ARTICLE IN PRESS

Midwifery (2008) 24, 99107

www.elsevier.com/locate/midw

An Australian perspective of fatherhood and sexuality

Moira Williamson, BNursing UNE, Mhealth Admin UNSW, RN, RM (Senior Lecturer and Co-ordinator
Master of Science [Midwifery] Programme)a,, Carol McVeigh, MNS, PhD, RN, RM (Professor of Nursing,
Director of Nursing and Head of School)b, Mercy Baafi, MPH, RN, RM AssocApplied Science Nursing
(Nurse Manager [Education], and Honorary Teaching Fellow)c
a

School of Nursing, Midwifery and Indigenous Health, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue,
Wollongong NSW, Australia 2522
b
Massey University, Wellington Campus, Wellington, New Zealand
c
Wollongong Hospital, Wollongong New South Wales, Australia
Corresponding author.

E-mail address: moiraw@uow.edu.au (M. Williamson).

Received 17 March 2004; received in revised form 23 August 2005, 14 July 2006; accepted 17 July 2006

Abstract
Objective: to describe and explore the effect that pregnancy, childbirth and adjustment to a new baby have on the
sexual relationship of fathers.
Design: a content analysis, using a qualitative approach, was undertaken on the written comments provided by fathers on
a 6-week postpartum postal survey. The survey was undertaken to provide information relating to fathers adaptation to
fatherhood. The fathers functional status was measured using, the Inventory of Functional Status-fathers (IFS-F) Tool.
Setting: a regional location within New South Wales, Australia. Participants (fathers) were recruited through postnatal
services within hospital and community settings.
Participants: volunteer study participants consisting of 204 fathers were sent a questionnaire at 6 weeks postpartum.
The questionnaire was returned by 128 study participants (fathers). The participants were men experiencing
fatherhood for the first time or who were adding to their existing families.
Findings: comments by the study participants revealed that sexual relationships during pregnancy and the postnatal
period undergo a variety of changes that may affect the couples relationship.
Key conclusions and implications for practice: it is important for health-care professionals, particularly midwives, to
recognise that variance in sexual activity during the childbearing period does occur, and that there is a need for the
midwife to be open to individual discussion of sexual activity with the woman and her partner during pregnancy and
postnatal periods. Holistic care of women and their partners in the childbearing period requires health professionals to
effectively communicate current information and education on sexuality.
& 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords Sexuality; Fatherhood; Education

Introduction
The transition to parenthood is a time of immense
change for women and men.

The published data on the transition for women

to motherhood is more prolific (Barclay et al.,
1997; McVeigh, 1997; Nyberg and Bernerman
Sternhufvud, 2000; Nelson, 2003; Mercer, 2004)

0266-6138/$ - see front matter & 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.midw.2006.07.010

ARTICLE IN PRESS
100
than data on the transition for men to fatherhood
(Thomas and Upton, 2000; Buist et al., 2002).
However, the research and literature on this
subject is increasing (Barclay et al., 1996; Baafi
et al., 2001; McVeigh et al., 2002; St John et al.,
2005).
To enhance the available information on mens
adaptation to fatherhood, we have undertaken an
exploratory study to look at the functional status of
a group of Australian fathers 6 weeks after the birth
of a new baby. The questionnaire included an
invitation for the fathers to comment at the end of
each section. Some fathers commented that they
had to wait for the 6-week postnatal assessment of
their partner before resuming sexual activity. The
comments relating to the fathers sexual activity
were interesting. Fathers implied that they would
be able to resume sexual activities once their
partners had completed the 6-week postnatal
physical assessment.
Before these comments, we believed that health
professionals no longer advised women to refrain
from commencing sexual intercourse before the
6-week postnatal assessment. We undertook a
review of the literature to ascertain current
views on this topic. Academic Index, CINAHL,
Medline and sociofile were assessed. Search terms
were sexuality, pregnancy and fathers. In
addition to the literature review, relevant references used by other authors were also evaluated.
This review and the authors current experiences
as midwives revealed that health professionals
do not readily discuss sexuality with women
and their partners. The health professional is
mainly concerned with providing contraceptive
advice.
It is well documented that motherhood and
fatherhood induce or increase marital tension,
and can affect the relationship between the
parents as well as their relationships with their
children, including bonding (Kermeen, 1995; Barclay and Lupton, 1999; Morse et al., 2000; McQueen
and Mander, 2003; Simons et al., 2003). It is logical
that changes in sexual activity during this period
may well add to this tension.

Literature review on sexual relationships

during pregnancy and childbirth
Information on sexual relationships during pregnancy and after birth is increasing. However, past
research in this area has mainly focused on
the womens experiences, and men have usually
been left out of the equation. The main area of
focus of past research has been vaginal intercourse.

M. Williamson et al.
Other aspects of sexuality have on the whole
been ignored or not considered (von Sydow et al.,
2001).
Several studies have reported on sexuality during
pregnancy. Bogren (1991) reported the findings
from a longitudinal study involving 81 couples,
who were interviewed once during pregnancy,
between 13th and 14th week gestation, and again
1 week after the birth. During the first trimester,
more women reported a decrease in sexual
frequency than men. In the second trimester, 40%
of the participants reported a decrease in sexual
activity. For the third trimester, the decreased
frequency was reported as 90% for the men and 83%
for the women. Reasons for the decrease in the
sexual desire for women in the first trimester were
related to the physiological and hormonal adjustments of the pregnancy. The decrease in sexual
intercourse in men in the third trimester was
related to the fear of harming the fetus; men were
also psychologically concerned about the labour
and the health of the baby (Bogren, 1991). The
identification of this concern is supported by von
Sydow (1999), who conducted a metacontent
analysis of 59 studies relating to sexuality during
birth and after childbirth (p.27). The results
showed that sexual activity for individuals are
extremely variable.
The right time for couples to resume sexual
relationships after childbirth is also an area that
requires more research (Barrett et al., 2000). In the
postnatal period, health-care professionals focus
on the baby rather than the care and well-being of
women and significant others. Professional advice is
often not given to the new parents in relation to
sexual relationships in the postnatal period (Glazener, 1997).
Jackson (2000), on discussing attitudes to sex and
sexuality by health professionals, comments that
England remains a nation which maintains a
reputation for being repressed, adopting the stiff
upper lip approach to sex (p.83). The authors
experiences as midwifery clinicians and the comments made by the fathers in the 6-week survey
suggests that the attitude to sex and sexual
relationships during pregnancy and the postnatal
period is the same in Australia; little information is
provided to women and their partners. US investigators have also commented that health professionals readily provide education on lifestyle issues
such as diet and smoking, but only provide limited
information relating to sexuality to pregnant
women. The information given includes advice on
when not to have sex during pregnancy and when to
resume sex after the birth of the baby (Alteneder
and Hartzell, 1997).

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An Australian perspective of fatherhood and sexuality
When discussing the resumption of sexual intercourse with clients after childbirth, some health
professionals state that intercourse should be
delayed until after the sixth week postnatal
assessment (Avery et al., 2000). Others suggest
that sexual relationships be recommenced before
the 6-week postpartum assessment to facilitate
discussion of any problems experienced by the
couple (Hulme, 1993). Both of the above recommendations/statements fail to take into account
the woman and her partners adjustment to the
pregnancy and birth. Several authors have discussed the variance in resumption of sexual
intercourse for women and their partners (Alteneder and Hartzell, 1997; Avery et al., 2000). This
variance can range from 2 to 12 weeks after birth
(Avery et al., 2000).
The advice to wait until 6 weeks postpartum to
resume sexual intercourse is most probably based
on historical research relating to the involution of
the uterus after childbirth and the return of the
women to her non-pregnant state. This usually
occurs between the fourth and sixth week postpartum (Reamy and White, 1987). Harrison (2000)
stated that the physiological changes that occur
after birth are unique to each woman, and the
events of the pregnancy, labour and birth affects
these changes. As discussed by Byrd et al. (1998),
resumption of sexual intercourse depends on the
womans comfort and may be resumed providing
lochial flow has slowed (Richardson et al., 1976).
However, both partners need to be psychologically
ready to resume sexual intercourse (Polomeno,
1996).
There is little evidence that resumption of sexual
vaginal intercourse within the immediate postpartum period increases the risk of maternal mortality
from air embolism. Batman et al. (1998) reported
on two cases of women who died from air embolism
during sexual vaginal intercourse within 8 days
after the birth of their babies. These findings were
reported in The New York Times, with the title
Deaths linked to sex after childbirth, and readers
were cautioned with the following:
Doctors routinely advise women to refrain from
sexual activity for several weeks after childbirth, and for most women postpartum pain and
exhaustion are incentives enough to comply. But
for those who do not follow doctors orders, the
consequences can be serious and, in rare cases,
even fatal (Gilbert, 1998).
This caution failed to clearly articulate how long
several weeks is. Once again, the inference is on
obtaining medical clearance. This may endorse the
views of new fathers that their partners should be

101
physically ready to resume sexual intercourse after
the 6-week postnatal assessment, without recognising that the woman may not be psychologically
ready.
Barrett et al. (2000) surveyed 796 primiparous
women on their sexual health after birth, and
found that, of the 484 respondents, 60% of these
study participants had not resumed sexual intercourse by the 6-week postnatal assessment; therefore, it is not possible to detect problems that may
hinder the resumption or enjoyment of sexual
relations. These authors indicated that health
professionals are more likely to provide advice on
contraception at this time, because it is assumed
that sexual intercourse has or will be resumed;
however, the subject is rarely discussed (Barrett
et al., 2000).
The study by Barrett et al. (2000) also supports
the stiff upper lip view towards the sexual health
of new mothers indicated by the low percentage
(15%) of study participants who were experiencing
dyspareunia and reporting it to a health professional. Of those study participants who did see
health professionals, some did not receive the
information and help that they required. It can only
be assumed that women are too embarrassed to
discuss sexual difficulties, or that health-care
professionals are not open or responsive to sexual
health discussions.
A longitudinal study by Glazener (1997) of 1249
women after birth, in the UK, found that most
difficulties with resuming sexual intercourse after
the birth were due to the maternal adjustment to
caring for the baby and maternal physical morbidity
after the birth, which caused difficulty with
achieving intercourse (Glazener, 1997, p.332).
This study found that the mean time for resuming
or attempting sexual intercourse was 5 weeks
postpartum (Glazener, 1997).
Several authors (Glazener, 1997; Avery et al.,
2000; Jackson, 2000) have discussed breast feeding
and its relationship to sexuality in the postpartum
period. Once again, the return to sexual activity for
women who breast feed is variable, and every
woman should be treated as an individual (Avery
et al., 2000). Many factors need to be discussed
in relation to breast feeding and sexuality. One
of them is the view of partners in relation to
breast feeding and the documented lack of
interest by mothers in resuming sexual activity
while breast feeding (Avery et al., 2000). These are
significant topics and will be discussed in a future
paper.
Symon et al. (2003) suggested that the postnatal
period is under-researched, and that insufficient
attention is given to practice, teaching and

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102
research (p.22), which in turn, affects the quality
of life for women. This lack of attention to women
in the postnatal period by health professionals
would also affect their partners.
The purpose of this paper is to highlight to
midwives and other health professionals that sexual
adjustment during pregnancy and the postnatal
period occurs for both women and men; this may
affect their relationship. Consequently, an increased emphasis is needed on education in
relation to sexuality during pregnancy and in the
postnatal period by health professionals for the
benefit of new parents.

Method
The aim of the study was to develop an understanding of fathers functional status after the birth
of a baby in an Australian sample. A descriptive,
correlation study was undertaken where fathers
were invited to complete a postal questionnaire at
6 weeks postpartum. The statistical results from
the questionnaire and the qualitative analysis of
the fathers written comments have highlighted
that a variety of changes may affect the couples
relationship. These results have been discussed in
detail elsewhere (Baafi et al., 2001; McVeigh et al.,
2002).
We used a qualitative approach to undertake a
content analysis based on the written comments
made by the fathers. The data generated from this
process was separated into relevant descriptive
categories (Morse and Field, 1996). The content
analysis of the written comments provides a
description of how the fathers were feeling about
the effect of fatherhood on their well-being and
lifestyles. The categories that emerged are as
follows: sexual relationship with their partners,
leisure time, sleep deprivation, the effect of new
fatherhood on their workload, both in the workforce and at home, and their feelings relating to
the baby.

M. Williamson et al.
Wales Health Department for parents to be able to
receive advice on their childs development from
birth to the age of 5 years. The centres are staffed
by registered nurses who have postgraduate qualifications in Child and Family Health, a majority
have midwifery qualifications.
The sample size was not predetermined; a
non-random sample of 204 new fathers were
recruited to the study and asked to complete the
study questionnaire at 6 weeks postpartum. Of the
204 fathers, 128 (61%) fathers returned the
questionnaire at 6 weeks postpartum. The participants were sent reminder letters if the questionnaires were not returned. All fathers had to
have fathered a healthy baby (singleton) born at
term (from 37 weeks gestation). Only fathers who
could read and write English were invited to take
part in the study. The questionnaire was only
provided in English because of the economic cost
of translating the questionnaires into other languages. It was assumed that only fathers who could
read and write in English would complete the
questionnaires.

Research ethics approval

Approval to carry out this research was obtained
from the relevant ethics committees, the University of Wollongong and the Illawarra Area Health
Service. Midwives and early childhood nurses were
informed of the study and its purpose. The
postnatal services displayed posters inviting fathers
to become study participants. Prepaid registration
cards were available to prospective study participants. All fathers who registered an interest in
becoming a study participant were supplied with an
information sheet providing details of the study and
a written consent form that was completed before
entry into the study. The study participants were
provided with the contact details of the researchers and the contact person for the relevant ethics
committees. Confidentiality of information and the
anonymity of participants are being conscientiously
maintained.

Recruitment
Data collection
The study participants were drawn from one
regional area within New South Wales, Australia.
In 1999, 4413 babies were born in this geographical
location (New South Wales Health Department,
2001). The study was carried out from August 1998
to September 1999. New fathers were recruited
from three maternity units and all 25 Early Childhood Centres within this Area Health Service. Early
Childhood Centres are provided by the New South

The Inventory of Functional Status-Fathers (ISF-F)

questionnaire was developed by Tulman et al.
(1993), and was designed to evaluate the social
aspects of functional status in new fathers
(McVeigh et al., 2002, p.167). The terminology
within the questionnaire was altered to meet
the language used within Australia; for example,
the American word diapers was changed to

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An Australian perspective of fatherhood and sexuality
nappies. The questionnaire of seven subcategories containing 51 questions takes about 20 mins
to complete.
The seven subcategories are household, social
and community, child care, infant care, personal
care, occupational, and educational activities
following the birth of a child (McVeigh et al.,
2002, p.167). The fathers were asked to point out
which activities they performed before the birth of
their baby and to what extent they had resumed
these activities at this time, 6 weeks after the
birth. A Likert-type scale of four points was
provided for this purpose, four being the highest
ranking and one being the lowest.

Data analysis
The analysis of the quantitative part of this study
was carried out using SPSS-PC (Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences, Version 9) software, the
results of which have been previously reported in
more detail by McVeigh et al. (2002) and Baafi et al.
(2001). The Likert scale does not elicit the fathers
feeling in relation to the subject within the
subcategories. The fathers were given the opportunity to write comments in relation to the
questions. A qualitative content analysis of the
comments was carried out; the emerging categories were previously discussed. Reported in this
paper are the comments made by fathers in
relation to sexual activity.

Findings
Of the 128 fathers who completed the questionnaire, 80 (22%) were first-time fathers, 34 (26.5%)
were fathers for the second time and 14 (11%) had
three or more children (Table 1). A total of 125
(98%) fathers were married or in permanent
relationships. Their ages ranged from 2040 years.
Their education levels varied, with 78 (61%) of the
fathers having completed tertiary or technical
education. Income levels varied, with 25% of the
fathers earning over $70,000 (Australian); however,
31 (25%) of the fathers had income below the
poverty line of $30,000 (Australian) (McVeigh et al.,
2002).
As discussed previously, the analysis of the
questionnaires have shown that one of the altered
activities for fathers was sexual activity. It revealed
that 53.3% of fathers had partially resumed
sexual activity, 34% had not resumed sexual activity
at all and, for 12.7%, the level of sexual activity
was unchanged. Partial resumption of sexual

103
Table 1

Participant characteristics.
n

Age (years)
2029
3039
40 and above
Missing

44
73
10
1

35
57
8

Relationship status
Married
Single
Missing

125
2
1

98
2

Number of children
1
2
More than 3
Missing

80
31
14
3

64
24.8
11.2

Level of education
12 years or less
Technical and further education
University education
Missing

30
38
59
1

24
30
46

Income ($)
Less than 30,000
30,00049,999
Greater than 49,999
Missing

31
38
54
5

25
31
44

Adapted from McVeigh et al., 2002.

activity in this context meant sexual intercourse

was not at the same rate as before pregnancy and
the birth of the baby (Baafi et al., 2001). Several
fathers (n 21; 16.4% of the total participants)
provided written comments on the effect of
pregnancy and childbirth on their sexual activity.
These comments varied; however, they provide
an insight into how the fathers felt. Pseudonyms
have been used to protect the identity of the
participants.

Decrease in sexual activity after birth

Fathers have commented that, tiredness and
disruptions with the baby and waiting for the 6week postpartum to be up affected sexual activity.
Jack commented that sexual activity had decreased
during pregnancy and had not resumed after the
birth because of physical factors that affected his
partner:
During pregnancy my wife suffered morning
sickness, and during labour suffered a tear, and
for the moment it has not healed sufficiently to

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resume sexual intercourse. Obviously, Im not
satisfied with not being able to resume sexual
intercourse, but if my wife needs time to
recover, then so be it. (Jack)
Peter also comments on the physical effects of
the birth affecting the resumption of sexual
intercourse:
Physical difficulties since the birth-stitches etc.
Wife is also busy with the baby and has little
interest in sex y (Peter).
William comments that both he and his wife are
too tired to resume sexual activity:
y baby feeding at night, getting up to other
child and bringing work home to do after the
family is asleep; both of us are to too tired for
sex. (William)
Alex states that they have less time to themselves since the birth of their new baby and also his
partner is still recovering physically from the birth:
We have less time to ourselves. It also hasnt
been long after the birth during which my wife
had stitches. (Alex)
Craig also listed regular sexual activity as
the activity that had stopped since the birth
of the baby. His comment My wife seems to
have lost interest and the desire for sex demonstrates the importance of fathers receiving
information about sexuality after childbirth to
enhance their understanding of why this situation
occurs.
John also commented that his wife was too
tired adjusting to the birth of their second child.
Bob similarly refers to the lack of time and energy
to do these things (such as sex and going out to
socialise) due to caring for the baby. However, Bob
does not clarify whether the tiredness and lack of
time applies to his partner or both of them.
Several fathers have commented that they were
waiting for the sixth week postpartum examination
to recommence sexual activity. Michael comments
that he and his partner:
y have not engaged in sexual activity to date as
awaiting my wifes six week medical check up.
(Michael)
Tim comments that he and his partner are
waiting:
y because the six week wait after birth has not
arrived. (Tim)

M. Williamson et al.
Adam also commented that the activity that had
decreased since the birth of the baby was sexual
activity because:
It has only been five weeks since the birth of the
baby. (Adam)
The advice by health-care professionals for
women and their partners to wait until the sixth
week postpartum before resuming sexual activity is
perhaps outdated and not supported by current
research. Individual needs may not have been
taken into account when this advice was offered.
Some couples are ready to resume sexual activity
before the sixth week postpartum and others are
not. Although women have died at 8 days postpartum from air embolism during sexual intercourse (Batman et al., 1998) this is extremely rare,
and research suggests that it is safe to resume
sexual intercourse at 3 weeks postpartum if the
woman has experienced an uncomplicated birth
(Payton, 1983) and, as previously discussed, providing lochial flow has decreased (Richardson et al.,
1976) and the woman is ready to resume sexual
intercourse (Polomeno, 1996).

Increase in sexual activity after birth

One father, Scott, commented positively on the
increase in sexual activity since the birth of his
baby. However, he did not state how soon after
birth that sexual activity recommenced.
Since the birth of the baby our sexual activity
has increased. This I believe is due to the fact
that we abstained from sex towards the end of
the pregnancy. (Scott)
From Scotts comment, sexual intercourse had
ceased in the later stage of pregnancy. The specific
gestation of pregnancy when sexual intercourse
ceased and the reasons were not stated. However,
as stated in the literature review, it is fairly
common for men to cease sexual intercourse with
their partners as they are concerned about the
well-being of the baby and the impending birth
(Bogren, 1991; von Sydow, 1999).

Discussion
This study was designed to ascertain the fathers
adaptation to fatherhood and was not intended to
delve into sexuality during the pregnancy and
childbirth. However, significant comments on sexual activity by fathers highlights the need to review
the effect of parenthood.

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An Australian perspective of fatherhood and sexuality
The sample is limited, as study participants were
drawn from one geographical area within New
South Wales, Australia, and therefore generalisations cannot be made. The sample size is also
small and only fathers who could read and write
in English and elected to participate in the study
were surveyed. The views of the mothers were
not elicited and compared with that of the
fathers as they were not included in the study.
von Sydow (1999) suggested studies on sexuality should include both partners, as sexuality
mostly involves two persons (p.43). He also
suggests that, an in-depth exploration of complex
emotional issues and their longitudinal development is needed (p.44) to explore both the
relationship history, the effect of the birth on
sexuality, and the relationship of the parents.
Previous studies in this area have had several
methodological limitations as previously discussed, in particular, the small sample size (Signorello
et al., 2001) and the quantitative nature of the
research (von Sydow, 1999) has not allowed for
the experiences of individuals to be articulated
and heard.
The comments by the study participants
clearly highlight the variations in sexual relationships during pregnancy and the postnatal period.
This has also been found to be the case by
other authors (Glazener, 1997; von Sydow, 1999;
Avery et al., 2000). The authors believe that
discussion and education relating to sexual activity
during pregnancy and the postnatal period with
women and their partners is not adequately
covered by health professionals. If information relating to sexuality is covered by health
professionals, it is often brief and inadequate for
the needs of the couple. Health professionals
require further education on how best to impart
knowledge relating to sexuality and on how to
support couples that are having difficulty in
maintaining their sexuality during pregnancy and
after childbirth. Health professionals need to be
able to discuss ways of maintaining intimacy and
togetherness, without overemphasising vaginal
intercourse.
Discussion relating to sexuality could be initiated
in early pregnancy. Currently, when women have
their first antenatal assessment, a thorough medical, social and lifestyle history is undertaken
(Vicars, 2003). Issues such as diet and substance
use, including alcohol intake, cigarette and illicit
drugs, are determined. The antenatal history
record that is provided to every pregnant woman
in New South Wales (NSW), Australia by the NSW
Department of Health, 2005 does not identify
sexuality as an area of interest in relation to the

105
family unit. It has been the authors experience
that sexuality and sexual function is rarely discussed. Perhaps it is time to include this subject
during the initial contact and assessment.
Ongoing discussion regarding sexual activity
could be incorporated into each antenatal visit
and assessment. This would give women the
opportunity to discuss any issues that may be
affecting their relationships with their partners. If
the partners are also present at the antenatal
assessments, it would give them the opportunity to
ask questions and discuss any issues that may be
concerning them.
Sexuality may be discussed in antenatal education sessions; however, the discussion is usually
superficial and in direct response to the participants questions in relation to time frame for
resumption of sexual intercourse after the birth
(Polomeno, 1996). However, not all women and
their partners attend antenatal education sessions
(Lee and Shorten, 1999), and therefore information
relating to sexuality during pregnancy and the
postnatal period for these couples is limited. This is
another reason for incorporating sexuality into
routine antenatal care during pregnancy.
Motherhood and fatherhood induce or increase
marital tension as discussed earlier. Perhaps it is
time to be proactive and commence education in
secondary schools in regard to the effect of
parenthood. This would give future parents a basic
education on the reality of the effect of pregnancy,
birth and the adjustment to parenthood. It would
facilitate the understanding of how individuals
react to motherhood and fatherhood.

Conclusion and recommendation

Limited research has been conducted on the
sexual adjustment of women after childbirth, and
hardly any information relating to the adjustment of men. It is apparent from the published
literature available on the topic that health
professionals are not providing sufficient information to women and men on the affect that
pregnancy and birth has on their sexual relationship. If health professionals continue to inform both
women and their partners that sexual intercourse
may resume after the 6-week postnatal assessment, women may experience undue pressure to
resume sexual intercourse when they are not
physically or psychologically ready. On the other
hand, research has shown that, for many, sexual
intercourse has been recommenced before the
6-week postnatal assessment. There is no rule
about the resumption of sexual intercourse; the

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106
variance between individuals is immense. Individuals need to be physically and psychologically
ready to resume sexual intercourse after birth. It is
important for health-care professionals, particularly midwives, to recognise that variance does
occur, and that there is a need to be open to the
discussion of sexual activity with women and their
partners in pregnancy and postnatal periods.
Health professionals require up-to-date information and education on sexuality in the childbearing
period, and need to be able to effectively communicate this information to women and their
partners. Ongoing research on the effects of
pregnancy, birth, and the postnatal period on
sexuality are required for health-care professionals
to be able to provide information that is current
and evidence based.

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