid and an isotropic liquid. They
H. Quartz thermometers
possess some of the mechanical properties of liquid and the
The phenomenon utilized in quartz thermometers is the optical properties of crystalline solids. Of particular rel-
highly reproducible variation of the natural vibration fre- evance to heat transfer studies are the cholesteric 共or chiral
quency of piezoelectric quartz samples.107 Agatsuma nematic兲 liquid crystals, which are optically active since they
et al.108,109 have reported the packaging of a YS cut crystal in react to changes in temperature and shear stress by reversible
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2969
A. Infrared thermography
C. Heat sensitive paints
Temperature measurement systems based on monitoring
If an application merely requires an indication of the thermal radiation in the infrared spectrum are useful for
maximum temperature attained, then the use of nonreversible monitoring temperatures in the ranges from 50 to 6000 K.
heat sensitive crystalline solids may be suitable.126 At a par- An infrared measurement system comprises the source or
ticular temperature these melt. They are commercially avail- target, the environment, the medium through which the radi-
able in a variety of forms including crayons, pellets, and ant energy is transmitted, usually a gas, and the measurement
paints and have been used for indicating temperatures on gas device. The measurement device may include an optical sys-
turbine blades and in rocket motors for several decades. tem, a detector, and a control and analysis system.
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2970 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
All matter emits radiant energy or thermal radiation as a TABLE IV. Commonly used infrared detector materials.
consequence of its absolute temperature. The known electro- Material Wave band 共m兲 Source
magnetic spectrum extends from gamma rays with wave-
lengths of the order 10⫺12 m, x rays, ultraviolet, visible light, Al2O3 0.2–5 Michalski et al. 共Ref. 43兲
CaF2 0.13–9.5 Hackforth 共Ref. 129兲
and infrared to microwaves and radio waves with wave-
Ge 1–12 Michalski et al. 共Ref. 43兲
lengths of hundreds of meters. The portion of the spectrum InAs 1–3.8 http://www.egginc.com
extending from approximately 0.1 to 100 m which includes InSb 1–5.5 http://www.vigo.com
a portion of the UV, the visible, and the infrared spectrum, is KBr 0.2–32 Hackforth 共Ref. 129兲
given the term thermal radiation. Within this band only KCl 0.21–25 Hackforth 共Ref. 129兲
0.7–20 m is used in most temperature measurements be- PbSe 2–5 http://www.rmtltd.ru
SiO2 0.2–4 Michalski et al. 共Ref. 43兲
cause the devices available are not sensitive enough beyond TiO2 0.4–5.2 Hackforth 共Ref. 129兲
about 20 m. ZnS 8–12 http://www.mortoncvd.com
The variation of thermal radiative power with wave-
length for a blackbody is given by Planck’s distribution, Eq.
共10兲, and is illustrated in Fig. 9 for blackbody temperatures infrared. Thermal detectors offer wide spectral response by
between 50 and 6000 K. detecting the emitted radiation across the whole spectrum at
2 hc 2 the expense of sensitivity and response speed. For higher
E ,b⫽ 共 W/m3 兲 . 共10兲 temperatures, devices with a narrower spectral bandwidth are
关 exp共 hc/kT 兲 ⫺1 兴
5
more suitable.
The fraction of blackbody emission in a spectral band Bolometers are thermal detectors in which the incident
between 1 and 2 is given by thermal radiation produces a change in temperature of a re-
sistance temperature device, which may be a RTD or a ther-
兰 0 2 E ,bd⫺ 兰 0 1 E ,bd mistor. Bolometers can however be comparatively slow with
. 共11兲 time constants of 10–100 ms. An alternative to the use of a
T4
resistance temperature device in a thermal detector is to use a
Equation 共11兲 is useful in determining the proportion of thermopile. A thermopile consists of a number of series-
blackbody emission between two wavelengths. This informa- connected thermocouples arranged such that the local heat
tion can then be used to determine whether a particular de- flux generates a temperature difference between each pair of
tector has an appropriate spectral sensitivity and whether the thermocouple junctions. In an infrared thermal detector, the
optical path transmits this radiation. Radiation detectors can thermopile is arranged so that half of the junctions are main-
be broadly grouped into three categories: disappearing fila- tained at a constant temperature by being in contact with a
ment optical pyrometers, thermal detectors, and photon or component with relatively large thermal inertia. The radiant
quantum detectors. energy heats the other junctions, generating a thermoelectric
The disappearing filament optical pyrometer is similar to emf.
a refracting telescope, the difference being that an electri- Pyroelectric detectors are manufactured using crystal
cally heated tungsten filament is placed in the focal plane of wafers such as triglycerine sulfate or lithium tantalate, which
the objective lens and a red filter is located between the lamp produce surface electric charges when heated. The electrical
and the eyepiece.128 The pyrometer is sighted on the target signal corresponds to the removal of charge by conducting
and the image is formed in the same plane as the lamp fila- electrons deposited on the crystal. A change in the tempera-
ment. The magnified image of the lamp filament is superim- ture of the crystal due to the absorption of radiation in a
posed on the target. By adjusting the current through the certain time period produces a change in the polarization
filament, its luminance or brightness can be matched to that charge. The detector produces an electrical signal propor-
of the target. The red filter ensures that the image is nearly tional to the rate of change of charge and therefore cannot be
monochromatic so no color difference is observed and the used to measure a continuous heat flux. However, addition of
image appears to disappear against the target. By viewing a a mechanical chopper system allows steady state flexibility
blackbody at known temperatures calibration of the device with the chopper being used to interrupt the radiation from a
can be obtained. The accuracy of commercial devices can be target at a fixed frequency. Types include blackened and mir-
⫾1 °C at 775 °C and ⫾5 °C at 1225 °C. For temperatures ror choppers. Pyroelectric detectors have a wide spectral re-
above 1300–1400 °C, a gray absorbing filter may be placed sponse similar to bolometers and thermopiles but have a
between the lamp and the objective lens to extend the range. faster response time. The accuracy of these devices is good,
Thermal detectors convert the absorbed electromagnetic of the order of 0.2% over the temperature range.
radiation into heat energy, causing the detector temperature Quantum, photon, or photoelectric detectors measure the
to rise. This can be sensed by its effects on certain physical direct excitation of electrons to conduction states by incident
properties, such as electrical resistance used by bolometers, photons. Types of quantum detector include photoemissive,
thermoelectric emf, used by thermocouple and thermopile photoconductive, and photovoltaic. Photon detectors respond
detectors, and electrical polarization used by pyroelectric de- to individual photons by releasing or displacing electrical
tectors. The principal application of thermal detectors is for charge carriers by the photoelectric effect 共vacuum photo-
measurement of low temperatures where there is limited ra- cells, photomultipliers兲, photoconductive effect, photovoltaic
diant flux and the peak of the Planck curve is well into the effect, or photoelectromagnetic effect. Photon detectors have
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2971
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2972 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2973
F. Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering gine exhausts,161 low pressure unsteady flows,162 and super-
sonic combustion.163
Coherent anti-Stokes Raman Scattering 共CARS兲 in-
volves irradiating a gas or flame with two collinear laser
beams, a pump beam at frequency 1 and a probe beam at G. Degenerative four wave mixing
2 . The temperature range of this method is from 20 to
Degenerative four wave mixing 共DFWM兲 is similar to
2000 °C and the accuracy is approximately 5%. The pump
CARS but has three input beams. The difference is that all
and probe beam frequencies 1 and 2 are such that 1 – 2 three, and hence the output signal as well, have the same
is equal to the vibrational frequency of a Raman active tran- frequency. Advantages over CARS are that phase matching
sition of the irradiated molecules, so that a new source of conditions are satisfied, the process is Doppler free, beam
light will be generated in the medium. This beam consists of aberrations are lower, and signal levels are greater. The use
monochromatic plane waves superposed onto the pump of this technique for measuring flame temperatures was re-
beams with a frequency of 2 1 – 2 . It is generated as the ported by Herring et al.165
result of scattering of the probe laser beam by the gas mol-
ecules that are being driven synchronously and coherently by
the pump beam. As the signal appears on the high frequency H. Laser-induced fluorescence
side of the pump, i.e., an anti-Stokes spectrum, and because Laser-induced fluorescence 共LIF兲 is the optical emission
it is observable only if the molecular vibrations are Raman from atoms or molecules that have been excited to higher
active, this generation mechanism is called coherent anti- energy levels by absorption of laser radiation.166,167 It is used
Stokes Raman scattering.155 CARS permits noninvasive local to measure concentration and local temperature in flames by
temperature measurement in gases, flames, or plasmas.156 exciting molecules and atoms in specific species, for ex-
Since temperature is related to the rotational state of the mol- ample, NO, SiO, OH, N2 , and O2 . The range of application
ecules, the anti-Stokes lines increase in intensity with in- of LIF is between 200 and 3000 K and the accuracy of the
creasing temperature. This is caused by photon–molecule method is approximately ⫾5% at 2000 K. The excitation
collisions in which the incoming photon captures some rota- source for molecular LIF is typically a tunable dye laser in
tional energy from the molecule and arrives at the detector the visible spectral region 共700–900 nm兲. Studies in the near
with higher energy and hence higher frequency. A schematic ultraviolet 共400–10 nm兲 and near infrared 共700–1215 nm兲
diagram of a CARS system is shown in Fig. 14. It uses a are becoming more common as near-infrared lasers and
Nd:YAG laser, which is split to provide a pump beam and frequency-doubling methods improve. LIF has been applied
also to pump a dye laser to generate the second tunable extensively to combustion measurements in flames168 and the
beam. More recent applications have utilized a XeCl excimer density in an engine cylinder at different locations was mea-
laser in place of the Nd:YAG laser because the former gives sured by Andresen et al.169 to infer the temperature field
increased flexibility in the laser repetition rate, which can be from an analysis of the number and type of molecular colli-
moderated to match periodicity in the application, for ex- sions. LIF was used to analyze the liquid-phase temperature
ample, engine speed. CARS is generally suitable to highly in diesel sprays by Megahed.170 A semi-invasive LIF tech-
luminous or particulate laden systems. Applications have in- nique for the measurement of surface temperatures by em-
cluded flames,157,158 spark ignition engine combustion bedding crystals of a temperature sensitive phosphor into the
chambers159 combustion and plasma diagnostics,160 jet en- surface of a material was described by Goss et al.171
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2974 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
Gas thermometer about ⫺269 700 Slow No ¯ A standard Yes Yes No No Very high
Liquid-in-glass ⫺200 600 Slow Yes 1 °C ⫾0.02–⫾10 °C 共ind兲 Yes Yes No Yes Very low
thermometer ⫾0.01 °C 共lab兲
Bimetallic strip ⫺73 540 Medium Yes ¯ ⫾1 °C Yes Yes Yes Yes Low
Thermocouple ⫺270 2300 Very fast Yes ⫾10 V/°C ⫾0.5–⫾2 °C No Yes Yes Yes Very low
Suction pyrometer ⫺200 1900 Very fast Yes ¯ ⫾5 °C of reading Yes Yes No Yes Mid to high
Electrical resistance ⫺260 1064 Fast Yes 0.1 ⍀/°C The standard above 13 K Yes Yes Yes Yes Mid to low
device
Thermistors ⫺100 700 Fast Yes 10 mV/K ⫾0.01–⫾0.05 °C Yes Yes Yes Yes Mid to low
Semiconductor devices ⫺272 300 Very fast Yes ⫾1% ⫾0.1 °C Yes Yes No Yes Low
Fiber optic probes ⫺200 2000 Fast Yes 10 mV/°C 0.5 °C Yes Yes Yes Yes Mid to high
Capacitance ⫺272 ⫺170 Fast Yes Good Poor Yes No Yes Yes Mid
Noise ⫺273 1500 Fast Yes Good Good No Yes Yes No High
Chemical sampling 5 2100 Slow No ¯ ⫾25 K No Yes No Yes Mid
Thermochromic liquid ⫺40 283 Medium Yes ⫾0.1 °C ⫾1 °C ¯ Yes Yes Yes Low to Mid
crystals
Thermographic ⫺250 2000 Very fast Yes ⬃0.05 °C 0.1%–5% Yes Yes Yes Yes High
phosphors
Heat sensitive paints 300 1300 Slow No ¯ ⫾5 °C Yes Yes Yes Yes Mid
Infrared thermometer ⫺40 2000 Very fast Yes ⬃0.1 °C ⫾2 °C Yes Yes Yes Yes Very high
Two color 150 2500 Very fast Yes 1 °C/mV ⫾1%共⫾10 °C兲 Yes Yes Yes No Very high
Line scanner 100 1300 Very fast Yes ¯ ⫾2 °C Yes Yes Yes Yes Very high
Schlieren 0 2000 Fast Yes N/A N/A Visual Yes Yes Yes Mid
Shadowgraph 0 2000 Fast Yes N/A N/A Visual Yes Yes Yes Mid
Interferometry 0 2000 Fast Yes N/A N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes High
Line reversal 727 2527 Very fast No Line of sight avg. ⫾10–15 K Yes Low
Absorption 20 2500 Very fast No Line of sight avg 15% Yes Yes Yes Yes Low
spectroscopy
Emission spectroscopy 20 2700 Very fast Yes Line of sight avg. 15% Yes Yes Yes Yes Low
Rayleigh scattering 20 2500 Very fast No 0.1 mm3 in 100 °C 1% Yes Yes Yes No Very high
Raman scattering 20 2227 Very fast No 0.1 mm3 in 100 °C 7% Yes Yes Yes No Very high
CARS 20 2000 fast 1 mm3 in 50 °C 5% Yes at atm Yes Yes Very high
Degenerative four 270 2600 Very fast Yes 1 mm3 in 50 °C 10% Yes at atm Yes No Very very high
wave mixing
Luminescence 20 200 fast Yes 1.5 nm in 200 °C ⫾5 °C Yes Yes Yes No High
LIF 0 2700 Very fast No ¯ 10% Yes Yes Yes No Very high
Speckle methods 27 2100 Very fast No ¯ 6% Yes Yes Yes No Very high
Acoustic ⫺269 2000 Very fast Yes ¯ 4% Yes Yes Yes No High
thermography
I. Speckle methods is ⫾0.15% of full scale. The use of this method was analyzed
by Shakher and Nirala173 for a flame up to 1200 °C. A thor-
Speckle photography has been used for gas temperature
measurements and provides a line of sight average tempera- ough review of speckle photography and its application is
given by Erf.174
ture gradient in any direction. Two sheared images of the
object are superimposed to produce an interference pattern
using a diffractive optical element as a shearing device. With
J. Acoustic thermography
such a device, it is possible to split light beams into different
sets of subbeams. The range of application is from 20 to Acoustic thermography175–177 can be used to measure
2100 °C and the accuracy is approximately 6% of the Celsius the temperature of a fluid or solid surface. The technique has
reading. The speckle method was used by Farrell and traditionally been used at low temperatures, 2.5–30 K, but
Hofeldt172 to examine a cylindrical propane flame at gas tem- can be used at up to 1000 °C. For gases, the method is based
peratures up to 2000 °C. on the thermodynamic relationship between the speed of
Speckle shearing interferometry can be used to calculate sound and the static temperature of a gas: u⫽ 冑␥ RT. In
the entire thermal field of a gaseous flame. This provides the principle gas temperatures can be determined by the mea-
line of sight average temperature gradient in the direction surement of the transit time of a sound signal between a pair
normal to a line connecting the two apertures of the imaging of acoustic transducers at a known separation distance.
system. The contours seen are at a constant temperature gra- In general the two techniques used for measurement in
dient in one direction only. The temperature range of appli- the three media, gas, liquid, and solid, are introducing a sen-
cation is from 0 to 1200 °C and the accuracy level achieved sor into the medium to be measured and using the medium
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2975
itself as the sensor. Acoustic thermometry has been used to tal Physical constants,’’ Rev. Mod. Phys. 59, 1121 共1987兲.
5
detect changes in ocean temperature by receiving low- L. A. Guildner and W. Thomas, ‘‘The Measurement of Thermodynamic
Temperature,’’ Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Science
frequency sounds 共below 100 Hz兲 transmitted across an and Industry 共American Institute of Physics, New York, 1982兲, Vol. 5,
ocean basin.178 In liquids the speed of sound is related to the pp. 9–19.
bulk modulus by (K/ ) 1/2. The velocity of sound in different 6
AIP Handbook, 3rd ed. edited by D. E. Gray 共McGraw–Hill, New York,
liquids was tabulated by Lynnworth and Carnevale.179 In a 7
1972兲, Sec. 4i.
L. A. Guildner and R. E. Edsinger, ‘‘Deviation of International Practical
solid, the speed of sound is related to the Young’s modulus Temperatures from Thermodynamic Temperatures in the Temperature
for the material by (E/ ) 1/2. This technique can be used to Range from 273.16 K to 730 K,’’ J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., Sect. A 80,
monitor temperature in rapid thermal processing where an 703–738 共1976兲.
8
electric pulse across a transducer generates an acoustic wave R. A. Aziz, V. P. S. Nain, J. S. Carley, W. L. Taylor, and G. T. J.
McConville, Chem. Phys. 70, 4330–4342 共1979兲.
guided by a quartz pin.180 This results in the generation of 9
K. H. Berry, NPL-75, ‘‘A Low Temperature Gas Thermometer Scale
Lamb waves 共a type of ultrasonic wave propagation in which from 2.6 K to 27.1 K,’’ Metrologia 15, 89–115 共1979兲.
10
the wave is guided between two parallel surfaces of the test R. C. Kemp, W. R. C. Kemp, and L. M. Besley, ‘‘A Determination of
object兲, which propagate across the medium. Temperatures Thermodynamic Temperatures and Measurements of the Second Virial
Coefficient of 4He Between 13.81 K and 287 K Using a Constant Vol-
can be measured from 20 to 1000 °C 共with a proposed use up ume Gas Thermometer,’’ Metrologia 23, 61–86 共1986兲.
to approximately 1800 °C兲 with an accuracy of ⫾5 °C.181 11
F. C. Matacotta, G. T. McConville, P. P. M. Steur, and M. Durieux,
‘‘Measurements and Calculations of the 3He Second Virial Coefficient
V. SELECTION Between 1.5 K and 20.3 K,’’ Metrologia 24, 61–67 共1987兲.
12
P. P. M. Steur, M. Durieux, and G. T. McConville, ‘‘Analytic expres-
Considerations in the selection of a method and of the sions for the virial coefficients B(T) and C(T) of 4He between 2.6 K and
associated equipment to suit a particular application include 300 K,’’ Metrologia 24, 69–77 共1987兲.
13
P. P. M. Steur and M. Durieux, ‘‘Constant Volume Gas Thermometry
temperature range, likely maximum temperature, heating Between 4 K and 100 K,’’ Metrologia 23, 1–18 共1986兲.
rate, response, accuracy, stability, sensitivity, ruggedness, 14
D. A. Astrov, L. B. Beliansky, Y. A. Dedikov, S. P. Polunin, and A. A.
service life, safety, environment, and contact methods. The Zakharov, ‘‘Precision Gas Thermometry between 2.5 K and 308 K,’’
selection of an appropriate technique requires an apprecia- Metrologia 26, 151–166 共1989兲.
15
R. E. Edsinger and J. F. Schooley, ‘‘Differences Between Thermodynam-
tion of a wide range of different technologies, what is pos- ics Temperature and 共IPTS-68兲 in the Range 230 °C to 660 °C,’’ Metro-
sible, and what is available. The brief descriptions and ref- logia 26, 95–106 共1989兲.
16
erences given in Secs. II–IV are intended to serve this P. P. M. Steur, ‘‘The Interpolating Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer
and Thermal Anchoring,’’ Metrologia 36, 33–39 共1999兲.
purpose. The specific requirements of an application can 17
F. Pavese and P. P. M. Steur, ‘‘3He Constant-Volume Gas Thermometry:
limit the choice of suitable instrumentation. Some applica- Calculations for a temperature Scale Between 0.8 K and 25 K,’’ J. Low
tions, for example, preclude the use of invasive instrumenta- Temp. Phys. 69, 91–117 共1987兲.
18
tion. Sometimes a full field temperature map may be re- B. W. Mangum and G. T. Furukawa, ‘‘Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-
90,’’ NIST Tech. Note 1990, 1265 共1990兲.
quired; alternatively, point temperature measurements may 19
G. T. McConville, ‘‘The Effect of Measuring Tube Surface on Thermo-
be acceptable. Accuracy may or may not be worth the invest- molecular Corrections in Vapor Pressure Thermometry,’’ Temperature.
ment in equipment. The information given in Table V, which Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 共Instrument Soci-
is based on a wide range of common selection criteria, can be ety of America, Pittsburgh, 1972兲, Vol. 4, pp. 159–165.
20
S. Weber and G. Schmidt, ‘‘Experimentelle untersuchungen uber die
used to assist in the initial choice of an appropriate tech- thermomlekulare druckdifferenz in der nahe der grenzbedingung p 1 /p 2
nique. ⫽ 冑 T1/T2 und vergleichung mit der theorie,’’ Communications from the
For general references providing further information on Kammerlingh Onnes Laboratory of the University of Leiden, Vol. 246c,
temperature measurement the proceedings from the more re- 1–13 共1936兲.
21
cent symposium series on Temperature: Its Measurement and A. P. Gershanik, M. S. Glikman, and D. N. Astrov, Session du Comité
Consultatif de Thermométrie 共Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Control in Science and Industry are recommended,182–185 Sèvres, France, 1978兲, Doc. 45.
along with information provided by Quinn42 and by 22
A. Kent, Experimental Low Temperature Physics 共Macmillan, New
Bentley.186 The related subject of heat flux measurement was 23
York, 1993兲.
G. K. White, Experimental Techniques in Low Temperature Physics, 3rd
reviewed by Childs et al.187
ed. 共Oxford Science, New York, 1987兲.
24
C. A. Swenson, ‘‘From the IPTS-68 to the ITS-90,’’ Temperature. Its
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 共American Institute of
Physics, New York, 1992兲, Vol. 6, pp. 1–8.
The support of the CASE studentship for one of the au- 25
BS 1041:Part 2: Sec. 2:1. Code for temperature measurement. Expansion
thors 共J.R.G.兲 by the EPSRC and Rolls-Royce plc is grate- thermometers. Guide to the selection and use of liquid-in-glass thermom-
eters 共1985兲.
fully acknowledged. The authors also wish to thank Profes- 26
ISO 386, Liquid in glass laboratory thermometers—Principles of design,
sor F. Bayley, Professor A. Turner and Professor P. construction and use 共1977兲.
27
Townsend for their assistance in the preparation of this ar- BS 1704, Specification for solid-stem general purpose thermometers
ticle. 共1985兲.
28
J. A. Wise, ‘‘Liquid in glass thermometry,’’ NBS Monogr. 150 共1976兲.
29
J. V. Nicholas, ‘‘Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers,’’ The Measurement In-
1
H. Preston-Thomas, ‘‘The International Temperature Scale of 1990 strumentation and Sensors Handbook, edited by J. G. Webster 共Chemical
共ITS-90兲,’’ Metrologia 27, 3–10 共1990兲. Rubber, Boca Raton, FL, 1999兲, Sec. 32.8.
2 30
C. Webb, ‘‘Infrared: Faster, Smaller, Cheaper,’’ Control Instrumentation S. G. Eskin and J. R. Fritze, ‘‘Thermostatic bimetals,’’ Trans. ASME 62,
44 共1997兲. 433 共1940兲.
3
E. R. Cohen and B. N. Taylor, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 2, 663 共1973兲. 31
R. J. Stephenson, A. M. Moulin, and M. E. Welland, ‘‘Bimaterials ther-
4
E. R. Cohen and B. N. Taylor, ‘‘The 1986 Adjustment of the Fundamen- mometers,’’ The Measurement Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook,
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2976 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 A review of temperature measurement 2977
89
C. Bazan and S. Matyjasik, ‘‘Capacitors as Temperature Sensors,’’ In- mometer for High Accuracy Measurements in the Range 0.01 to 1 K,’’
strum. Exp. Tech. 29, 750–752 共1986兲. Czech. J. Phys. 46, 2867–2868 共1996兲.
90
W. N. Lawless, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 46, 625 共1975兲. 116
B. J. Klemme, M. J. Adriaans, P. K. Day, D. A. Sergatskov, T. L. Ase-
91
R. R. Li, G. P. Berg, and D. B. Mast, ‘‘Ceramic Chip Capacitors as lage, and R. V. Duncan, ‘‘PdMn and PdFe: New materials for tempera-
Low-Temperature Thermometers,’’ Cryogenics 32, 44–46 共1992兲. ture measurement near 2 K,’’ J. Low Temp. Phys. 116, 133–146 共1999兲.
92 117
M. M. Maior, S. B. Molnar, Y. M. Vysochanskii, M. I. Gurzan, P. H. M. T. C. Cetas, ‘‘A Magnetic Temperature Scale from 1 to 83 K,’’ Metro-
Vanloosdrecht, P. J. E. M. Vanderlinden, and H. Vankempen, ‘‘New logia 12, 27–40 共1976兲.
118
dielectric material for low-temperature thermometry in high magnetic C. Camci, ‘‘Liquid Crystal Thermography,’’ Temperature Measurements
fields,’’ Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 2646–2648 共1993兲. 共Von Karman Institute, Brussels, 1996兲, Chaps. 1–3.
93 119
F. C. Penning, M. M. Maior, P. Strehlow, S. A. J. Wiegers, H. S. A. Hippensteele, L. M. Russell, and F. S. Stepka, ‘‘Evaluation of a
Vankempen, and J. C. Maan, ‘‘Magnetic-Field Independent Capacitance Method for Heat Transfer Measurements and Thermal Visualisation Us-
Thermometers at Very-Low Temperatures,’’ Physica B 211, 363–365 ing a Composite of a Heater Element and Liquid Crystals,’’ J. Heat
共1995兲. Transfer 105, 184–189 共1983兲.
94 120
F. C. Penning, M. M. Maior, S. A. J. Wiegers, H. Vankempen, and J. C. J. W. Baughn, ‘‘Review—Liquid Crystal Methods for Studying Turbu-
Maan, ‘‘A sensitive capacitance thermometer at low temperature for use lent Heat Transfer,’’ Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow 16, 365–375 共1995兲.
121
in magnetic fields up to 20 T,’’ Rev. Sci. Instrum. 67, 2602–2605 共1996兲. P. T. Ireland and T. V. Jones, ‘‘The Measurement of Local Heat Transfer
95
P. Strehlow, ‘‘SOL–GEL derived glass capacitance sensors,’’ Physica B Coefficients in Blade Cooling Geometries,’’ AGARD CP390, Heat
165, 25 共1990兲. Trans. and Cooling in Gas Turbs. 共1985兲, Chap. 28.
122
96
P. Strehlow, ‘‘Low temperature glass capacitance sensors,’’ Proceedings P. T. Ireland, A. J. Neely, R. H. Gillespie, and A. J. Robertson, ‘‘Turbu-
of the 15th International Cryogenic Engineering Conference, 1994, Vol. lent Heat Transfer Measurements Using Liquid Crystals,’’ Int. J. Heat
34, pp. 421–424. Fluid Flow 20, 355–367 共1999兲.
123
97
S. A. J. Wiegers, M. M. Maior, F. C. Penning, S. B. Molnar, H. P. T. Ireland and T. V. Jones, ‘‘The Response Time of a Surface Ther-
Vankempen, Y. M. Vysochanskii, and J. C. Maan, ‘‘Reproducibility of mometer Employing Encapsulated Thermochromic Liquid Crystals,’’ J.
Low Temperature Capacitance Thermometers Based on Phys. E 20, 1195–1199 共1987兲.
124
(Pb0.45Sn0.55兲2P2Se6 Single Crystal,’’ Ferroelectrics 192, 349–352 共1997兲. S. W. Allison and G. T. Gillies, ‘‘Remote Thermometry with Thermo-
98
J. B. Johnson, ‘‘Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Conductors,’’ Phys. graphic Phosphors: Instrumentation and Applications,’’ Rev. Sci. In-
Rev. 32, 97–109 共1928兲. strum. 68, 2615–2650 共1997兲.
125
99
H. Nyquist, ‘‘Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Conductors,’’ K. W. Tobin, S. W. Allison, M. R. Cates, G. J. Capps, D. L. Beshears, M.
Phys. Rev. 32, 110–113 共1928兲. Cyr, and B. W. Noel, ‘‘High-Temperature Phosphor Thermometry of
100
D. S. Betts, An Introduction to Millikelvin Technology 共Cambridge Uni- Rotating Turbine Blades,’’ AIAA J. 28, 1485–1490 共1990兲.
126
versity Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989兲. BS 1041, Part 7, Temperature measurement. Guide to the selection and
101 use of temperature/time indicators 共1988兲.
R. A. Kamper, ‘‘Survey of noise thermometry,’’ Temperature. Its Mea- 127
J. Gallery, M. Gouterman, J. Callis, G. Khalil, B. McLachlan, and J. Bell,
surement and Control in Science and Industry 共Institute Society of
‘‘Luminescent Thermometry for Aerodynamic Measurements,’’ Rev. Sci.
America, Pittsburgh, 1972兲, Vol. 4, pp. 349–354.
102 Instrum. 65, 712–720 共1994兲.
T. V. Blalock and R. L. Shepard, ‘‘A Decade of Progress in High Tem- 128
C. O. Fairchild and W. H. Hoover, ‘‘Disappearance of the Filament and
perature Johnson Noise Thermometry,’’ Temperature. Its Measurement
Diffraction Effects in Improved Forms of an Optical Pyrometer,’’ J. Opt.
and Control in Science and Industry 共American Institute of Physics, New
Soc. Am. 7, 543–579 共1923兲.
York, 1982兲, Vol. 5, pp. 1219–1223.
103
129
H. L. Hackforth, Infrared Radiation 共McGraw–Hill, New York, 1960兲.
D. R. White et al., ‘‘The Status of Johnson Noise Thermometry,’’ Metro- 130
BS 1041: Part 5, British Standard, Temperature measurement. Guide to
logia 33, 325–335 共1996兲.
104 selection and use of radiation pyrometers 共1989兲.
R. J. Soulen, W. E. Fogle, and J. H. Colwell, ‘‘Measurements of absolute 131
E639-78e1, Standard Test Method for Measuring Total-Radiance Tem-
temperature below 0.75 K using a Josephson junction noise thermom-
perature of Heated Surfaces Using a Radiation Pyrometer 共1996兲.
eter,’’ J. Low Temp. Phys. 94, 385–487 共1994兲. 132
105 M. Delfino and D. T. Hodul, ‘‘Wavelength Specific Pyrometry as a Tem-
S. Menkel, D. Drung, C. Assmann, and T. A. Schurig, ‘‘A Resistive dc
perature Measurement Tool,’’ IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 39, 89–95
SQUID Noise Thermometer,’’ Appl. Supercond. 6, 417–422 共1998兲.
106 共1992兲.
J. Macfarlane, D. Peden, L. Hao, J. Gallop, and E. Romans, ‘‘Effect of 133
Theory and Practice of Radiation Thermometry, edited by D. P. DeWitt
junction noise in a resistive high T-c SQUID noise thermometer,’’ Appl.
and G. D. Nutter 共Wiley, New York, 1988兲.
Supercond. 1&2, 723–726 共1997兲. 134
R. R. Corwin and A. Rodenburgh, ‘‘Temperature Error in Radiation
107
J. J. Suter, ‘‘Piezoelectric Properties of Quartz Crystal Resonators Below Thermometry Caused by Emissivity and Reflectance Measurement er-
10 K,’’ Cryogenics 30, 547–548 共1990兲. ror,’’ Appl. Opt. 33, 1950–1957 共1994兲.
108
K. Agatsuma, F. Uchiyama, S. Ishigami, and M. Satoh, ‘‘High- 135
R. J. Goldstein, ‘‘Optical Measurement of Temperature,’’ Measurement
Resolution Cryogenic Quartz Thermometer and Application to Wireless Techniques in Heat Transfer, edited by E. R. G. Eckert and R. J. Gold-
Measurement,’’ Cryogenics 34, 405–408 共1994兲. stein 共AGARD, Slough, 1970兲, pp. 177–228.
109
K. Agatsuma, F. Uchiyama, K. Tukamoto, S. Ishigami, M. Satoh, Y. 136
A. G. Gaydon and H. G. Wolfhard, Flames. Their Structure, Radiation
Saitoh, and H. Sugimoto, ‘‘Wireless Cryogenic Quartz Thermometer and and Temperature 共Chapman and Hall, London, 1979兲.
Application to Cryogenic Temperature Control Systems,’’ Adv. Cryog. 137
A. Schwarz, ‘‘Multi-tomographic Flame Analysis with a schlieren Appa-
Eng. 39 249, 1035–1042 共1994兲. ratus,’’ Meas. Sci. Technol. 7, 406–413 共1996兲.
110
M. Durieux, H. van Dijk, H. ter Harmsel, and C. van Rijn, ‘‘Some Re- 138
R. J. Hall and P. A. Bonczyk, ‘‘Sooting Flame Thermometry Using
marks on Magnetic Thermometry Between 1.5 and 23 K and on the Emission/Absorption Tomography,’’ Appl. Opt. 29, 4590–4598 共1990兲.
Vapor Pressure–Temperature Relation of Liquid Hydrogen,’’ Tempera- 139
H. Uchiyama, M. Nakajima, and S. Yuta, ‘‘Measurement of Flame Tem-
ture. Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry 共Reinhold, perature Distribution by IR Emission Computed Tomography,’’ Appl.
New York, 1962兲, Vol. 3, pp. 383–390. Opt. 24, 4111–4116 共1985兲.
111
T. C. Cetas and C. A. Swenson, ‘‘A paramagnetic salt temperature scale, 140
E. Metcalfe, Atomic Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy 共Wiley, New
0.9 to 18 K,’’ Metrologia 8, 46–64 共1972兲. York, 1987兲.
112 141
R. L. Rusby and C. A. Swenson, ‘‘A New Determination of the Helium D. J. Carlson, ‘‘Static Temperature Measurements in Hot Gas Particle
Vapor Pressure Scales Using a CMN Magnetic Thermometer and the Flows,’’ Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Science and In-
NPL-75 Gas Thermometer Scale,’’ Metrologia 16, 73–87 共1980兲. dustry 共Reinhold, New York, 1962兲, Vol. 3, pp. 535–550.
113 142
D. S. Greywall and P. A. Busch, ‘‘Fast Cerium Magnesium Nitrate H. D. Baker, E. A. Ryder, and N. H. Baker, Temperature Measurement in
共CMN兲 Thermometer for the Low Millikelvin Temperature Range,’’ Rev. Engineering 共Wiley, New York, 1961兲, Vol. 2.
Sci. Instrum. 60, 471–473 共1989兲. 143
A. B. Murphy and A. J. D. Farmer, ‘‘Temperature Measurement in Ther-
114
D. S. Greywall and P. A. Busch, ‘‘A Fast CMN Thermometer With a mal Plasmas by Rayleigh Scattering,’’ J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 25, 634–
Wide Temperature Range,’’ Physica B 165, 23–24 共1990兲. 643 共1992兲.
115 144
P. Mohandas, D. I. Head, and R. L. Rusby, ‘‘A Powdered CMN Ther- R. B. Barat, J. P. Longwell, A. F. Sarfim, S. P. Smith, and E. Bar-Ziv,
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp
2978 Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 71, No. 8, August 2000 Childs, Greenwood, and Long
164
‘‘Laser Rayleigh Scattering for Flame Thermometry in a Toroidal Jet A. C. Eckbreth, Laser Diagnostics for Combustion Temperature and Spe-
Stirred Combustor,’’ Appl. Opt. 30, 3003–3010 共1991兲. cies 共Abacus, Turnbridge Wells, 1988兲.
145 165
D. Hoffman, K. U. Munch, and A. Leipertz, ‘‘Two Dimensional Tem- G. C. Herring, W. L. Roberts, M. S. Brown, and P. A. DeBarber, ‘‘Tem-
perature Determination in Sooting Flames by Filtered Rayleigh Scatter- perature Measurement by Degenerate Four Wave Mixing with Strong
ing,’’ Opt. Lett. 21, 525–527 共1996兲. Absorption of the Excitation Beams,’’ Appl. Opt. 35, 6544–6547 共1996兲.
146 166
R. Miles and W. Lempert, ‘‘Two Dimensional Measurement of Density, L. J. Dowell, ‘‘Fluorescence Thermometry,’’ Appl. Mech. Rev. 45, 253–
Velocity and Temperature in Turbulent High Speed Air Flows by UV 260 共1992兲.
167
Rayleigh Scattering,’’ Appl. Phys. B: Photophys. Laser Chem. B51, 1–7 K. T. V. Grattan and Z. Y. Zhang, Fibre Optic Fluorescence Thermom-
共1990兲. etry 共Chapman and Hall, London, 1995兲.
147
C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 6th ed. 共Wiley, New York, 168
C. Chan and J. W. Daily, ‘‘Measurement of Temperature in Flames Us-
1986兲. ing Laser Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy of OH,’’ Appl. Opt. 19,
148
G. J. Edwards, Review of the status, traceability and industrial applica- 1963–1968 共1980兲.
169
tion of gas temperature measurement techniques, NPL Report CBTM S1, P. Andresen, G. Meijer, H. Schlüter, H. Voges, A. Koch, W. Hentschel,
共1997兲. W. Oppermann, and E. Rothe, ‘‘Fluorescence Imaging Inside an Internal
149
M. C. Drake, C. Asawaroengchai, D. L. Drapcho, K. D. Veirs, and G. M. Combustion Engine Using Tunable Excimer Lasers,’’ Appl. Opt. 29,
Rosenblatt, ‘‘The Use of Rotational Raman Scattering for Measurement 2392–2404 共1990兲.
170
of Gas Temperature,’’ Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in M. Megahed, ‘‘Estimation of the Potential of a Fluorescence Thermom-
Science and Industry 共American Institute of Physics, New York, 1982兲, eter for Diesel Spray Studies,’’ Appl. Opt. 32, 4790–4796 共1993兲.
171
Vol. 5, pp. 621–629. L. P. Goss, A. A. Smith, and M. E. Post, ‘‘Surface Thermometry by
150
F. Laplant, G. Laurence, and D. Ben-Amotz, ‘‘Theoretical and Experi- Laser-Induced Fluorescence,’’ Rev. Sci. Instrum. 60, 3702–3706 共1989兲.
172
mental Uncertainty in Temperature Measurement of Materials by Raman P. V. Farrell and D. L. Hofeldt, ‘‘Temperature Measurement in Gases
Spectroscopy,’’ Appl. Spectrosc. 50, 1034–1038 共1996兲. Using Speckle Photography,’’ Appl. Opt. 23, 1055–1059 共1984兲.
151 173
R. W. Dibble, S. H. Starner, A. R. Masri, and R. S. Barlow, ‘‘An C. Shakher and A. K. Nirala, ‘‘Measurement of Temperature Using
Improved Method of Data Reduction for Laser Raman–Rayleigh and Speckle Shearing Interferometry,’’ Appl. Opt. 33, 2125–2127 共1994兲.
Fluorescence Scattering from Multispecies,’’ Appl. Phys. B: Photophys. 174
Speckle Metrology, edited by R. K. Erf. 共Academic, New York, 1978兲.
Laser Chem. B51, 39–43 共1990兲. 175
A. R. Colclough, ‘‘Primary Acoustic Thermometry: Principles and Cur-
152
E. J. Burlbaw and R. L. Armstrong, ‘‘Rotational Raman Interferometric rent Trends,’’ Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Science and
Measurement of Flame Temperatures,’’ Appl. Opt. 22, 2860–2866 Industry 共American Institute of Physics, New York, 1992兲, Vol. 6, pp.
共1983兲. 65–75.
153 176
G. Vaughan, D. P. Wareing, S. J. Pepler, L. Thomas, and V. Mitev, S. F. Green, ‘‘Acoustic Temperature and Velocity Measurement in Com-
‘‘Atmospheric temperature measurements made by rotational Raman bustion Gases,’’ Proceedings of the International Heat Transfer Confer-
scattering,’’ Appl. Opt. 32, 2758–2764 共1993兲. ence, 1986, Vol. 2, pp. 555–560.
154 177
Laser Diagnostics and Modelling of Combustion, edited by K. Iinuma, T. G. Moore, ‘‘Acoustic Thermometry—A Sound Way to Measure Tem-
Asanuma, T. Ohsawa, and J. Doi 共Springer, New York, 1987兲. perature,’’ Electron. Power 9, 675–677 共1984兲.
155 178
B. Attal-Tretout, P. Bouchardy, P. Magre, M. Pealat, and J. P. Taran, A. Forbes, ‘‘Acoustic Monitoring of Global Ocean Climate,’’ Sea Tech-
‘‘CARS in Combustion: Prospects and Problems,’’ Appl. Phys. B: Pho- nol. 35, 65 共1994兲.
tophys. Laser Chem. B51, 17–24 共1990兲. 179
L. C. Lynnworth and E. H. Carnevale, ‘‘Ultrasonic thermometry using
156
W. M. Tolles, J. W. Nibler, J. R. McDonald, and A. B. Harvey, ‘‘A pulse techniques,’’ Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Sci-
Review of the Theory and Application of Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman ence and Industry 共American Institute of Physics, New York, 1972兲, Vol.
Spectroscopy 共CARS兲,’’ Appl. Spectrosc. 31, 253–271 共1977兲. 4, pp. 715–732.
157 180
R. L. Farrow, P. L. Mattern, and L. A. Rahn, ‘‘Comparison Between Y. J. Lee, B. T. Khuriyakub, and K. C. Saraswat, ‘‘Temperature Mea-
CARS and Corrected Thermocouple Temperature Measurements in a surement in Rapid Thermal Processing Using Acoustic Techniques,’’
Diffusion Flame,’’ Appl. Opt. 21, 3119–3125 共1982兲. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 65, 974–976 共1994兲.
158
F. M. Porter and D. A. Greenhalgh, Applications of the Laser Optical 181
B. A. Auld, Acoustic Fields and Waves in Solids, 2nd ed. 共Wiley, New
Technique CARS to Heat Transfer and Combustion 共UK Atomic Energy York, 1990兲.
182
Authority, Harwell, 1985兲. Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, ed-
159
G. C. Alessandretti and P. Violino, ‘‘Thermometry by CARS in an Au- ited by C. H. Herzfeld 共Reinhold, New York, 1962兲, Vol. 3.
tomobile Engine,’’ J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 16, 1583–1594 共1983兲. 183
Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, ed-
160
T. J. Anderson, G. M. Dobbs, and A. C. Eckbreth, ‘‘Mobile CARS In- ited by H. H. Plumb 共Instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh, 1972兲,
strument for Combustion and Plasma Diagnostics,’’ Appl. Opt. 25, Vol. 4.
4076–4085 共1986兲. 184
Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, ed-
161
A. C. Eckbreth, G. M. Dobbs, J. H. Stufflebeam, and P. A. Tellex, ited by J. F. Schooley 共American Institute of Physics, New York, 1982兲,
‘‘CARS Temperature and Species Measurements in Augmented Jet En- Vol. 5.
gine Exhausts,’’ Appl. Opt. 23, 1328–1339 共1984兲. 185
Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, ed-
162
N. Herlin, M. Pealat, M. Lefebvre, P. Alnot, and J. Perrin, ‘‘Rotational ited by J. F. Schooley 共American Institute of Physics, New York, 1992兲,
Energy Transfer on a Hot Surface in a Low Pressure Flow Studied by Vol. 6.
CARS,’’ Surf. Sci. 258, 381–388 共1991兲. 186
Handbook of Temperature Measurement, edited by R. E. Bentley
163
R. R. Antcliff, M. W. Smith, O. Jarrett, G. B. Northam, A. D. Cutler, and 共Springer, New York, 1998兲, Vols. 1–3.
187
D. J. Taylor, ‘‘A Hardened CARS System Utilized for Temperature Mea- P. R. N. Childs, J. R. Greenwood, and C. A. Long, ‘‘Heat Flux Measure-
surements in a Supersonic Combustor,’’ 9th Aerospace Sciences Meet- ment Techniques,’’ Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part C: J. Mech. Eng. Sci.
ing, Reno, Nevada, Vol. 0457, pp. 1–7 共1991兲. 213, 655–677 共1999兲.
Downloaded 08 Oct 2008 to 168.188.11.19. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://rsi.aip.org/rsi/copyright.jsp