Block I Student Guide

STUDY GUIDE/WORKBOOK (SW)
J8AQR3E431 OIAA
TECHNICAL TRAINING
Water & Fuel Systems Maintenance Apprentice (Qua! I)
Block I Introduction to Utilities Systems
March 2011
Change 17 April 2014
This briefing presentation or document is for information

only. No US Government commitment to sell, loan, lease,
co-develop, co-produce defense articles or provide defense
service is implied or intended.
782 TRAINING GROUP

366 TRAINING SQUADRON
Sheppard AFB, TX 76311
DESIGNED FOR AETC COURSE USE

NOT INTENDED FOR USE ON THE JOB
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Study Guide/Workbook
J8AQR3E431 OlAA-1-1thru9
Block I - Introduction to Utilities
Number
Title
Page No.
1-1
Orientation
1-1
1-2
Safety
2-1
I-3
Environmental Concerns
3-1
1-4
Use and Care of Tools and Equipment
4-1
I-5
Project Planning
5-1
I-6
Sewer Lines
6-1
I-7
Structural Openings
7-1
I-8
Interior Waste Systems and Cast Iron Pipe Assembly
8-1
1-9
Valves
9-1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The copyright material contained in this study guide/workbook has been reproduced by special arrangement
with the copyright owner in each case. Such material is fully protected by the copyright laws of the United
States and may not be further reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission of the copyright
owner.
PURPOSE: The intent of this SW is to present task and subject information which supports the objectives of
the units of instruction. The SW will direct you to reading assignments in the most logical sequence for easy
understanding. The SW also will direct you to complete exercises and progress checks during the teachinglearning activities.
Supersedes SW J8AQR3E431 OlAA dated October 2010

1-1
OBJECTIVE
a. Course Orientation
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Water and Fuel Systems Maintenance Apprentice (WFSM) Course.
AFSC 3E43 l is part of the Civil Engineering Mechanical/Electrical career field. You are
entering an interesting and challenging career field. AFSC 3E43 l Specialists supply Water and
Fuel Systems support for all of the Air Force. This training will prepare you for your career in
the United States Air Force, so the next 29 training days are some of the most important days of
your career. While you are here, work as hard as you can, so you can take as much from the
course as possible.
INFORMATION
Course Overview and Administration
COURSE OVERVIEW. This 29-day course consists of 5 blocks of instruction. Class
days do not include weekends and holidays.
Block I - Introduction to Utilities Systems/Wastewater Systems

Primary Method of Instruction: Lecture/Discussion/Performance.
Topics: General safety, environmental concerns, use and care of tools and equipment, project
planning, sewer lines, structural openings, interior wastewater systems, and valves.
Length: 52.5 hours
Block II - Water Systems
Primary Method of Instruction: Lecture/Discussion/Demonstration/Performance
Topics: Fundamentals of water distribution, water systems, plastic pipe assembly, and copper
tubing assembly.
Length: 61.5 hours
Block III - Installation of Fixtures/ Plumbing System Repair and Maintenance
Topics: Water heater repair, lavatory installation and replacement, water closet installation and
replacement, urinal installation and replacement, shower installation, winterization of pipes,
inspection m1d maintenance of interior waste systems, and inspection and maintenance of interior
water distribution system and fixtures.
Length: 51.5 hours
,~"""-'",

1-2
Block IV - Utilities Systems and Equipment

Topics: Repair of exterior water piping systems, fire hydrants, backflow prevention, and utilities
equipment.
Length: 33 hours
Block V - Water and Wastewater Systems
Topics: Utilities specific principles of mathematics, biology, and chemistry, fundamentals of
wastewater treatment, and lift stations.
Length: 31 hours
Army Graduation- Day 29
Army students proceed to Army Unique Combat Engineer training for approximately 3 days.
Upon completion of the Utilities Systems training through Block IV, and the Army Unique
training, soldiers will receive their diplomas and graduate.
COURSE ADMINISTRATION (POLICIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES).
Course Goals - Our goal is to provide the needed training in the most cost effective and
professional manner. This goal is attainable only with your cooperation. As with other Air
Force training programs you have attended, the more you apply yourself, the greater the learning
experience. We challenge you to help us make this the best possible learning experience.
Chain of Command - Our organization is simple. All of our courses are assigned to
training flights, which are, in turn, a part of the training squadron. Our squadron is only one of
the four training squadrons, which make up the 782nd Training Group. The organizational
structure of management and supervision is shown in the following "chain of command"
diagram:
Commander
366 Training Squadron
I Flight Commander I
I
I Course Supervisor I
I
I Instructor
I Class Leader
Student

1-3
The diagram shows a simple straight-line chain from you, the student, to the squadron
commander. The squadron commander is responsible to the group commander who, in turn, is
responsible to the wing commander. While attending the course, the instructor is your
immediate supervisor who will help you in any way possible and will arrange for you to speak to
one of the instructor supervisors if the need arises.
Professional Conduct and Appearance - You and our training staff must maintain
professional conduct at all times. Air Force directives outline the standards that require student
personnel to refrain from contact between faculty and students outside of the classroom
environment. Your instructor will discuss this subject in greater detail and resolve any questions
you may have.
Appearance - During the course, you are required to maintain your appearance within the
guidelines set by AFI 36-2903, Dress and Appearance Standards. Students are to have clean
uniforn1S, proper headgear, clean footwear, and be well groomed at all times. Uniform wear for
this course will be the Airman Battle Dress Uniform (ABUs), except on graduation day. On
graduation day, you may wear blues or ABUs, as the class dictates. Periodic inspections will be
conducted to ensure compliance with applicable military dress and appearance standards.
In addition to compliance with appearance standards you will be expected to conduct
yourself in a professional manner at all times.
Classroom Conduct - The instructor has the final authority in the classroom. In the
absence of the instructor, the class leader or ranking person will assume this duty. Offenses such
as tardiness, loss of military bearing, sleeping in class, and horseplay will not be tolerated.
Attendance - Attendance is mandato1y unless officially excused. Normal classroom
training is conducted during an eight-hour training day, which will be from 0630 to 1530 hours.
Your instructor will advise you of the lunch hour and any changes to the duty schedule.
Breaks- You will be given breaks throughout the day. The purpose of these breaks is to
give you a chance to limber up, get refreshments and go to the latrine. Breaks are scheduled for
10 minutes per every hour of instruction; however there may be some minor deviations from this
schedule because of special training requirements. All students will leave the classroom for the
entire break period. Be sure to stay in the designated break area during the breaks and do not
loiter in the hallways, sidewalks or in front of classroom building entrance doors. Most
important of all, be sure and take your break, leave the classroom, and relax.
Absences - You may be excused from class for legitimate reasons; however, it is
desirable that your personal affairs and appointments be scheduled so as not to interfere with the
school's hours of operation. Requests for class absence must be initiated through your instructor.
Prior coordination with your instructor is strongly recommended, if possible.
Sick Call - Your instructor will cover procedures for routine sick call. Should you
become ill while in the classroom, inform the instructor of the nature of your illness. The
instructor will make ai-rangements for transportation to the base clinic if necessary.

1-4
Emergency Leave - If your family has an emergency that requires you to return home, your
family will have to notify the local Red Cross of the emergency. The Red Cross will then notify
you through our squadron and if emergency leave is warranted, arrangements will be made for a
speedy departure.
Smoking/Tobacco Use Policy - AFI 40-102, Tobacco Use Policy prohibit the use of
tobacco products by students-Non-Prior Service (NPS) or Temporary Duty (TDY) during duty
hours. Your instructor will answer any questions you may have regarding this policy.
Food and Drink in the Classroom and Training Area- Your instructor will brief you on
the course policy concerning food and drinks in the classroom and training areas.
Cleanup - All students assigned to the course (regardless of rank) will share responsibility
for cleaning areas used during instruction at the end of every school day. Class leaders will
supervise the daily clean up and assign responsibilities to members of the class as required. Cleanup
will start 15 minutes before the end of each school day. Your instructor will show you where
cleaning supplies and utilities are located. The full cooperation of all personnel is required to ensure
a good job is done.
Student Feedback Program
The purpose of the Student Feedback Program is to allow you to express your ideas and
opinions about the quality and adequacy of the course, unit, facilities, base support functions or
any other areas you may use while assigned to Sheppard AFB. It also provides commanders,
supervisors, instructors and course development personnel useful and necessary infonnation to
make improvements. Many improvements are made using information from student critiques, so
you are strongly encouraged to submit them without fear of prejudice or reprisal. If at any time
you have a complaint, make it known immediately so it can be resolved at the earliest possible
time. In addition, the Student Feedback Program is an excellent way to recognize outstanding
instructors, programs, or facilities.
INDIVIDUAL CRITIQUE. You may submit an individual critique/feedback form
(AETC FORM 736) at any time while attending this course. The AETC FORM 736 will be
available in the classroom as well as in the squadron. If you cannot find one, ask your instructor
to provide you one. Your critique/feedback may be on training, base facilities, services or other
areas of interest to you. Critiques/feedback on base facilities or services should be on a separate
AETC FORM 736 from a training critique.
Your ideas or opinions may be positive or negative, however, if you want them to effect a
change, they must be SPECIFIC. To make a critique specific, you should state the five W's:
Who, What, Where, When, Why, and contain a suggestion on how to correct the problem. If
your issue is with training material, be sure to indicate which block, unit, and objective the
problem is in to assist the training developer correct the problem. Finally, remember that you are
free to discuss your ideas and observations with individuals in your chain of command.

1-5
END-OF-COURSE SURVEY. Near the end of the course you will be tasked to
complete an end-of-course (EOC) survey. The intent of this survey is to document the adequacy
of the course, unit, base facilities, and support functions. Your critique of the training program
will include your appraisal as to the effectiveness of instructors, training methods, training
literature, visual aids, training equipment, classroom and training area. Emphasis should be
placed on identifying weak areas that will lead to course improvement.
To make sure you are in a position to make worthwhile comments on these specific areas,
you may want to keep notes. If you keep notes throughout the course, you will be in a better
position to readily recall the areas of greatest concern and be able to provide specific information
in order to contribute to the end-of-course survey.
In addition to the course comments, you will want to document problems or positive
experiences you may have had with base facilities and services. The Services Squadron
commander reviews these comments for ideas in improving their operations. This portion of the
critique will cover such items as the dining facility, clubs, recreation, base services, security
forces, base transpo1tation, mail, administration, medical, and overall evaluation. Remember
that we are concerned with constructive comments that can be used to improve training.
Effective Study Techniques
IMPORTANCE OF STUDY. Learning does not just happen; it must be planned. One
imp01tant part of that plan is effective study. Without effective study, you will find yourself
struggling to keep up with your work and pass the course. Proper study habits will help you
complete any course with a better understanding of its content. This is usually a problem for
many of us since we really do not know how to study effectively.
One of the keys to success in this course is to establish a pattern of daily study. If you
are prepared for class each day, you will be ready to learn more from the instructor's
presentations and have success on the progress checks.
PLAN A DAILY SCHEDULE. Good study habits are essential if you are to effectively
use your study time. The time you spend in preparing to study is time well invested. There are
three important steps you need to complete before you begin to study. (1) You must develop a
positive attitude toward study. (2) You must set a definite time each day for study. (3) You
must choose a specific place to study.
Attitude - Attitude is defined as a feeling or emotion. Your attitude toward study

influences how well you learn. You must have a positive attitude toward study before you can
learn. If you have a feeling of opposition toward study, you will learn little or nothing at all.
Sometimes you're feeling of opposition toward study stems from some problem not connected
with your study. In these cases, you should identify the problem and attempt to correct it. Then
your attitude toward study should improve.

1-6
Time to Study - You will be more satisfied with yourself and of more value to your chosen
career field if you develop good study habits. You should set aside a regular time each day for
study. When is the best time for you to study? This depends on you and your schedule. There
are two study periods you need for effective study. First, set aside a specific time prior to class
to study material to be covered in class. This should be the same time each day. Second, set
aside some time each day after class to review the material covered in class. A large portion of
information Jost is forgotten within 24 hours after you hear or read it. Once you set aside these
same periods each day, stick to it. Do not schedule study immediately prior to bedtime. The end
of the study period may find you asleep.
Place to Study- It is very impo1iant to have a definite place to study. This does not
mean you carmot study anywhere else, but you should make every effort to study in the same
place every day. You may not be able to find an ideal place to study, but you should try to
select the most suitable place. You should have the same table or desk and chair each time you
study. Your place of study should be quiet and comfortable, but not so comfortable you fall
asleep. Try to eliminate as many distracters as possible. Distracters are things such as
television, radio, pictures, and books not relating to the subject being studied, hunger, and
uncomfortable clothing. Room temperature can also be a distracter if it is too hot or too cold.
If you cannot eliminate distracters, you must learn to ignore them.
Make an effort to begin studying as soon as you sit down in your selected place for
study. This will soon become part of your good study habits.
Now that you are ready to study, you need a planned method of study. You may already
have a study method that works well for you, however we want to present you with a proven
method that you can try if you are having difficulty studying. This method is called the SQ3R
method.
SQ3R STUDY METHOD. The SQ3R method has five steps should be completed in
their proper sequence for best results. The steps are:
Survey - Survey the material. Look at the objectives first. Then read the headings,
subheadings, and sub-subheadings. Read the summary and review questions at the eF1d of the
lesson. Then scan each paragraph for the topic sentence.
Question - After surveying a lesson, you should devise questions to answer about the
subject. A good method is to rewrite each heading and subheading into a question. You may not
always be able to answer all your questions from the text, but the questions will give direction
and purpose to your study.
Read - Read the material carefully and look for answers to your questions. Do not skip
around hunting answers to the questions. Look for the answers as you read each paragraph. Be
sure to study each illustration. Remember, stmi from the beginning of the lesson and read all the
material.

1-7
Recite - Rephrase the lesson in your own words. Restate what you have just read aloud.
This helps you to understand the lesson because you just read it, now you say it and hear it.
Review - This step is so impo1iant; you should spend as much time on this step as you did
on the previous four steps. Begin by closing your book, sitting back, and thinking about what
you just read. If some of the material is not clear, go back and reread that area. Then sit back
and think on that again. Remember, your performance in this course is only as good as the effort
you put into it. A positive attitude and effective planned study will provide you with the tools to
excel.
Community College of the Air Force (CCAF) Benefits and Credits
This course is accredited by the Community College of the Air Force (CCAF). The
Community College of the Air Force program is sometimes called the enlisted college. It gives
you the opportunity to combine your Air Force technical training and work experience with off
duty college courses to earn an Associate's degree in Applied Science. To receive this two-year
college degree, you need a minimum of 64 semester hours. Upon graduating from this course
the Community College of the Air Force awards you 0 semester hours towards a CCAF
Associate's degree in Electrical/Mechanical Technology. Make the most of this valuable
educational opportunity.
Instructional Materials Types and Uses
Your instructor will cover course material; however, you are expected to read and learn
principles and procedures for carrying out the various assignments from written materials. This
material will include Study Guides/Workbooks (SW), Handouts (HO), Student Progress Checks
(PC), and Technical Orders (TO).
To understand what is expected of you, read the objective statement at the beginning of
each lesson, it will tell you exactly what you must do to satisfy the course requirements for that
lesson. The objective statement will also tell you what the minimum standard is to pass an
objective. To take a block test all objectives must be met or passed satisfactorily.
STUDY GUIDE/WORKBOOK (SW). The study guide/workbook (SW), referred to as
a "Switch," will contain subject or task knowledge based information relating to the subject
matter for each objective presented in the course. This information is to be read in preparation
for each day's lesson. The SW will also be used to direct you to additional information relating
to an objective's subject matter that may be contained in other training literature such as
Technical Orders or commercial textbooks. The workbook (WB) portion of the SW consist of
knowledge-based questions and instructions to perform practice performance exercises to aid
you in gaining proficiency before being administered a formal evaluation (Progress check).
These exercises are designed to enhance your learning of each subject and serve as an indicator
of how well you understand the material. Note: You are strongly encouraged to study these
SW's on your own, because the SW projects contain variations of the Progress checks that must
be satisfactorily completed in order for you to pass the course.

1-8
HANDOUT (HO). A handout provides supplemental information that is not conducive

to being placed in the Study Guide/Workbook due to its irregular size, intended purpose or
economy of print. Enlarged wiring diagrams, figures, charts or graphs are examples of what will
makeup a HO.
PROGRESS CHECK (PC). Progress Checks are formal evaluation products. They are
used to measure your attainment of a specific skill or knowledge of a subject matter as stated in
objective statements. All PCs will be completed in class as directed by your instructor. They are
for your use in the school but NOT TO KEEP and must be returned at the end of the formal
assessment period.
TECHNICAL ORDER (TO). Probably the most important training material you will
be given is the Teclmical Order (TO). TOs will be used as the standard reference in presenting
many of the classroom lessons, in addition to completing workbook exercises and progress
checks.
CARE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL. While the material referenced in the
preceding paragraphs is intended for your personal use, it is NOT YOURS TO KEEP. The
cost of purchasing and printing training material for the I 00+ students who attend this course
yearly is quite considerable; therefore, you need to do your part to hold down costs. One way to
keep costs down is to care for and reuse training materials. The majority of student instructional
material issued during the class is collected at the end of each block for redistribution to students
who attend the course at a later date. Because the material is reissued, we ask that you NOT
WRITE ON/IN ANY PART OF IT and exercise extreme care in keeping it in good condition.
Your instructor will brief you on the specific use and care of each item of training literature as
they deem necessary.
Training Material, and Resource Conservation
With the "do more with less" view that the military has adopted, it is imperative that
students conserve supplies and resources as much as possible. This can be as simple as using
one hand towel instead of two to dry your hands. To ensure money is used to accomplish the
mission, we need to save money in other areas. The measures that follow are used throughout
this course to conserve resources and energy.
REUSE OF TRAINING MATERIAL. You may have noticed thatthe Study Guide/
Workbook, you are reading, is not new. Several people before you have used it. This recycling
behavior supports the schoolhouse's "Conservation of Resources" effort. To avoid the
destruction of thousands of trees and sending tons of paper to the recycling center each week, it
makes more sense to "re-use" this material for as long as possible.
Due to budget constraints, the reuse of training materials is now standard practice
throughout the training command. It is everyone's responsibility to conserve valuable training
resources. This includes training literature, supplies, tools, equipment, and energy resources.
You must exercise good judgment and perform tasks to the best of your ability in everything you
do in an attempt to reduce the amount ofresources and materials to complete the objectives. As
1-9
stated earlier Study Guide/Workbooks, Progress checks, and Technical Orders must be returned
for reuse by the next class. It is your responsibility to ensure their cleanliness and serviceability
while in your possession.
CONSERVE SUPPLIES AND RESOURCES. Every effort must be taken to conserve
our supplies and resources. We will expend only those supplies and resources required to
complete training objectives. You should be aware of the impact of wasting resources.
Recycling will help us conserve our limited natural resources and keep training costs down, so
please practice recycling as appropriate. Note: The training squadron has a great recycling
program where we collect aluminum cans, paper, and plastic bottles. This program not only reuses these resources to manufacture different products, but also saves Sheppard AFB money in
the long run. Your participation in our recycling effo1is is strongly encouraged. Please do your
part!
Training Environmental Safety
COURSE SPECIFIC HAZARDS. Safety is your number I consideration in the training
environment. Being a member of this carreer field will put you in situations where you MUST
consider all the dangers present prior to staiiing work. Some of the major hazards of the use of
tools and equipment, lifting of heavy objects, failure to wear appropriate safety equipment or
clothing, handling of chemicals, exposure to toxic or explosive gases, handling or storage of
flammable substances.
Everyone deserves a training environment free from safety hazards, but hazards cannot
always be avoided. Your instructor is aware of existing job specific hazards and will ultimately
be responsible for your safety during training. You will be briefed on known hazards and how to
work safely aiound them. It is up to you to listen to your instructor, follow all safety guidance,
and wear the appropriate protective equipment prescribed in Technical Orders and Air Force
Occupational Safety and Health (AFOSH) standards.
It is also your responsibility to bring to your instructor's immediate attention any
observation of a safety hazard or violation that compromises you or your classmate's safety
during training. Every effmi will be made to minimize or eliminate the situation before
training continues. The safe, economical accomplishment of our job can only be accomplished
by strict adherence to established rules for safety and accident prevention. Do not get
complacent and become an accident statistic. Remember: Safety should be your top priority
always!
GENERAL SAFETY IN THE CLASSROOM AND THE TRAINING AREA.

Your instructor will brief you on general safety precautions concerning the classroom and
training area. Please pay attention to this information. Your part in preventing accidents is to
become fa!lliliar with the common causes of accidents and follow all safety related practices
and instructions.

1-10
Note: Everything that is accomplished at the school is designed with your safety in mind. There
will be times when the lesson will involve working in hazardous areas and safety will be covered
in each area. It is a condition of the training environment that you will be working with trainers
and equipment that can produce hazardous situations. Because of this, students will not operate
or troubleshoot any trainer or equipment except under the direction of an instructor and using
proper safety equipment.
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES. Fire evacuation, ale1i, and reporting procedures are
posted in each training area. The instructor will brief you on specific evacuation procedures and
reassembly location.
Fire Evacuation and Reporting. In the rare event that a fire alarm sounds, all personnel
will leave the building in an orderly maimer and all classes will form up at least 200 feet from
the building. The instructor will take roll to account for everyone in their class.
Personnel reporting a fire will call 911 and give the operator the following information:
1. Location of fire (building number or area)
2. Your name and telephone number
3. Type of fire (building, grass, gasoline, etc.)
It is required that when you rep01i a fire, you remain on the phone until the alarm operator
tells you to hang up or the situation becomes dangerous enough that you could be injured.
Should the fire be extinguished by other than Fire Depaiiment personnel, notification of
the Fire Depaiiment is still required. This notification is necessary so technically qualified
personnel may inspect the fire scene and surroundings to guard against the possibility of the fire
restarting.
Severe Storms - Severe storms are a normal occurrence here in Texas. During the spring
and early summer, severe thunderstorms and tornadoes may occur with little or no notice. You
must pay close attention to any weather alerts, watches, and warnings.
Lightning- Storms can and have produced severe lightning, large hail, high winds, and
flash floods. Your instructor will brief you on the alert signals used at Sheppard to warn of
severe weather.
Tornado/tornado shelter - Your instructor will also show you the actual location of your
shelter in the event of a tornado while you are in school. Be prepared!
SEAT BELT POLICY. Air Force directives require you and all occupants to properly wear
seat belts while either operating or riding in a motor vehicle. Consequences for violating these
directives are outlined in a 782nd Training Group policy on seatbelt usage. Your instructor can
provide you a copy of this policy upon request.

1-11
RISK MANAGEMENT (RM). Risk management is an important part of your daily

operations, therefore a good understanding of the principles of RM will help ensure you work
safer and smarter.
Definition ofRisk Management - The Air Force Safety Center (AFSC), defines RM this
way: "Risk Management is a logic-based, common sense approach to making calculated
decisions on humans, material and environmental factors before, during, and after Air Force
mission activities and operations, i.e., on and off the job." RM is the process of identifying and
controlling hazards to protect the force. It is applicable to any mission and environment and is
intended to enhance mission effectiveness at all levels, while preserving assets and safeguarding
health and welfare.
Goal ofRisk Management - The risk management process provides a systematic way to
identify and choose the best course of action for any given situation. RM enables commanders,
functional managers, and supervisors to maximize operation capabilities while minimizing risks
by applying a simple systematic process appropriate for all personnel and Air Force
functions. Its aim is to minimize losses - money, equipment, or personnel safety - while
maximizing mission success or in other words - weigh expected costs against expected benefits.
CAUTIONARY POLICY FOR PREGNANT FEMALES IN COURSES WITH

CHEMICAL HAZARDS. Note: This section is specifically intended to be read by female
students; however, any student who may be supervising female ai1men should review this
imp01iant subject. In addition to the reading that follows, all female students must read SAFBI
48-103, Chemical Hazards Protection and a Fetal Hazard Chemicals listing from the instructor
that must be signed. By signing, you are certifying that you have read and understand SAFBI
48-103, and are aware of the potential Fetal Hazardous Chemicals that are present in the course.
Our career field requires workers to use a wide variety of hazardous materials to
effectively perform their job. Many of these hazardous materials can cause serious and
damaging problems to an unborn child. Some of these hazardous materials are used here at the
schoolhouse. Pregnant women are advised to exercise extreme caution in the workplace to avoid
exposure to all hazardous chemicals. It is of the utmost importance that women understand the
greatest risk to the fetus from chemicals is during the first 13 weeks of pregnancy, thus it is
necessary to confirm pregnancy at the earliest possible time.
You have a responsibility to protect yourself and your unborn child from the effects of
any hazardous materials used in training. If you know or suspect you might be pregnant, you
need to notify your instructor or instructor supervisor as soon as possible. Course personnel will
then take action to protect your health and the health of your unborn child. The Manufacturer's
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for each chemical you may be exposed to will be consulted to
determine the risk of exposure.

1-12
Based on the information in the MSDS, you may be removed from that portion of
training which would expose you to the hazardous chemical or material. This will, in no way,
have a negative impact on you or your career. You will graduate and receive a certificate like
any other student. You will be provided a training deficiency letter to identify those areas of
training you missed. Remember, this program is intended to protect you and your unborn child
from the hazards of exposure to hazardous chemicals and materials during your training.
SAFBI 48-103 will provide you more information, if you desire.
Air Force Fraud, Waste, and Abuse Prevention and Detection
The Air Force Fraud, Waste, and Abuse (FW&A) program is designed to keep money
where it is needed: mission accomplishment. When people or organizations start wasting the
millions of dollars set aside for the mission on unnecessary items, the people who really need the
money suffer! The Air Force loses millions of dollars every year because of Fraud, Waste, and
Abuse. What exactly are Fraud, Waste, and Abuse? It is the misuse or abuse of Air Force
resources or the misuse ofrank. Air Force policy is to use all available means to prevent, detect,
and correct instances of Fraud, Waste, and Abuse; to discipline, as warranted, personnel
involved; and to recover, if possible, losses of cash, prope1iy, and services resulting from Fraud,
Waste, and Abuse.
DEFINITIONS. Fraud, Waste, and Abuse (FW&A) as it pertains to government
resources are defined as follows:
Fraud - The intentional misleading or deceitful conduct that deprives the Government of
its resources or rights.
Waste - The extravagant, careless, or needless expenditure of Government resources,
resulting from improper or deficient practices, systems, controls or decisions.
Abuse - The intentional wrongful or improper use of Government resources for other than
officially approved activities.
IMPACT. When money is wasted and resources are abused, the military is defrauded,
and the mission suffers. Not only does this lack of funding destroy the readiness of the military,
but it also destroys the trust and confidence that the public sees in us. Losses by the government
to Fraud, Waste and Abuse have been reported in every agency. These losses resulted primarily
from theft, false statements, and false claims.
Most thefts involved equipment or personal property. The equipment was stolen from
government buildings and installations, as well as contractor plants.
False statements were made in obtaining financial assistance or benefits under many
different federal programs. Improper claims made on travel vouchers or basic allowance for
quarters and dependency ce1iifications are some examples.

1-13
Wasteful practices result in little or no benefit for the dollars spent. Here are just a few
common examples of waste: buying more of an item than needed, failing to use dated items
before their expiration dates, or paying more for an item than necessary.
Abuse of the leave system by failure to process leave documents costs the government
money. If the leave had been recorded, a terminal leave payment may have been reduced or
eliminated. Another example of abuse is using a position of rank to secure benefits which are
not authorized. The orders approving official who uses government temporary duty (TD Y) to
conduct personal business reduces the TDY fund balance available for legitimate purposes.
The cost of Fraud, Waste, and Abuse cannot always be measured in dollars and cents.
The non-monetary effects must also be considered in evaluating the seriousness of incidents
against the government. Possibly the most serious non-monetary effect is the loss of public
confidence in the government's ability to efficiently and effectively manage its resources. For
example, while government programs designed to prevent and detect FW&A have probably
reduced the number of potential perpetrators within government, these same programs have
resulted in press releases of embanassing incidents.
Publicity of this sort may have mixed blessings. On one hand, the public may tend to
praise the government for its aggressive effo1is. On the other hand, incidents may confirm
public opinion on the existence of FW&A within government. All disclosures under the
Freedom oflnformation Act carry the same potential dual interpretations.
Another serious non-monetary effect is the impact on the mission readiness of the Air
Force. This impact is hard to measure directly. Pilfered items from mobility bags may seem
minor to a unit at home, but could become more serious when the unit is deployed and needs the
missing items. What is the non-monetary impact on unit readiness if serviceable aircraft parts
are sent to salvage or parts are allowed to remain out of the repair cycle too long? Another
example is the reluctance of managers to release unneeded items to others with or without a valid
requirement. These actions result in reduced mission capability, which ultimately hurts the Air
Force, U.S. Government, and all U.S. Citizens.
REPORTING. The focal point of the Air Force Fraud, Waste, and Abuse program is
the Inspector General. The most important element of the program is you. If you witness a
potential instance of Fraud, Waste, and Abuse, report it to your instructor or an instructor
supervisor. If they are involved in the incident, you should notify the Flight or Squadron
commander. If you notice something elsewhere on base, you may call the Base's Fraud,
Waste, and Abuse Hotline at extension 676-2222 or notify your instructor for assistance in
rep01iing the matter to the appropriate agency. Each member of the Air Force, military or
civilian, or any uniformed service or other government employee has the right to file a
disclosure without fear ofreprisal. This right is guaranteed by law. If you wish to remain
anonymous, you do not have to give your name.

1-14
Sexual Harassment and Assault Reporting, Professional and Unprofessional Relationships

and Hazing
SEXUAL HARASSMENT. The Air Force mandates that we conduct our affairs free
from unlawful sexual harassment. Sexual harassment may be in the form of physical contact,
gestures, jokes, pictures, comments, terms of endearment, or questionable comments. No
matter what the form, the official Air Force policy is "NO SEXUAL HARASSMENT OF
ANY KIND WILL BE TO LERATED." It is the duty of all military personnel to help
prevent sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination and is therefore
illegal. It is also a violation of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). Offenders can
be severely punished.
Sexual harassment will not be tolerated in the form of inappropriate comments, jokes or
gestures. What determines if it is inappropriate? If the person it is directed at or any person
witnessing the incident is offended or uncomfortable with it, it is inappropriate. In any case, the
effects of these actions are the primary issues rather than the intent. Sexual harassment detracts
from a person's ability to do their job to the best of their ability. When you are confronted with
such a situation, whether you are the victim, the offender, a witness, supervisor, or co-worker,
you have a role. Unless the situation is corrected, our ability to perform our mission is greatly
diminished. We cannot ignore this responsibility. If you are aware ofa sexual harassment
incident and you fail to take action, you may be held accountable.
Any misuse of rank, authority, or professional relationships is prohibited; whether
between students and faculty, or non-prior service and prior service students. The conditions and
circumstances that exist in a training environment, such as exists here at Sheppard AFB, warrant
special vigilance for any sexual harassment incidents. The large numbers of young,
inexperienced airmen (male & female) in a technical training environment presents a situation
with greater than average potential for sexual harassment. Remember, all military and civilian
personnel will be treated with dignity and respect. The best policy is to carry yourself as a
professional at all times. If you do this, you should never "cross the line."
SEXUAL ASSAULT. Sexual assault is criminal conduct. It falls short of the standards
America expects of its citizens and the men and women in uniform. It violates service core
values. Inherent in our Core Values is respect, no matter which branch of the service. Selfrespect, mutual respect and respect for the military as an institution is paramount. Incidents of
sexual assault corrode the very fabric of our culture; therefore, we must strive for an environment
where this type of behavior is not tolerated and where all military members are respected.
Victims will be afforded the necessary time to for recovery and opportunity to make up
training missed during the recovery period. Training may be made up through either special
individualized assistance (SIA) or wash back/recycle. How training will be made up will be
determined by the instructor supervisor with the best interests of the student in mind and based
on the amount of training that has been missed, complexity of training, and other relevant
factors.

1-15
Two types ofreporting are available for military members, Restricted and Unrestricted.
For any questions on sexual assault, contact the Sheppard Air Force Base Sexual Assault
Response Coordinator's (SARC) office at 676-7272. Refer to AFI 36-600 I, Sexual Assault
Prevention and Response (SAP R) Program, for further information. Victims of sexual
harassment and /or sexual assault in training enviromnents are provided confidential access to
victim support services.
PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS. Professional relationships are essential to the
effective operation of all organizations, both military and civilian. The nature of the military
mission requires absolute confidence in command and an unhesitating adherence to orders that
may result in inconvenience, hardships or, at times, injury or death. This distinction makes the
maintenance of professional relationships in the military more critical than in civilian
organizations. While personal relationships between Air Force members are normally matters of
individual choice and judgment, they become matters of official concern when they adversely
affect or have the reasonable potential to adversely affect the Air Force by eroding morale, good
order, discipline, respect for authority, unit cohesion or mission accomplishment.
In the school environment, students must respect the position of authority held by
instructors. Instructors must use their authority to maintain order and discipline without
partiality, or the appearance of favoritism. Students and instructors should communicate freely
in the classroom on issues relating to course objectives and student wellbeing, however
instructors and students should not meet socially outside of the schoolhouse. Exceptions to this
requirement are events such as picnics and athletic events that are designed to improve morale
and good will between students and instructors. Additionally, prior service students, not living
in the non-prior service (NPS) dormitory, should limit off-duty socializing with NPS students.
UNPROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS. There is an old saying that goes,
"familiarity breeds contempt." Most of.you will agree that this is true. If you do not understand
how this can happen, just think back on your past experiences. Have you ever seen the young
airman or junior non-commissioned officer (NCO) who is so familiar with their supervisor that
they call them by their first name? Have you ever noticed how this same person will joke and
tease with their boss? Have you ever seen the results when the boss needs that airman or NCO to
do an unpleasant job? Generally, the result is a lot of griping and complaining, sometimes
bordering on insubordination! But to the airman or NCO, they do not see it as insubordination.
They think they are exempt from the dirty work because they are the boss' buddy!
We all must endeavor to maintain proper professional relationships between ourselves
and our superiors. Lead by example. Your younger airmen will be looking up to you and your
supervisors will be watching you. Set the tone for your workplace.
Note: Refer to AETCI 36-2909, Recruiting, Education, and Training Standards of Conduct, for
examples of professional and unprofessional relationships between trainees, faculty, and staff.
See the Table I below for a list of support and investigative agencies for assistance in resolving
issues concerning sexual assault, sexual harassment, professional and unprofessional
relationships.

1-16
POC
Phone Number
First Sergeant
676-5799
676-5800
Squadron Commander
Chaplain
676-0014
676-2031
Inspector General
676-4393
Equal Opportunity Office
Behavioral Health
676-6480
Sexual Assualt Response Coordinator (SARC) 676-7272
Air Force Discrimination Hotline
1-888-231-4058
(Handles Sexual Harassment Also)
Legal Assistance Office
676-4262
676-1852
AF Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI)
Security Forces
676-2981
Table 1
HAZING. Webster defines hazing as "harassing or persecuting with meaningless,
difficult or demeaning tasks." Many people misunderstand hazing because of the broad scope of
things that can be considered hazing. Hazing can be described as any action or activity that does
not contribute to the positive development of a person by causing physical or mental harm or
anxieties. This includes demeaning, degrading and disgracing an individual. Some examples
include paddling; marking or branding; requiring to carry items like rocks, helmets or books;
preventing/restricting normal personal hygiene; and requiring uncomfortable, ridiculous, or
embairnssing dress. If you witness hazing and are able to stop it, do so immediately. If you are
unable to stop it, notify someone in your chain of command.
In the military, the "unauthorized assumption of authority by one military member over
another which results in cruelty or humiliation" is considered hazing. Hazing is detrimental to
mission success. It undermines the team concept and each member's ability to contribute to that
success. As supervisors and co-workers, you have a responsibility to eliminate any detractors or
roadblocks that may negatively impact ai1y fellow service member from realizing their full
potential for success. Hazing is one of those detractors.
TDY Student Policies and Processing
IN-PROCESSING. Students deployed TDY in order to attend this course will receive
an In/Out Processing Checklist, and an emergency notification locator card upon enrollment into
the class. The In/Out Processing Checklist will be used to in-process the squadron, the liaison
office, and the post office and is to be returned to the instructor not later than the close of
business of the third day of class. In addition to completing the In/Out Processing Checklist and
the emergency notification locator card your instructor will brief you on in-processing briefings
that you are required to attend during your first days of assignment at Sheppard AFB.

1-17
OUT PROCESSING. Two days prior to graduation, the instructor will return your
In/Out Processing Checklist to allow you to out-process the base. After you have completed all
of the required out-processing actions you are required to return the completed form back to your
instructor prior to graduation. Note: Failing to return a completed In/Out Processing Checklist
will result in your graduation certificate being withheld until one is completed and turned in. In
short, no form - no graduation.
COMPLETION OF TRAINING. TDY students assigned to this school are expected to
complete the entire curriculum prior to departure. IA W Comptroller General Decision, 49
Comp. Gen. 663, for military members -A TDY student who abandons the training mission
prior to completion for personal reasons will be responsible for part or all of their travel and
living expenses. Ask your instructor for clarification if you have any questions regarding this
policy.
FRATERNIZATION. While you are at Sheppard AFB, you will be in contact with a
large number of non-prior service students from each branch of the military services. These
students are generally young and highly impressionable and part of the mission here at Sheppard
is to continue with their professional development which started in basic training. To complete
that mission, non-prior service students must comply with several unpopular policies and
directives that do not apply to permanent party or TDY personnel. Because of this, you need to
understand the purpose and importance of the fraternization directive.
The purpose of the directive is to prevent even the perception of faculty/staff members or
TDY students in the training organization from taking advantage of non-prior and prior service
trainees, as well as prohibiting trainees from placing the faculty/staff or TDY personnel in a
position of compromise.
Bottom line, fraternization with non-prior service or faculty/staff members is an easy way
to jeopardize your career, therefore, you are strongly advised to keep your contact with these
parties professional and within Air Force standards of conduct while on and off duty.
VEHICLES. If you drove here for school or think you might be driving while you are
here, you will be required to contact the host base safety office for information on the local
traffic conditions and important safety considerations for driving on Sheppard AFB and in the
surrounding area. The First Sergeant's briefing will provide you with further information on this
course. If you drive to school, remember to park only in designated parking areas. We suggest
that you park on the south end of the building. It is important that you be aware that in
accordance with base policy you are not to allow any non-prior service member to enter in or
ride in your personal vehicle.
Student Measurement and Progression Policies
Student measuremenfis how we determine how you are progressing in the learning
environment. There are a number of methods that the instructor will use to ensure that you are
learning the material that they are presenting. They are as follows:

1-18
INSTRUCTOR/STUDENT QUESTIONS. Your questions, as well as the instructor's

questioning, are key to understanding the material. These questions provide your instructor with
an informal feedback on how well you understand the lesson. Questions are welcomed and
encouraged at any time to further enhance the lesson and clarify any uncertainty. If you do not
understand the material, you cannot expect to pass the progress checks. Your questions as well
as the instructor's questioning are key to understanding the material. Do not be afraid to ask a
question, someone else might be thinking the same thing, but are embarrassed to ask.
STUDY GUIDE/WORKBOOK QUESTIONS. Your performance in completing the
Workbook review questions is an informal method of measurement. The answers to the
questions will be discussed in class to ensure everyone has the correct responses and
understands the material.
PROGRESS CHECK. Progress Checks (PCs) are the primary measurement instrument
used to assess a student's attainment of knowledge and performance objectives within a unit of
instruction. These PCs provide you and the instructor with valuable feedback, ensuring that the
instructor is able to provide aid to you early in the process if you are not understanding the
information. The progress check is a formal measurement tool that is usually administered
immediately after an objective's lecture/discussion. Each progress check is evaluated using an
AETC FRM 98, Student Progress Checklist to ensure standardization of grading criteria.
Progress checks are graded using an "S" (satisfactory) or a "U" (unsatisfactory) for each
objective.
END-OF-BLOCK TEST. You will be administered a written or computerized multiple
choice test at the end of each block of instruction. Each test is a formal measurement device and
is designed to provide a sampling of your knowledge for that block. This test will cover only
information you received in a particular block of instruction. After the entire class completes the
test, a test critique will be conducted. Your instructor will review the high missed questions
(those missed by 50% or more of the class) with the class and help identify the cause of any high
missed item.
PROGRESSION POLICIES. The following paragraphs provide an understanding of
what to expect should you encounter problems during the course.
PC failure - All progress checks must be satisfactorily completed before a student is
allowed to take the block test. Should you fail a progress check, you will be provided counseling
to determine the cause of the failure. You may be provided with Special Individual Assistance
(SIA) prior to completing the progress check again. Any progress check that has not been
completed satisfactorily by the time the written test is administered will result in failure of the
block by that student.

1-19
Test failure - You must pass the block test before moving to the next block. Should you
fail the test, counseling will be provided for any unacceptable academic or non-academic
behavior that affects your progression through this course. The instructor or supervisor will
discuss the unacceptable behavior with you. The results of the counseling will determine if you
will be given SIA and a retest with an alternate test, washed back to repeat the block, or removed
from training.
Keep in mind, the instructors and supervisors are interested in your problems and wants
you to succeed. They have nothing against you personally and are only trying to reach a
solution. Be honest with them and discuss your problems. The talk will help both of you.
Special Individual Assistance (SIA) is available to provide additional aid to students
having difficulty learning the course material. If instruction on a particular subject is not clear,
you may voluntarily ask your instructor for remedial instruction; however, SIA is mandatory for
any progress check failure. The instructor will inform you of the time, date, and location of your
remedial instructions.
Obviously, the preferred way for you to leave this course is to graduate. If you apply
yourself and cooperate with the instructor staff and your fellow students, you should have no
problems. Upon successful completion of this course, you will receive an AF FORM 1256,
Certification of Training. In the event you should fail, a Letter of Attendance will be sent to
your home unit.
Student Recognition Program
DISTINGUISHED GRADUATE (DG). We recognize approximately 10% of the
classes' non-prior service (NPS) students as distinguished graduates. The staff selects
distinguished graduates on the basis of the whole person concept - academic grades,
performance skills, leadership, teamwork, military bearing, and behavior while on and off duty.
Distinguished graduates receive a distinguished graduate diploma upon graduation.
If you are a distinguished graduate, we also notify your gaining commander. It is an

excellent way to gain positive recognition early in your career, and create an outstanding first
.
.
1mpress10n.
TOP GRADUATE PROGRAM. We recognize one NPS student as an honor graduate.
The staff usually selects the honor graduate from the DG candidates who exhibits the additional
outstanding qualities of follower-ship, oral and written communications as well as problem
solving and adaptability. The honor graduate will receive an honor graduate diploma upon
graduation and the gaining unit commander will be notified.

1-20
Academic Integrity
WRITTEN MATERIALS. This course is written to educate all that attend. Cheating
does not allow us to educate. We do not tolerate cheating in the United States Air Force; it does
not align with our Air Force Core Values. Cheating in any way destroys the integrity of the
education process and could allow people to dishonestly advance in a course. The course is
designed to train and educate personnel to safely work on highly dangerous, highly technical,
and expensive equipment. Written notes or handouts that are highlighted or marked that could
afford a student an advantage will not be shared with another student. This includes flash cards,
computer based media or other forms of course materials. Do not share anything with other
students unless it is directed by your instructors.
VERBAL COMPROMISE. As with written course materials, any verbal
communication or verbal sharing of potential measurement materials could be considered
cheating. Sharing test material is considered unlawful and is punishable under the Uniformed
Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). One example of this is, talking about test questions
immediately following a block test. Students from a lower block my be able to overhear your
conversation, or a classmate may have failed and will be required to retake the test.
STUDY TECHNIQUES. We encourage students to study, which may entail study
groups working together. Do not study with students in classes ahead of or behind you. Only
study with students in your class using methods that do not compromise the integrity of the
course. If there is a student that has been placed in your class from a prior class due to illness or
failed academics, this student is not allowed to discuss or disclose any information that would
compromise course integrity in any way. This includes student measurement devices or assigned
work that is designed to be completed individually to help students understand the material.
SUMMARY
This orientation provided a brief course overview and a few details on course
administration. We talked briefly about student instructional materials and gave you some
information about the credits awarded towards a CCAF degree. We covered student
measurement and progress policies, the student critique program, and TDY student processing.
Lastly, we gave a few pointers for good study techniques, and ensured you know about some
special policies concerning pregnant students and hazing. Refer back to this information as
needed.

UNIT 2. Safety
OBJECTIVE
a. Identify basic facts about general hazards, responsibilities, and practices associated with the
Water and Fuel Systems Maintenance career field with at least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Work related accidents and personal injuries must be avoided at all cost. No one benefits if
you are injured at work. Safety will be a primary focus as you perform all tasks in your new
career.
INFORMATION
Water and Fuel Systems Maintenance (WFSM) specialists install, operate and maintain
water piping systems, waste water piping systems, natural gas systems, plumbing systems and
fixtures. There are a variety of hazards associated with this type of work. Hazards include:
improper use of tools and equipment, improper lifting of heavy objects, failure to wear
appropriate safety equipment or clothing, improper use or handling of chemicals, exposure to
toxic or explosive gases, improper handling or storage of flammable substances. This lesson is
intended to provide a broad overview of safety issues. Safety will be an integral part of all
lessons as you proceed through the course.
HAZARDS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND PRACTICES
Job Hazards
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT. When used improperly, hand tools most often present a
hazard. For example, screwdrivers are designed to tum screws. If used as a pry bar, a
screwdriver is likely to break and could easily result in a puncture wound. Only use hand tools
for their designed purpose. Keep tools clean and inspect them frequently. If a hand tool is
damaged, repair or replace it.
WFSM specialists use a variety of powered equipment such as sewer augers, pipe threading
machines, saws and generators. When excavating areas for installation and maintenance of
underground piping; backhoes, ditching machines and front-end loaders are frequently used.
There are always some inherent dangers when using or working around powered equipment. It's
important to be trained by a qualified operator before attempting to operate equipment yourself
During your training, qualified personnel will instruct you on the dangers associated with
equipment and will demonstrate their proper use before you are pennitted to operate them.
MATERIALS AND SUBSTANCES. Materials such as piping, valves, concrete blocks,
lumber, nails and screws can represent a variety of hazards. Larger and heavier materials could
fall and crush workers on a job site. Therefore, they must be stored properly, and workers
handling heavy objects should be wearing appropriate safety gear such as steel-toed boots and
hard hats.

Many materials may have sharp edges that could result in lacerations if handled improperly.
Obviously, wearing gloves would be wise when handling objects with sharp edges. Safety rules
are enforced on all job sites to reduce the risk of injuries. Follow these rules for your o"wn safety
and the safety of your coworkers.
Some substances (such as liquid or granular drain cleaners, acids and solvents) can be
extremely hazardous if not handled and used properly. To avoid injury always read the label on
the container and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) provided by the manufacturer. Labels
and MSDS's contain information regarding proper use, handling, storage and disposal.
Additionally, labels will also defme what safety gear should be worn when handling the
substance.
WORK CONDITIONS. Poor work conditions can present hazards. Inadequate lighting,
confmed spaces, fumes and vapors, standing water and cluttered areas are all potentially
hazardous conditions. Take appropriate action to make conditions more favorable in
accomplishing the assigned task. Con-ective actions may include lighting poorly lit areas,
ventilating, pumping water out oflow areas, mopping floors and picking up scattered tools and
debris.
WORK METHODS. Use proper methods to achieve assigned tasks. If directives or
Directions are provided for the task at hand, use them. Short cuts can lead to personal injury and
damage to equipment and systems. You will be trained to do the job safely. Apply the
procedures and practices you are taught.
AFOSH Standards for AFSC
PURPOSE. The Air Force Occupational Safety and Health program was designed for your
protection as the worker.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING. Education and training helps prevent accidents. The
goals are to instill safe attitudes, and to teach you and your co-workers to handle tools,
equipment, and chemicals safely. Your organization will conduct safety meetings, post safety
suggestions on shop bulletin boards, and distribute safety literature. When you begin your job as
a new WFSM specialist, you will receive intensive safety training until you become more
familiar with the hazards and safe practices of your AFSC. It is your supervisor's responsibility
to provide specialized job safety, fire prevention, and occupational health training to you and all
of your co-workers.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH. Health hazards that affect civil engineering workers also
affect occupants of buildings in which the work is being done, and/or people passing by work in
progress. Adequate controls shall be used whenever an operation possesses a potential health
hazard to any or all of these personnel.

Individual Responsibilities
IDENTIFYING HAZARDS. While performing your duties, you should identify and
eliminate safety hazards whenever possible.
Example:
You're tasked to repair a leaking pipe in the crawl space under a warehouse. Taking a
flashlight and investigating the leak, you notice nails protruding through the flooring into the
crawl space. Since you and your coworkers could be injured by the nails while working on the
plumbing problem, you use a hammer to bend the nails so they no longer present a hazard.
Example:
The basement of a structure is flooded as a result of a broken water pipe. Arriving on the
scene to repair the piping, you see electrical wiring in the basement. Not knowing whether or
not the wiring is live, you warn your coworkers and report the situation to your supervisor.
Your supervisor sends an electtician to the site to disconnect power. Once the electrician assures
you the site is safe, you can begin repair of the damaged piping.
REPORTING HAZARDS. When you discover a hazard you cannot co1Tect, you will
report it to your immediate supervisor. If your immediate supervisor is not available, consult the
next person in your chain of command. Do not begin work until the hazard has been eliminated
or proper controls have been used to control the hazard.
EQUIPMENT USAGE. Operating equipment that is unfamiliar to you is inherently
dangerous. Never try to operate equipment without the proper training. Qualifying to operate
equipment can only be done under the supervision of a qualified operator. When using
equipment, comply with the manufacturer's Directions.
SAFE WORK METHODS. Even with the best tools, equipment and work conditions,
injuries can occur due to unsafe work methods. Use the work methods that you will learn in this
course.
SAFETY CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT. Your supervisor will provide you with
the necessary safety clothing and equipment. Safety clothing includes items such as selfcontained breathing apparatus, ventilation fans, fire extinguishers, emergency eyewash and
showers. It will be your responsibility to wear the safety clothing that has been provided to you.

Flammables
COMMONLY USED FLAMMABLES. Natural gas, gasoline, oil, solvents, paints;

paint thinner and cleaning fluids are examples of commonly used flammables. These substances,
when used properly, are safe. Danger of fire exists when a flammable substance, oxygen, and a
source of ignition are present simultaneously. To ensure your own safety, do not bring a source
of ignition (matches, lighter) into areas where flammables are stored.
HANDLING FLAMMABLE SUBSTANCES. When you must work with flammable
substances, be aware of the hazards associated with that substance. Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS) are available for flanunables purchased by your work section. Material Safety Data
Sheets provide information about handling, storage, and disposal of the substance. Many
flammables have labels on the container that lists related hazards, precautions and related first
aid treatment. Always read the MSDS and label when using a new substance.
Safety precautions when working around flammables include:
Remove clothing soiled with flammable substances
Prohibit smoking or open flames within a specified range
Use non-sparking tools or equipment
Keep fire extinguishers nearby
Wear rubber soled boots to avoid sparks
Store soiled rags in metal containers away from other flammables
Avoid carrying sources of ignition (matches, lighters) in areas where flammables are stored
*
*
Advise personnel of presence of flammables in work area

Keep areas where flammables are stored free of flammable materials (such as rags and
lumber)
STORING FLAMMABLES. Containers housing flammables should be clearly marked

with signs such as: "DANGER FLAMMABLE" or "NO SMOKING WITHIN 50 FEET". Read
all safety signs before entering a work area.
When storing flammables in your work area, store like substances together. Place containers
on shelves at or below 4 feet. Shelves should have a lip to confine the flammable substance in
the event a container falls over and spills. Additionally, a fire extinguisher should be located
within 10 feet of the storage area. Know the location of fire extinguishers and how to use them.
Ensure the proper safety signs are posted. If signs are not in the flammable materials storage
area, notify your supervisor.
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES. You must have a basic understanding of the fire and
the fire fighting equipment in order to successfully protect yourself, your coworkers and your
work area in the event of a fire. For a fire to exist certain conditions must be present. Conditions
necessary for a fire are fuel, oxygen, and a source of ignition. When fighting a fire, you are
trying to control or eliminate at least one of these conditions.
When a fire occurs you should do the following: (I) notify personnel (2) sound the alarm
(3) evacuate the area, shutting doors and windows if time permits (4) select and operate the
appropriate fire extinguisher (5) direct fire fighters to the fire. Do not put yourself in danger to
fight a fire. If a fire is too large to put out with an extinguisher, evacuate the building
immediately!
Fires are classified according to the type of material that it bums. Class A or Ordinary
Combustibles such as, wood, paper, plastic, rubber, and cloth. Class B or Flammable and
Combustible Liquids and Gases. Class C or Electrical. This includes all fires involving
energized electrical equipment.

Fire extinguishers were developed to fight one or more of the types of fires stated above.
Symbols are printed on the outside of a fire extinguisher to indicate the type offire(s) the
extinguisher will put out (Figure 2-1).
CLASS A SYMBOL
ORDINARY
IA.
COMBUSTIBLES
Color of Symbol: Green

Explanation: Suited for fires fueled by wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics
CLASS B SYMBOL
FLAMMABLE
II
LIQUIDS
Color of Symbol: Red

Explanation: Suited for fires fueled by flammable/combustible liquids such as, oil, greases, tars,
oil based paint, flammable gases
CLASS C SYMBOL
ELEClRICAL
EQUIPMENT
Color of Symbol: Blue

Explanation: Suited for fires fueled by energized electrical equipment
Figure 2-1
("'
These symbols are normally located on the extinguisher near the base. In some cases, an
extinguisher may have more than one symbol. Extinguishers with more than one symbol can be
used on fires as indicated by the symbols.
USING AN EXTINGUISHER. To operate a fire extinguisher; remember the acronym
P.A.S.S. (Refer to Figure 2-2).
Pin
Pull the pin on the operating handle

Aim the hose at the base of the fire
Squeeze the operating handle
Sweep the spray back and forth along the
base of the fire
Operating Handle
Hose
Figure 2-2. Extinguisher Components
Manual Lifting Awareness
(\
1. Check weight and size.
A bulky, awkward load can
cause more strain than a
compact heavier one.
2. Plant your feet firmly, well
apart, and squat down.
3. Watch out for sharp edges.
Get a good grip.
4. Keep your back as straight
as you can. lift slowly
(don't jerk) by pushing up
with your legs.
LIFTING HAZARDS. Before lifting an

object, consider its size, shape and weight.
Large objects can be difficult to see around.
The shape of an object can make it hard to
grasp. Lifting objects that are too heavy can
easily cause physical injury. Back injuries are
common when lifting heavy objects. Ask for
help when you need to lift an item that is too
large, difficult to handle or that is too heavy.
PROPER LIFTING TECHNIQUE.
See Figure 2-3.
5. Don't twist your body with

the load. Shift yourfeet.
Figure 2-3. Proper Lifting Technique

Operational Risk Management (ORM)

PURPOSE. Operational risk management is a common sense approach to making
calculated decisions on human, material, and environmental factors before, during and after Air
Force mission activities and operations (on and off the job).
It enables commanders, functional managers, supervisors, and individuals to maximize
operational capabilities while minimizing risks by applying a simple systematic process.
As we strive toward mission success, all personnel have a direct impact on the operations
of the military, and the "O" in ORM expresses that belief. For each failure, mishap, or loss there
are some financial or operational costs that impact a unit's capability to respond to future
tasking. We must work to prevent mission failures, mishaps, or other forms of loss in the
workplace.
Operational risk management (ORM) applies to all personnel both on- and off-duty.
Personnel should strive to successfully complete their mission and take every effort to minimize
hazards and guarantee operational success. The quest for mission success requires risk
management, whether it is flying an airplane, loading a truck with supplies, paying a travel
voucher, or driving home at the end of the day.
PRINCIPLES OF RISK MANAGEMENT. ORM is based on the four interrelated
principles listed below.
Know the Risks. Risks are often derived from experience and better identified and
controlled early in the planning process.
Accept No Unnecessary Risks. Take only those risks that are required to accomplish
the mission.
Make Risk Decisions at the Proper Level. Risk decisions are normally made by the
leader directly responsible for the operations. However, when the leader determines that the risk
associated with the operation is too high or appears to violate the stated intent of higher
authorities, leaders must elevate the risk decision to the appropriate level.
Accept Risks if Benefits Outweigh Costs. Risk is inherent in virtually all operations.
Risk is also related to gain; normally greater potential gain requires greater risk. Risk
management does not seek to "eliminate all risk but to "manage risk" accomplishing the mission
with a minimum Joss.
THE ORM SIX STEP PROCESS. The following is a discussion of the six step ORM
process.
Step 1. Hazard Identification. There are many sources from which a hazard can be
identified. One of the best is through a group process involving empowered functional experts
directly from the workplace. Most people want to talk about their jobs. A simple brainstorming
process with subject matter experts can yield effective results.
Step 2. Risk Assessment. The objectives of risk assessment are to determine root
causes and mission impact of risk, prioritize it, and explore and identify organizational origins of
risk. The key elements of assessment are effect (the influence on system performance),
probability (how it impacts the schedule within the system), and control resources (system costs).
Step 3. Analyze Control Measures. Before risk can be controlled, alternatives to risk
must be understood. These alternatives are:
Accept - Risk determined acceptable.
Reduce - Manipulate various components to affect risk reductions.
Avoid - Alter/eliminate one or more components to avoid the most significant risk.
Spread - Decrease exposure by spreading hazards over time and distance.
Transfer - Shifting the effort when conducting operations.
Step 4. Make Control Decisions. Once the team outlines all plausible options, it is then
ready for this step. Decisions are made with full awareness of the identity of the hazard and how
important it is to the 1nissions (risk). The decision-maker knows he/she must allocate resources
to control risk. At this point of the process the decision-maker may:
Accept the plan as is. In this case, benefits outweigh risks, and the total risk is low
enough to justify the proposed operation.
Reject the proposed plan. In this case, risks outweigh benefits to the extent that the
operation cannot proceed in any form; further work directed to control risk to an acceptable
level.
Elevate the decision to a higher authority. In this case, the risk is too great for the
decision-maker to accept, but all available measures for controlling risk have been considered.
This higher authority, in tum, may accept the given level or risk, reject the operation, direct
modifications to the operation, or provide additional resources for controlling risk.
Step 5. Implement Control Measures. Put controls in place that eliminate hazards or
reduce their 1isk.
Step 6. Supervise the Process. Enforce/maintain standards and controls on an on-going
basis.
SUMMARY
WFSM specialists must apply the proper safety precautions during all job tasks. Hand tools
should be used for their designed purpose and should be kept clean and in good repair. Only
qualified personnel should operate power equipment. Materials and substances must be stored
and handled properly. When working with chemicals, always read the label and MSDS.
Improve work conditions whenever possible. Use approved methods and procedures for
/--,

accomplishing assigned tasks. Individuals should identify and eliminate hazards. If you cannot
eliminate a hazard, notify your supervisor. Flammables should be stored in clearly marked areas.
Flammable substances stored in cabinets should have shelves with lips to confine spills. Never
bring a source of ignition into an area where flammables are stored. Fire extinguishers are stored
within 10 feet of flammable storage areas. Fire extinguishers are labeled for specific types of
fires. In the event of a fire: (1) notify the fire dept., and building occupants, (2) sound the
alarm, (3) evacuate the area/shut windows and doors, (4) select and operate the appropriate
extinguisher, ( 5) direct fire fighters to the fire. If the fire cannot be easily put out, evacuate
iimnediately! To avoid back injuries when lifting, use your legs not your back.
EXERCISE: Exercise I-2a
Directions: Using the tenns provided, complete the statements below to make them true
statements.
Terms
supervisor
MSDS
legs
I qualified operator I
I
flammable
substance
I hand tools
I metal containers
I.
Never use _ _ _ _ _ for other than their designed purpose.
2.
To operate power equipment, you must first be trained by a (an)
3.
If you cannot eliminate an identified hazard, you should report it to your _ _ _ _ __
4.
Labels and
list precautions, hazards, safety procedures and personal
protective equipment associated with a hazardous substance.
5.
Soiled rags should be stored in _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ away from other flammables.
6.
Objects should be lifted using your _ _ _, with your back straight.
7.
Job related AFOSH standards training is the responsibility of your
8.
The confinement of a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ spill during storage can be

achieved by a lip on the shelf
APPLICATION
You should be ready for progress check 2a. If you feel you need to review the previous
Directions, do so now.

SW J8AQR3E431 OlAA-I-3
UNIT 3. Environmental Concerns
OBJECTIVE
a. Given a list of statements pertaining to environmental concerns, identify those that are true or
false with at least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
The potential for contributing to the pollution of the environment exists in every career field
and the WFSM career field is no exception. WFSM personnel are responsible for performing a
variety of tasks that could result in environmental pollution. Some of these tasks may include:
(1) Selecting a suitable water source.

(2) Treating raw water to make it safe for human consumption.
(3) Distributing water to all facilities.
(4) Installing, maintaining and repairing interior plumbing systems.
(5) Collecting wastewater generated from base housing and operational facilities.
(6) Treating wastewater to remove impurities before discharge into a natural water source,
such as a lake, river, or stream.
(7) Inspection, maintenance, and repair, of natural gas systems.
You must make every effort to prevent pollution of the enviromnent when performing
assigned tasks. It is the goal of this course to train you to perform your duties in a manner that
will prevent contamination of our natural resources.
INFORMATION
Maintaining utilities systems according to the policies, directives, codes and procedures will
be a huge step in protecting our natural environment. In the following text, we will address these
concerns as they apply to your areas ofresponsibility.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Environmental Concerns
PLUMBING. During the installation, repair and maintenance of plumbing systems, WFSM
specialists could easily contaminate the soil, water sources or the air.
"'

3-2
Examples of the Environmental Impact of Defective Plnmbing
Impact
Condition
Leak in natural gas pipe
Destruction of plant life and potential explosion
Leak in pipe transporting

chemically treated water
Contamination of soil and/or water sources
Leak in wastewater piping
Contamination of soil and/or water sources
All piping must be installed according to the plumbing code and tested for leaks. Piping
systems should be inspected frequently to locate leaks that may develop as a result of corrosion
or physical movement. Leaks should be repaired as soon as possible using the proper methods
and procedures.
The materials, substances and chemicals used for plumbing could also contaminate the
enviromnent. Examples of substances or materials that could have a negative impact on the
enviromnent include metals, lubricants, solvents, chemical drain cleaners and fuels. Always use
materials, substances or chemicals according to the label, Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS) and manufacturer's information. Supervisors will provide MSDS sheets for all
hazardous materials that you encounter during the course of your duties (See Figures 3-la and 3lb). Additionally, supervisors are required to keep an inventory ofhazardous materials in their
areas ofresponsibility. Labels and manufacturer's information will be found on the container or
in the package that the substance was shipped in. Read these documents carefully to protect
yourself and the enviromnent.

3-3
Material Safety Data Sheet
U.S. Department of Labor
May be used to compty with

OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard,
29 CFR 1910.1200. Standard must be
;oMSU/t9d for specific t'9C1Uintments.
Occupational S.fetv and Helth Administration

(Non.Mandatory Form}
Form Approv.d
OMS No. 1218-0072
lot!HTITY
(A$ /JWd Ori LltOel M'ld
4)
no
.sp.ICU' ..,. not P*'fl'lf'tfKJ. If *7y llWrm IS not ~. Cl'

~,. avu.ci.. l1le ~mu#
~to ~!9 tnt.
UatJ
Nof'O: 8Jr1n1t.
CAUSTIC SODA BEADS

Sectlon I
o.
.. . . 4_., .... _, .,, "'
~T~Numo.
ManuMc:turer's NatM
Some Imporcer Inc.

Ac1c1r1tM (Number. Sh. City. Slal9, Mrc1 ZIP Coc19}
--
'"""""''
OSHA Pel.
ACGIH TLV
Tefephone Number for klfomWaon
304-555-1500
Somerville, Nev Jersey 17272
2/12/84
Sgnai:Ut9 of Pt'llpattM'
Section II -
Hazardous lngredlentalldenttty Information
Hazardous Compoc1en1a (Specifte CMmiCal Identity; Common NatM())
Sodium Hydroxide (caustic soda; soda lyr; lyr)
Sectlon HI
% (otOnM;
2 mg/m3 - ceiling
1QQl.
Phy91cal1Chemieal CtwbeC lllllc:a
Boiling Pomt
Vaf)Of'
2mg/m3
- - - lJmt!S
AeCOl1'1i&letlded
Speciftc Gl1Mt)' (H2<J 1)
............
3:390c
PT9Mure (mm Hg.}
--
Vapor Density (AIR 1)
N/A
--
2.13
(Butyt~
$o1ubi11ty in Waier
_..,,.,. .... """'
50g/100g
Jisc
1
1)
Whice OWder, no odor

9ect:lon IV - Fire and E.:icpl= 1lon Hmrd Dam
--F\Mn Point
(MMhod U...o)
None - non combustible
I~,~
UEl..
liLA
Flood vich vacer uaing care not to splacter or 1pla1b.

5p:i.i FIN~~
Wear full protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus vben fighting fires
involving this material.
u~
Fn anc1 Exp1m1on Hazatdl
Noc com.buacible but solid form in cotact with moisture or water may genrace sufficient
heat to ignite combustible material.
(Reproduce localty)
A-6
Figure 3-la. Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Front Side

OSHA 174, Sept. ti;ee
3-4
CAUSTIC SODA A
Section V - Re1cttvlty Data
.......,
Un.-
CondltlOnl to AYOld
.....
None
acer, ac ....... s, ......ammao.Le m.acer1a ...s, cu.1.or ... nai:e ... 11y1.1rocaruon,
aluminum. tin. zincy nitro compounds.
rncomgatibil! fy (Mlttm/a
to AVOid)
,_,
YES
Section VI - Hullh Hourd Da1a
destructive burns.
ot m st ma.y
NTP7
NO
Slgnt""
Burning;
of Inhalationof
dust or mist vary from minor ir;itation to severe burning of
upper respiratory tract.
""""""'
Gennlty ~ 11/
Impaired pulmonary function or other respiratory tract disorder.
Expoiuiw
Chronic skin or eye disorders.
EfNIVlnCYanclFirtt>Jd~ Wash immediately with water.
For ingestion, give large amounts of water.

Section
vu -
Pnlcautlona for -
Hlndllng and
9'lillld
For inhalation, get to fresh air.
Do not induce vomiting.
u..
Stlpt 10 St Tlklc'I in CUI Matttlll 11 PtelMMcl Ot
Wear protective equipment to prevent s]tin and eye contact.
Promptly shovel into suitable
--container.
Avoid dust generation.
Follow local, state and federal regulations. Dilute well With water and carefully
neutralize with acid.
Prcaudonl 10 Be Tak:WI 1n Handling and S1or1n9
Store away from Incompatible materials noted above. Store
in well-sealed containers in a dr location avoid dust eneration. Sodium h droxide
""'When working with solutions. full body protection mav be required.
v-
Section VUI - Control -
~=~~h
"""'e.i-
Efficiency Filter.
N/A
--N/A
Rubber*{See
-
N/A
N/A
Dust and chemical snlash-nroof

1"'"-
nrecautions section)
safetv
;:011
~b~~~~oots (see recautions section)
ye was an sa e y s owers mus

e mme
e
smoking should not be psppiittd in areas where sodium hydroxide
_,_ 2
*U.S. -... 1117-111 ...."'"41
*See "Guide for the Selection of Chemical Prbtective Clothing", 3rd Edition, Vol. II
A. D. Little (for EPA and U. S. Coast Guard)
Wor!IJ1iygltniC PrlaleM
A-7
Figure 3-1 b. Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Back Side

\,~'
3-5
As you learn plumbing systems design, installation, inspection, maintenance and repair, we
will address the proper procedures and safety precautions for these activities. It is your
responsibility to apply these procedures and precautions when pe1forming plumbing tasks.
WATER TREATMENT. Water treatment plants are designed and operated to remove
impurities from water that is to be used for human consumption. Plant operators must monitor
processes and equipment continuously to ensure desired results are achieved. Numerous
chemicals may be used during water treatment. These chemicals can be devastating to the
utilities systems specialist and the natural environment if used improperly. Knowledge of the
potential hazards, safety precautions, environmental impact, handling and disposal Directions
can be gained by reading the MSDS, labels and manufacturer's information.
You will learn the proper use and storage of chemicals during this course. Apply this
knowledge when working with water treatment chemicals to avoid contamination of the
environment and to ensure your personal safety.
WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND TREATMENT.
Collection Systems. Wastewater collection systems receive raw sewage from fixtures. A
variety of biological and chemical contaminates are found in raw wastewater. Improperly
designed, operated, maintained or repaired collection systems could leak these contaminates
into the soil or water sources. To avoid environmental mishaps, always perform work on
waste systems according to the codes, procedures, policies and directives that pertain to the
job. Biological contaminants can also affect your personal health. For example, hepatitis can
live in wastewater. You could contract this illness when working with wastewater systems, if
you don't wear the safety equipment given to you and adhere to the safety procedures associated
with the task.
Plant Operations. Wastewater treatment plants are designed and operated to remove
contaminates from wastewater prior to discharging the water back into a water source. Improper
or negligent acts or practices by wastewater plant operators could easily result in contamination
of water sources. Because there is a high concentration of biological organisms in the
wastewater at the plant, exercise great caution around open tanks or leaking pipe.
Plant Discharge. Discharge water from these facilities is tested frequently to ensure that
treated wastewater does not adversely affect natural resources. Test results on treated
wastewater must be in compliance with government standards. Heavy penalties can be levied for
discharging water from a wastewater plant that does not meet the standard. The technology
available today allows us to improve natural waterways by discharging effectively treated
wastewater into rivers, lakes and streams. The discharge water is generally of extremely high
quality: better than the original water source.
Chemical Use and Storage. Chemicals are also used in wastewater treatment. It is essential
to use, store and handle these chemicals properly to avoid environmental contamination and
personal injury.

3-6
SUMMARY
Various environmental concerns apply to the duties associated with utility systems. When
doing utilities work, you should install, operate and maintain the systems according to codes and
directives. Water plant operators must closely monitor processes and equipment to prevent
accidental contamination of soil and water sources. Wastewater collection systems contain
numerous biological and chemical substances that could contaminate the environment or
adversely affect your health Utility systems specialist working on wastewater collection
systems must use approved methods and procedures. Wastewater plant operators must monitor
all plant operations and the discharge water to avoid environmental mishaps. WFSM specialists
must handle chemicals during the course of their duties. Always use, store and dispose of
chemicals according to the MSDS, label and manufacturer's information.
DIRECTIONS: Using your study guide as a reference, answer the following questions.
1. What impact could a defective plumbing system have on the environment?
2. How will you know the hazards associated with a new chemical or substance?
3. Who is responsible for keeping MSDS sheets in a work area?
4. Who keeps an inventory of hazardous materials?
5. Where can you find information that specifies the type of personal protective equipment
needed when handling chemicals or hazardous substances?
6. Which of the following tasks is unlikely to result in environmental pollution? (Circle the
correct answer)
Repairing a leak in a natural gas pipe
Repairing a leaking wastewater pipe
Repairing a leaking faucet
APPLICATION
You should be ready for the progress check. If you feel you need to review the previous
instruction, do so now.

UNIT 4. Use and Care ofTools and Equipment
OBJECTIVE
a. Given statements pertaining to the use and care of tools and equipment, identify the correct
statements with at least 75 % accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Tools are an integral part of the WFSM career field. You will use tools daily to install,
operate, maintain, and repair water, wastewater, and natural gas systems.
INFORMATION
During this unit of instruction, you will be introduced to couunonly used tools. First, we
will discuss the proper use and care of hand tools, then the use and care of shop equipment.
USE AND CARE OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Hand Tools
WRENCHES. Wrenches are used to tighten threaded joints on piping systems and on
mechanical connections associated with utilities equipment. Types of wrenches commonly used
include: pipe, adjustable jaw, open end, box end, combination, socket, and alien.
Pipe. Figure 4-1. Pipe wrenches are
designed for turning threaded round stock
such as piping and pipe fittings. Pipe
wrenches are the most commonly used
wrench in your career field. The size of a
pipe wrench is detennined by the length of its
handle. The longer the wrench's handle, the
greater the leverage that can be applied. You
will normally use pipe wrenches ranging from
6 to 36 inches.
When using pipe wrenches, two

Material reproduced by pennission of Rigid
wrenches are nonnally used at the same time.
Tool Company
One wrench is used to hold the work in place
Figure 4-1. Pipe Wrenches
while the other wrench is used to turn the pipe
or fitting. When using a back-up wrench you must pull one and push the other. When using a
pipe stand to connect pipe and fittings, you must push downward against the surface upon which
the pipe stand is supported. Pulling on the wrench when using a stand could cause the legs of the
stand to lift or slide.

NOT INTENDEDFOR USE ON THE JOB
4-2
Adjustable Jaw. Adjustable jaw
wrenches are used to make threaded
connections when using components with flat
surfaces such as nuts and bolts.
Adjustable jaw wrenches come in two
styles as shown in Figure 4-2. The size of the
wrench is determined by the length of the
handle. Again, the length of the handle is
relative to the leverage that can be applied to
the work. The wrench on the left side of
Figure 4-2 is used on larger objects; the
wrench on the right is used on smaller
objects.
When using an adjustable jaw
wrench, ensure the wrench is snug so that it
does not round off the comers on the flat side
or slip off the work. The wrench should be
applied to the work in
such a way that the stationary jaw receives
most of the strain when rotating the object.
Material reproduced by pennisslon of Ridge Tool Compamy.
Figure 4-2. Adjustable Jaw Wrenches
Open End. Non-adjustable, open end

wrenches are available for tightening nut and bolt
connections. See Figure 4-3. These wrenches
come in specific sizes such as W', %" and 1Omm.
The size of an open end wrench is determined by
the distance between the flats of the wrench.
Box End. Like open end wrenches, box
end wrenches are used to tum nuts and bolts.
The box end wrench fits completely around the
head ofa bolt or nut. This type of wrench has the
advantage of being less likely to slip off the work.
The handle of a box end wrench is offset at a 15
degree angle so the tool can be rotated 360
degrees, even when there are several bolts located
close together. See Figure 4-4.
STANDARD OPEN END WRENCH
OBSTRUCTION END WRENCH
Figure 4-3. Open End

Wrenches
o~
---~JID ___ '[__ _

'"''KTOU.,....<:l.,,..._
Figure 4-4. Box End

Combination. This tool is a combination of an open end and box end wrench, with each
type located at opposite ends of the handle. This type of wrench is also used to remove nuts and
bolts.

4-3
Socket. Socket
wrenches consist of a socket
and a handle. The socket fits
over the nut or bolt like a
wrench, and the handle fits
into the socket and is then
used to rotate the work to
tighten or loosen the nut or
bolt. Sockets are available in
the same sizes as wrenches.
Numerous types of handles,
adapters and extensions are
available for sockets. These
handles allow the operator to
manipulate nut and bolt
connections despite obstacles
that may be present.
See Figure 4-5.
rG~---------'l
~
0~ IC!!:"'!l!11il@!!a::Jj
FD~SC
.fJ!
HINGED IWIOLE
l8U! EXTENSION
SOCKET~
REW ORNE
"""""
___t;\\ 9L_) ~
mi =
~ ""''"' "" """'
.~""'"""'"" """"
~
r:r::::==~ ~ ~
-----w~
===:J)__'"""""'"'
'i!)
EXTENSION BAR
m~
UNIVERSAL JOINT
UNIVERSAL SOCKET
,_,A
SOCKET~
~~i,
12.f'OINT
""'"'
w-
Figure 4-5. Socket Wrenches
Allen. Allen wrenches are used to

remove set screws. This wrench is a six sided
bar of hardened steel which is bent at a 90
degree angle. Figure 4-6 shows a set of Allen
wrenches in their carrying case.
::;1u1>1>Z&toiii"""
Figure 4-6. Allen Wrenches
PLIERS. Pliers are used for holding

round stock and hot metals, as well as for bending and cutting wire.
....
Slip Joint. Slip joint pliers are used on

smaller objects when a light grip will suffice. See
Figure 4-7. These pliers can also cut small gauge
wrre.
Material reproduced by pennission of

Rigid Tool Company
Figure 4-7. Slip Joint Pliers

4-4
Channel Type. Channel type (Water
pump) pliers have long handles and bigger jaws
than slip joint pliers. The long handles
provide greater leverage. The jaws are adjustable
to fit different size objects. See Figure 4-8.
HAMMERS. Hammers are used to drive
pins or nails and to bend or shape objects.
Utilities specialists use a variety of hannners.
Some of the different types of hammers are mallet,
claw, ball peen and sledge.
See Figure 4-9.
Material reproduced by permission of

Rigid Tool Company
Figure 4-8. Water Pump Pliers
Mallets. Mallets are available with plastic,

rnbber and leather heads. Mallets are primarily for
shaping or bending.
Claw. Claw haimners are used for driving and
pulling nails.
Ball Peen. Ball peen hammers are used for
driving punches or chisels.
Sledge. Sledge hammers are used for driving
stakes, breaking concrete, and for other heavy
constrnction work.
13 =-~J::~
tij5--.k4~~,~
MALLETS
----;
PLASTIC HAMMER
,,---..
-- --
-.
CLAW HAMMER
BALL-PEEN HAMMER
SLEDGE HAMMER
Figure 4-9. Hammers

4-5
SCREWDRIVERS. Screwdrivers are used to

tighten and loosen screws. There are numerous types of
screwdrivers available. The three most basic types
include common, crosspoint and offset. See Figure 410. When selecting a screwdriver, ensure the tip
completely fills the slot in the screw. Never use a
screwdriver as a pry bar.
C>
fil
:)
COMMON
o::@
o::@
CROSSPOINT
~Zl411
Figure 4-10. Screwdrivers
LEVELS & PLUMB BOBS. Levels are used to check horizontal and vertical accuracy
during construction. Plumb bobs are used to locate and mark vertical aligmnent. The following
are three types of levels.
Framing Level. A framing level is generally used
during the framing of a structure. In Figure 4-11, the
framing level is the tool at the top of the illustration. By
laying the level on the horizontal surface, or holding it
against the vertical surface of a board or other construction
material, you are able to determine if the work is plumb
(vertically correct) or level (horizontally correct). Level and
plumb are indicated by a bubble of air floating in liquid.
When the bubble is located between the reference marks,
you're work is plumb or level. The bubble, liquid, and
reference marks are mounted into the frame of the level.
Framing levels come in lengths of 12, 18, 24, 36 and 48
inches.
Material reproduced by
permission of Rigid Tool
Company
Figure 4-11. Types of Levels
String level. A string level is used to measure

horizontal accuracy only. This tool has the same liquid filled vial with an air bubble and
reference marks like the framing level. String levels have hooks so that the level can be hung on
a string. String levels are used when string is stretched between stakes to mark the location of
proposed construction work. In Figure 4-11, the string level is in the center of the illustration.
String levels are usually three inches in length.
Torpedo Level. Torpedo levels are used to quickly check ve11ical and horizontal accuracy
of construction work. Again, a bubble assembly is used to indicate level and plumb. This type
of level can also be used in tighter locations where a framing level cannot be used. In Figure 411, the torpedo level is at the bottom in the illustration. Tmpedo levels are usually about 8 and
12 inches in length.

4-6
Plumb Bob. Plumb bobs are a pointed steel device that

weighs about 9 ounces (See Figure 4-12). At the top of the plumb
bob, a string is attached through a drilled opening. By hanging the
device from a string, vertical alignment of plumbing system
components and openings in structures can be achieved. See Figure
4-13
Figure 4-12. Plumb

Bob
Screwdriver
Floor
Structural Opening
--
--
tm-
String
PlumbBob
Pipe lengih bell!g deiermlned ID ensure

vertical alignment ofpiping syste:m with the
openi:ttg in the floor
Figure 4-13. Use of a Plumb Bob

4-7
HAND AUGERS. Hand augers are used to remove obstructions from waste piping and
fixtures. The most commonly used hand augers are the closet and sink augers.
Closet Auger. Closet augers
are used to remove obstructions
from the trap of a water closet. The
tool consists of a J-tube, cable and
operating handle. The head of the
cable is spiraled like a corkscrew.
The head of the cable is inserted into
the trap of the water closet with the
aid of the J-tube. See Figure 4-14.
The operator then pushes and rotates
Figure 4-14. Closet Auger
the cable in a clockwise direction as
the cable is fed into the trap of the water closet. Continuing to rotate the operating handle in a
clockwise direction, the cable is pulled out of the trap with the obstruction attached to the
spiraled head.
,,.,.,,._.
,,, ~
Reproduced by permission of Rigid Tool Company
Sink Auger. Sink augers are used to remove

obstructions from waste piping attached to small
fixtures such as sinks or lavatories. The tool
consists of an operating handle, a cable with
spiraled head, and cable drum housing. See Figme
4-15. When using the manual sink auger, the
operator pulls the cable from the drum and feeds it
into the waste pipe while rotating the handle
clockwise. The spiraled head retrieves the
obstruction while the operator continues to rotate
the operating handle clockwise and pushes the
cable back into the drum housing. The electrically
operated version ofthis tool works on the same
principle. With the electric sink auger, the motor
turns the drum and cable for the operator.
Figure 4-15. Sink Auger
PLUNGERS. Plungers are used to remove stoppages from fixtures. There are two types
of plungers that are commonly used dming plumbing. The force cup plunger removes stoppages
from round bottom fixtures such as water closets. The vacuum plungers remove stoppages from
flat bottomed fixtures such as kitchen sinks. See Figures 4-16 and 4-17.

4-8
Figure 4-16.
Vacuum Plunger
Figure 4-17.
Force Cup Plunger
TAPE MEASURE. A tape measure is used to

detennine length during the installation of piping, fittings,
fixtures and other plumbing devices. See Figure 4-18.
Figure 4-18. Tape Measure

CHISELS. Chisels are used to cut and chip. Chisels with a 70 degree cutting edge are
used on light metals, whereas chisels with a 90 degree cutting edge are used on heavier metals.
See Figure 4-19. To cut metal, the chisel is struck with a ball peen hammer. When striking a
metal tool with a hammer, always wear eye protection as chips of metal could fly off the work or
the tool and cause an eye injury.
FLAT
CAPE
ROUNDNOSE
51955264020
Figure 4-19 Chisels

DIAMOND
POINT
4-9
('
PUNCHES. Punches are used for marking

metal for drilled openings or for driving pins. See
Figure 4-20. When you are drilling through flat
metal, use a center punch to mark the desired
opening. An indentation is created in the surface
when the center punch is struck with a hammer.
The indentation keeps the drill bit from wandering
around on the surface while you drill an opening.
Round metal pins are used to make mechanical
connections on some tools and equipment. When
performing repairs, you will use a pin punch to
remove the pins. Again, wear eye protection when
striking metal tools with a hammer.
< . ....
""'~
CENTER PUNCH
c;;;::;:;;:.
.mwmm@CJ
PRICK PUNCH
~ .-.
SOLID PUNCH
-:::::? . . . . . . .l
PIN PUNCH
Note: Never use a chisel or punch that has a

mushroomed head. Metal chips are more likely
to fly from the tools when struck with a
hammer. Eye or facial injuries
could result.
LONG TAPER PUNCH

519652$4023
Figure 4-20. Punches
SAWS. You use saws to cut metal, plastic and wood. Handsaws include: hacksaws,
ripsaws, crosscut saws, and keyhole saws. Power saws include: jigsaws, circular saws,
reciprocating saws, and hole saws.
Hacksaw. Use hacksaws to cut metal. This saw
consists of a frame with replaceable blades. See Figure
4-21. The frame may be solid or adjustable in length.
Blades come in lengths from 8 to 16 inches. When
selecting a blade, the length, hardness of the metal, and
number of teeth per inch must be considered. When
using this tool, apply steady even pressure with long
smooth strokes. DO NOT apply pressure during the
back stroke. Excessive force could cause the blade to
break causing injury to you or others nearby.
4 e:.n1
SOLID FRAME
- v - - - - - ..
ADJUSTABLE FRAME
Hacksaw
Keyhole Saw. Used to cut irregular shaped
openings in wood and drywall. See Figure 4-22.
For example, a keyhole saw can cut round holes
in floors or walls for piping installation.
Figure 4-22. Keyhole Saw
(\

NOT INTENDED FOR USE ON TH E JOB
4-10
Jigsaw. Like a keyhole saw, jigsaws are used to cut irregular shaped
openings in wood. Jigsaws are powered by an electric motor. See
Figure 4-23.
Figure 4-23. Jigsaw

Circular Saw. Use circular saws to make straight cuts in lumber. See Figure 4-24. A
circular saw is used to cut in a straight line when working with
square or rectangular shaped pieces of wood such as a 4 foot by 8
foot sheet of plywood. Since this saw is powered by an electric
motor and can suddenly kickback, you should never put your
body in line with the blade when using this tool.
Figure 4-24.
Circular Saw
Reciprocating Saw. As
you work on plumbing systems,
this tool may be used frequently to remove sections of piping
and to cut into walls or flooring. Different blades are available
for use on most construction materials. See Figure 4-25
Figure 4-25.
Reciprocating Saw
DRILLS. You use drills to create round openings in

structural materials such as wood, masonry and metal. Several
types and sizes of drills are available. Bits are selected, based
on the diameter of the hole to be drilled, and the type of
material being drilled. Commonly used drills include electric
and/or brace.
Figure 4-26. Electric Drill and

Bit
Electric Drill. Used to bore holes in wood, metal and

masonry. Select drill bits for the size of the hole to be created
and the material being drilled. See Figure 4-26.
Brace and Bit. A brace is a hand operated drill. Utilities
specialists would use this tool when a hole must be drilled in a
wooden structure and no electricity is available on the job site.
See Figure 4-27.
Figure 4-27. Brace

and Bits
4-11
Drill Bits. Drill bits are available in various types and sizes. Commonly used types
include twist bits, paddle bits, auger bits and hole saw bits. The size of a drill bit is expressed as
the diameter of the hole that is created by the bit. Figure 4-28 shows a variety of drill bits
available.
Figure 4-28. Drill Bits
Material reproduced by pennission of Ridge Tool Company.
Figure 4-29. Tubing Cutters
TUBING CUTTERS. Use tubing

cutters to cut copper and plastic tubing. See
Figure 4-29. To cut tubing, place the cutter
on the tubing and tighten the adjustment
knob until the cutter is snug. Then rotate the
cutter, tightening the knob 1/4 turn per
revolution. The replaceable cutting wheel
cuts the tubing while rollers aid in the
cutter's rotational alignment.
Figure 4-30. Pipe Cutter

PIPE CUTTERS. Used to cut plastic, steel,
galvanized and black iron piping. This tool
is used in the same way as a tubing cutter.
See Figure 4-30. The cutting wheel is
replaceable and these wheels are available
for most types of piping materials.
(""'\
4-12
PIPE REAMERS. Use pipe

reamers to remove burrs on the inside
circumference edge of the cut pipe. See
Figure 4-31. If you do not remove these
bmTs, they will impede the flow of water.
Therefore, you should remove them before
the piping is assembled.
Material reproduced by IJermission of Ridge Tool Company.
Figure 4-31. Pipe Reamers
THREADER WITH DIES
THREADER HOLDER
HAND THREADER. Use the hand threader

to cut male threads into pipe. A die set consists of a
ratchet handle and die head assembly. See Figure 432. Pipe dies or die heads are available in sizes that
correspond with the various diameters of piping.
THREADER
(CUTTER) DIE
Figure 4-32. Hand Threader
TUBING BENDER. Use tubing benders to

make accurate bends in soft drawn copper tubing.
See Figure 4-33. Use this tool to aid in making
custom copper water supply lines for connecting to
fixtures.
Figure 4-33. Tubing Bender

4-13
SHOVELS. Use shovels to

remove soil during excavation or for
backfilling. There are a variety of shovels,
each designed for a specific application.
For example, a shovel with a flat blade is
used for spreading gravel. A shovel with a
narrow blade is used to dig a trench for
installation of small diameter piping.
See Figure 4-34.
1:
,I
,,
Figure 4-34. Shovels
PICKS. Use a pick during excavation to

loosen hard packed soil that cannot be easily
shoveled. The head of the pick has two sides; one
side is sharp and the other side is broad, like the
head ofa chisel. See Figure 4-35.
Figure 4-35. Pick

Care of Hand Tools
Use tools for their intended purpose. If you use tools improperly, they can break or slip,
and injure you. Electrical tools should be kept dry at all times. Frequently inspect electric tool
cords for fraying. While performing plumbing work, many of your tools may get wet and dirty.
After you complete the job, or at the end of each day, clean your tools and apply a light coat of
oil to all metal surfaces. Store your cleaned and oiled tools in your toolbox. Lubricate all
moving parts of the tools. Certain types of tools require periodic sharpening such as saws,
chisels, drill bits, and punches. Some digging tools also require sharpening when needed. If a
tool is defective do not continue to use it; repair it or get a new one. Always heed the
manufacturer's recommendations for the care of hand tools.
Use of Shop Equipment
Tools that are mounted to the floor, or large tools that are stored in the shop until needed in
the field, are referred to as shop equipment.

4-14
POWER THREADERS. Power pipe

threading machines actually serve several
functions. These machines will cut, ream and
thread pipe. There are numerous types, sizes
and models. Figure 4-36 shows an example. You
will be trained to operate the pipe threading
machines in your assigned workshop. There are
no shields on a threading machine.
.
F
Figure 4-36. Pipe Threading Machine

POWER AUGERS. Power augers are
electrically driven machines designed to
remove obstructions from waste piping. See
Figure 4-37. An electric motor rotates, and
feeds or retracts the cable. Multiple heads are
available for retrieving objects, breaking up
grease deposits, or cutting and removing roots.
The manufacturer's Directions must be
followed when operating this equipment.
Leather gloves with steel reinforced palms are
worn when handling the cable on a power
auger. Serious injuries could easily result from
improper use.
Material
reprodu~ed
by permla!on of Ridge Tool Company.
Figure 4-37. Power Auger
Molerlol roprodocod by potmission of Ri<lg<t Tool C~ny.
GRINDERS. This tool consists of

electrically driven grinding wheels and/or steel
brush wheels. See Figure 4-38. The grinding
wheel is most often used for sharpening tools.
The steel brush wheel is used for cleaning parts
or removing rust. Always wear safety glasses or
a face shield when using this device. Fragments
could fly from the wheel or brush and cause
personal injury. Ensure safety shields are in
place before use.
Figure 4-38. Grinder

4-15
Care of Shop Equipment
Use equipment for its intended purpose. Misuse can damage the equipment or cause injury
to the operator. Shop equipment is available through numerous manufacturers. Equipment will
vary depending upon who the manufacturer is; therefore, you should always follow the
manufacturer's directions for the recommended care of the equipment.
Condition Tags
Condition tags are attached to tools and equipment to indicate their current condition. Three
tags are available for this purpose, DD Forms 1574, 1577-2 and 1577.
DD FORM 1574 (Yellow/Serviceable). The serviceable tag is attached to equipment or
tools that are in good working order. Figure 4-39
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13 JJ,,1.4 .stv(t
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SERVICEABLE TAG .. MATERIEL
F+s:, PART NO. ANQ ITEM DESCRWrlON
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REPLACES AF FORM 608, WHICH MA'( 11 USED IH THE USAF.
IYB..LOWJ
'"'""'"''
Figure 4-39. DD Form 1574
DD FORM 1577-2 (Green/Unserviceable but Repairable). The unserviceable tag

indicates the equipment or tool is not working but can be repaired. Figure 4-40
,It
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Figure 4-40. DD Form 1577-2

4-16
DD Form 1577 (Red/Condemned). This tag tells the potential user; the equipment or tool
is not working and cannot be repaired. Figure 4-41
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Figure 4-41. DD Form 1577
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SUMMARY
As a utilities worker, you will use a variety of tools in the performance of your duties.
Use tools for their intended purpose. Improper use of a tool could damage the tool and cause
injury to the operator.
Directions: Using your study guide as a reference, answer the following questions.
1. What is the purpose of a pipe wrench?
2. Among the most commonly used hand tools, which type of pliers would allow the most
leverage?
3. Which auger would you use to remove stoppages in waste piping attached to a lavatory?
4. Which plunger is used to remove stoppages from a water closet?
5. Which hand tool is used to measure distances when installing piping systems?
6. Which hand tool is used to check vertical alignment between structural openings and pipe
fittings?
7. Which tool would you use to check for horizontal accuracy of proposed construction work?
8. Which piece of shop equipment would consist of a grinding wheel and steel brush?
4-17
9. Which hand tool is used to remove soil during excavation or for backfilling a trench?
I 0. When tasked with digging a ditch in soil that is too tightly packed to use a shovel, which tool
would you use to loosen the soil?
11. Which piece of shop equipment is used to remove stoppages from waste piping?
12. List three common types of screwdrivers that you will use in this career field.
13. List the wrenches that are suitable for tightening threaded components with flat surfaces
(such as nuts and bolts).
14. What prevents previously installed pipe or fittings from turning when you add more pipe or
fittings to your installation?
15. Which tool should you use when cutting copper tubing?
16. What is the purpose of a grinder?
17. List the colors of the three condition tags and explain their purpose.
18. How should you care for hand tools?
19. Explain how to care for shop equipment.

APPLICATION

4-18
This page intentionally blank

4-19
OBJECTIVE
b. Given a list of general procedures for maintaining tools, identify those that are true or false
with at least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
You will be issued all of the tools that are required for you to properly and safely do your
job. It is your responsibility to take care of your tools, and to maintain them in accordance with
manufacturer's Directions.
INFORMATION
General Maintenance Procedures
After you have used tools, you should ensure that they are clean, dry, and in good
condition before storing. Any tools that have been damaged to the point that they could pose a
safety hazard, or fail to operate properly, should be turned in for repair or disposal.
Some tools require periodic lubrication to ensure proper working condition. Others may
require a light coat of oil on metallic surfaces to prevent corrosion. As mentioned in the previous
objective, some tools will require additional attention such as: sharpening, filing, and replacing
components subject to excessive wear.
To avoid unnecessary frustration and wasted time, all tools should be in their proper or
designated place. This is the responsibility of everyone in a shop or workplace.
Remember, in the interest of time, safety, and conservation of government assets, you
should always follow manufacturer's directions for the recommended care and maintenance of
tools and equipment. This advice should be followed whether the tool is as simple as a
screwdriver, or a more complex tool such as a power threading machine.
SUMMARY
Keep tools clean and dry. Protect metal surfaces of hand tools with a light coat of oil.
Lubricate mechanical devices according to manufacturer's Directions.

4-20
EXERCISE: Exercise I-4b
DIRECTIONS: Using your study guide as a reference, answer the following questions.
1. After you have been issued your personal tools, you can treat them in any manner that you
wish as long as you keep track of them.
a. True
b. False
2. A damaged tool should continue to be used until it actually breaks before you replace it.
a. True
b. False
3. A light coat of oil on clean metal tools will help prevent corrosion.
a. True
b. False
4. A place for every tool, and every tool in its place.
a. True
b. False
5. Strictly following manufacturer's Directions for the recommended care and maintenance of
tools and equipment is generally not considered to be necessary.
a. True
b. False
6. Before storing a screwdriver, the craftsman needs to make sure it is clean, dry and in good
condition.
a. True
b. False
APPLICATION
You should be ready for progress check 4b. If you feel you need to review the previous

SW J8AQR3E431 OIAA-1-5
UNIT 5. Project Planning
OBJECTIVES
a. Given a building construction plan and a list of symbols and their descriptions, identify facts
about the plumbing systems with at least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
To effectively plan and complete construction work, you must have a map or guide to help
direct your activities. Construction plans are graphic illustrations that depict the system or systems
to be built. These plans are illustrated with symbols and abbreviations to efficiently communicate
the project's components and methods of assembly. From construction plans, craftsmen are able
to determine the equipment, materials, and personnel required for the construction project.
INFORMATION
PROJECT PLANNING
Standard Features of Building Construction Plans
Construction plans have some basic parts including the drawing, legend, notes and
specifications. See Figure 5-1.

30'6"
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REMARKS
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SIZE
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WINDOW SCHEDULE
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AfRFORCE ACTll.'fllC.l.TION
MEDICAL FOOD INSPECTION

FACILITY
noo11. ru.'I
5-3
DRAWING. The drawing consists of symbolic representations of the construction

project. Craftsmen familiar with the symbols used in the drawing are able to interpret the
individual components of the project and how they are joined together.
LEGEND. The legend provides an explanation of the symbols used and indicates the scale
of the drawing. A common scale for construction plans is 1/4"= I', meaning 1/4 inch on the
drawing represents I foot of actual length.
NOTES AND SPECIFICATIONS. Notes and specifications are used to communicate
more details about the construction project than can be indicated on the drawing. For example, a
blueprint indicates that a shower stall must be installed in the master bathroom. The symbol for
the shower stall is used in the drawing, but it does not tell the craftsman the make and model of the
shower unit. The make, model, and any other important information would be in the notes and
specifications of the blueprint.

5-4
Types of Building Construction Plans
PLOT PLAN. Plot Plans depict the property where construction is to take place. Boundaries
of the property are indicated, as well as the location of existing water, wastewater, and gas piping
systems. See Figure 5-2.
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Figure 5-2. Plot Plan

5-5
FOUNDATION PLAN.
The foundation plan shows the location of the proposed
structure and where the water and gas lines should enter the proposed building. The foundation
plan also shows where the waste line exits the building. See Figure 5-3.
{
'
0"
ce.uer
-,-". _'-.../
Man
J'i'+--6" Sewer Exit
II
25' O"
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-l
water service
entrance
14--0' 9"
35' O"
JD
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Nomenclature
Qualih Renuired Per Dash No
Water
rvice
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6" Water Main
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I Code ldentl Jdenmv1nn No

I MaterlallSoectficatlon
Parts List
t Unit Wt
I Zone
Ultlf$SOTIW'MISESPt:Cl'llO
U.S. AIR FORCE
-AAt:lllHOfl.lot.EIWICtSOR:
DR
SHAVERS
CHK
ENG
AlRFORCEAlJTHENTICATION
TITLE
MEDICAL FOOD INSPECT! ON

FACILITY
-~~
Figure 5-3. Foundation Plan

I rma No
5-6
ELEVATION PLAN. This type of plan shows front, side, and rear views of the structure
to indicate the height of items such as doors, windows, ceilings and roof, and other external
characteristics of the structure. This information is helpful in determining the amount of pipe
necessary for vertical piping systems. See Figure 5-4.
3" X
EAST ELEVATION
SCALE l/4" "' 1' O"
Figure 5-4. Elevation Plan

6~
DOWNSPOUT
5-7
FLOOR PLAN. A Floor Plan provides a bird's eye view of the structure. The plan
appears as if some one has lifted the roof from the structure and you're looking in from above.
This type of construction plan shows the location of fixtures and interior walls. This information
enables a plumber to install plumbing to the desired locations within the structure. See Figure 5-5.
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5-8
Symbols, Systems, Fixtures, Fittings, and Joints
PIPING SYSTEMS. Piping is indicated on construction plans with lines. Lines are
drawn differently depending on what will flow through them. Shown below are the types of lines
representing common piping systems installed by utilities specialists. See Figure 5-6
SOIL PIPE (Above Grade)
SOIL PIPE (Below Grade)
VENT
COLDWATER
HOT WATER
------
GAS LINE
___G_____G___
Figure 5-6. Piping Symbols
FIXTURES. Plumbing fixtures are indicated by symbols. Fixtures include items such as
tubs, showers, water closets (toilets), kitchen sinks, and bathroom lavatories. In Figure 5-7,
symbols are provided for conunonly used plumbing fixtures.
Water closet
Kitchen sink
Bathtub
(recessed)
Urinal
(wall hung)
11
11
Urinal
(trough)
oj
Shower
(stall)
Ir
Water
Heater
Lavatory
(wall)
Lavatory
(pedestal)
Fountain, drinking
{wall hung)
Fountain, drinking
and electric water

cooler
OF
Figure 5-7. Fixture Symbols

1QJ
EWC
5-9
FITTINGS. Fittings are primarily used to join sections of pipe. They can also be used
to branch off of a pipe in multiple directions or to change sizes of pipe at joint connections in the
piping systems. Fittings may also include valves. Valves are installed in a piping system to
control the flow ofliquids and gases. Listed below are just a few of the valves and fittings that
are available.
Fitting Terminology. To accurately label a fitting by size, you must be familiar with some
basic fitting terminology. Center means where lines of flow intersect. Run is the opening that is
in line with the fitting. A Branch is an opening that is at an angle to the run of the fitting. Face
refers to the outermost edge of a run or branch opening. When stating the size of a fitting, and all
of the openings are the same size, you only need to indicate the size with a single measurement. If
a galvanized tee has a%" opening on all three faces, it would be labeled (3/4" galvanized tee). If
the measurements are not the same size, then both openings of the run are identified frrst, and then
the branch is identified. A galvanized tee that has a run of%" and a branch ofW', would be
identified as follows; %" x %" x Yi'' galvanized tee. Figure 5-8
Run Face
Run Face
Yz"
Yi"
3,4"
3,4"
run x run x branch

3,4" x 3,4" x Yz"
3;4"
Yi"
run x run x branch

%" x Yz" x Yz"
Figure 5-8 Fitting Terminology
Common Water Fittings. Common water fittings include elbows, tees, and unions. There are
numerous other fittings available. Shown below are the most common fittings used by utilities
specialists during the installation of water distribution systems.
Figure 5-9
90 degree elbow
Elbows. Used to make 45 degree and 90 degree turns in

a piping system. Elbows are available for all types of piping.
Figure 5-9 and Figure 5-10
Figure 5-10
Symbol

5-10
Tees. Used to branch off of a pipe at a
90 degree angle. Tees are available for all types
of piping. Figure 5-11 and Figure 5-12
Figure 5-11
Tee
Figure 5-12
Symbol
Unions. (Figures 5-13 and 5-14) Installed on

a pipe to allow removal and replacement of an
installed plumbing component or piping section
without cutting the pipe. Unions are used on
galvanized steel, or black iron piping systems. These
types of pipe are generally screwed together
I I
Figure 5-13
Union
Figure 5-14
Symbol
Valves. Valves are installed in piping to control the flow of water or other substances through
the plumbing system. Many valves are available for this purpose. Shown below are just a sample
of valves used in plumbing and their corresponding symbols.
Gate Valve. Gate valves are used to stop
or allow flow of fluid through piping.
This valve is used frequently in exterior
water piping. Figures 5-15 and 5-16
Gate Valve
Figure 5-15
Gate Valve Symbol

Figure 5-16
Angle Globe Valve. These valves are normally installed underneath a fixture such as a
bathroom lavatory. The valve is used to shut off water to a single fixture during repair or
maintenance without having to tum off water to the entire building. Figures 5-17 and 5-18
Figure 5-17
Angle Globe Valve
Figure 5-18
Symbol Angle Globe Valve

5-11
Common Waste Fittings. Waste fittings change direction, reduce or increase pipe sizes at
a joint, or pennit the plumber to branch off a pipe in another direction in the same manner as
fittings in water distribution systems. Common waste fittings include bends, sanitary tees, the
combination wye, and the 1/8 bend. Bends serve the same function as elbows, they change piping
direction. Unlike elbows, bends are described in terms of fractions. For example, a 90 degree
elbow provides a right angle tum in water piping and a 1/4 bend provides a right angle tum in
waste piping. Sanitary tees serve the same function as a tee, it allows you to branch off a pipe in a
new direction. The sanitary tee is different because it has a sloping branch to guide wastewater
that is flowing by gravity from the branch line into the primary wastewater piping. Sanitary tees
are installed to carry wastewater from horizontal piping to ve1tical piping. A combination wye and
1/8 bend looks similar to a sanitary tee except that it has a longer sloping branch. This fitting is
designed to carry waste from a vertical pipe to a horizontal piping system.
Bend. Bends are available in cast iron and plastic. 1/4 and 118'h bends are frequently used in
waste piping. Figures 5-19 and 5-20
I
Figure 5-20. Symbol
Figure 5-19. 1/4 Bend
rFigure 5-21.
Sanitary Tee
Sanitary Tee. Sanitary tees are

available in cast iron and plastic. These
fittings are commonly installed in
vertical wastewater piping. Figures 5-21
and 5-22
Figure 5-22.
Symbol

5-12
)
Figure-23
Combination Wye
and 1/8 Bend
Combination Wye and 118 Bend. A combination

wye and 1/8 bend is installed in horizontal wastewater
piping to receive waste from vertical piping. The long
sweeping branch reduces the chance of obstructions as the
water makes the tum in the piping system. Figures 5-23
and 5-24
Figure-24
Symbol
Joints. Fittings and pipe must be joined together to transport liquids or gases. There are
numerous types of joints made between pipe and fittings. Types of joints include screwed joints,
soldered joints, no hub connections, and mechanical joints. These types of joints are indicated on
construction plans with symbols. Shown below are examples of pipe joints and their
corresponding symbols.
Screwed Joints. The single line shown at the connection between the fitting and pipe
indicates a screwed joint. The pipe and fitting are threaded like a nut and bolt. This joint is
normally used with galvanized steel and black iron piping. Figure 5-25
Figure 5-25. Photograph and Drawing Depicting Screwed Joints
Soldered Joints. A circle shown at the intersection between pipe and fitting indicates a
soldered joint. The pipe and fitting are heated with a torch and then metal "solder" is drawn into
the joint to form a watertight seal. Soldered joints are made on copper piping. Figure 5-26
Figure 5-26. Symbol, Photograph and Drawing Depicting Soldered Joints

5-13
No Hub Coupling. A line perpendicular to the piping with bars on either end indicates a
no hub coupling joint. The no hub coupling consists of a rubber seal surrounded by a stainless
steel band which is held in place with two hose clamps. This connection is used in wastewater
piping. Figure 5-27
I
Figure 5-27. Symbol, Photograph and Drawing Depicting No Hub Joints
Mechanical Joints. Two parallel lines of equal length indicate a mechanical joint. The
joint will consist of two metal plates that are bolted together with a rubber seal separating the metal
plates. This type of joint is commonly used in large cast iron water piping systems. Figure 5-28
--1 r-
11
Figure 5-28. Symbol, Photograph and Drawing Depicting Mechanical Joint
Use of Building Construction Plans

WFSM Specialists use construction plans to guide utilities related construction, and to
divide work activities. Supervisors use them to coordinate work performed by the various trades
and as a standard to ensure work is performed according to specifications.
SUMMARY
Construction plans communicate the parts of a construction project and how it should be
put together. There are three main parts to a construction plan; the drawing, legend, notes and
specifications. Construction plans consist of plot, foundation, elevation, and floor plans.
Locations, types, and configurations of piping, fixtures, fittings, and joints are communicated
through symbols and specifications. We use construction plans to guide our work during the
installation of plumbing systems. Our supervisors use the construction plans to ensure projects
are completed properly.

5-14
EXERCISE: Exercise Sa
I. What is the purpose of construction plans?
2. What are the three main parts of a construction plan?
3. In which part ofa construction plan would you find the scale of the drawing?
4. Which type of construction plan shows the project from a bird's eye view?
5. Which type of plan would show existing utilities on the property where construction is
to take place?
6. Which type of plan indicates where the water line should enter the proposed structure?
7. What type of line is used to indicate a cold water piping system?
8. What is the symbol used for a water closet?
9. What is the symbol for a gate valve?
10. What is the symbol for a screwed joint?
11. When referring to the size of openings in a fitting, in what sequence are the
measurements expressed?
APPLICATION

5-15
OBJECTIVE
b. Given a picture ofa section of piping and a list of symbols and explanations, prepare a
working drawing of the system. No more than three instructor assists allowed.
INTRODUCTION
The plumber creates working drawings after interpreting the construction plans. By
creating working drawings, the plumber can isolate one system from the others represented on
the original plans. Working drawings are simplified versions of construction plans that are
generally easier to use during the construction of plumbing systems. The symbols that are used
in developing construction plans are also used to make working drawings.
INFORMATION
Types of Working Drawings
There are three common types of working drawings; each represents the systems to be
installed from different perspectives. The types of working drawings are top view, side view and
isometric.
..
/'~~
TOP VIEW. This type of working drawing shows systems that are to be installed as seen
from a bird's eye view (top view). A WFSM Specialist creates this type of drawing by referring to
the floor plan. Lines and symbols are used to illustrate the system, fixtures, fittings, and methods
of assembly. Top view working drawings are especially helpful for calculating horizontal lengths
of pipe required by the construction plan. See Figure 5-29.
Gas
\Vaier -
----Hot
-----------Cold
Wall
; "'ater ~
He:aterl.
"
2 ' 1"
See Figure 5-29. Top View Working Drawing

5-16
SIDE VIEW. A side view working drawing is developed using a combination of the floor plans,
elevation plans, and manufacturer's specifications for individual fixtures. Once again, lines and
symbols are used to represent systems, fixtures, fittings, and methods of assembly. This working
drawing provides the vertical lengths of piping required during construction. See Figure 5-30.
ROOF
I...
::o
4" ASBESTOS FLUE PIPE
CEILING
I Water
: Heater
Grade
"5!$
.I....
=..
q;+j)i
tp
Figure 5-30. Side View Working Drawing
ISOMETRIC. An isometric working drawing is developed from the floor plans and
elevation plans. This drawing provides a three dimensional representation of the plumbing to be
installed. Like the previous types of drawings, lines and symbols are used for piping, fittings, and
methods of assembly. An isometric drawing provides both horizontal and vertical lengths. This
type of drawing most closely resembles the actual plumbing system. We'll use isometric working
drawings for several plumbing projects dming this course. See Figure 5-31.

5-17
Figure 5-31. Isometric Working Drawing
PURPOSE OF A WORKING DRAWING

Working drawings are used to develop a bill of materials (list of supplies) prior to the job and
as a simplified work guide on the constmction site. Accurate working drawings and bills of
materials are essential for timely and accurate completion of the job. These documents are also
helpful when dividing work among crews during a large constmction project.
PREPARING A WORKING DRAWING

To create a working drawing requires examination of the constmction plans, knowledge of
symbols and the ability to visualize the completed system. Since this is probably your first
experience creating a working drawing, you will be given a picture of a section of piping (Figure
5-32) and a list of symbols and their explanations to use as a reference. See Figure 5-32.
r:
HB
---L--111--~
Figure 5-32. Photograph of Piping Section and a Line & Symbol Working Drawing
SUMMARY
Working drawings are simplified sketches of the construction plans. These drawings are
interpretations of the constmction plans made by the plumber who will be installing the system.
Symbols used in constmction plans are also used when creating working drawings. There are
three types of working drawings; top view, side view, and isometric. Working drawings are used
to develop a bill of materials (list of supplies) prior to the job and as a simplified work guide on
/"""'"-

5-18
the construction site. To create a working drawing, the craftsman studies the construction plans,
visualizes the completed work, and draws the plumbing system using lines and symbols.
EXERCISE: Exercise I-Sb

Directions: Match the information about drawings in Column A with the statements in Column B.
Statements in Column B may be used more than once or not at all. You may use you Study Guide.
Column A
1. Plumber
ColumuB
Can be developed with the use of the
working drawings
2. Bill of materials
The type of working drawing that

represents a three dimensional view of the
systems to be installed
3. Isometric
Simplified versions of construction plans

that are generally easier to use during the
construction of plumbing systems
4. Working Drawings
Shows systems that are to be installed

as seen from a bird's eye view
5. Top View
Creates the working drawings

of plumbing systems
APPLICATION
You should be ready for progress check 5b. If you feel you need to review the previous

5-19
OBJECTIVE
c. Given a working drawing and prepare a bill of materials and an AF Form 103 Work
Clearance Request. No more than one instructor assist allowed. Entries on the completed
documents must be at least 70% accurate
INTRODUCTION
Paper work is a necessary evil for completing maintenance work within the WFSM
career field. The following section will help you better understand the importance of some of that
paperwork.
INFORMATION
Information Listed in a Bill of Materials (BOM)
A bill of materials is a list ofsupplies that is required to complete a plumbing project. The
bill of materials should include the description of the part, part number, quantity, size, and the cost
of each item See Figure 5-32.
ITEM
1
DESCRIPTION
Valve, Gate Brass with wedge
disc, 100 pound
pressure
Valve, Gate Brass with wedge
disc, 100 pound
pressure
PARTNR
Crane.410 or
Equal
QUANTITY
6
SIZE
3/4"
COST
4.10 each
Crane 410 or
Equal
11/4"
6.60 each
Coupling, Pipe
reducer,
galvanized, 125
pound pressure
FSN 4730277-2774
12
3/4" x
112"
11 each
Figure 5-32. Bill of Materials

Purpose
The WFSM specialist creates a bill of materials before the project begins. With a
completed bill of materials the utilities specialist can gather construction materials and supplies
prior to going to the job site. If the list is complete and accurate, you save time that might
otherwise be spent going after parts or materials during the project.

5-20
Procedures for Preparing a Bill of Materials

(1) Locate a bill of materials form or create a form with at least 5 columns.
(2) Examine the working drawing.
(3) Make a list indicating each type of fitting, fixture or piping material to include size and
quantity.
(4) Make an entry on the form for each type of item needed (as a minimum, include a
description, quantity and size for each entry).
( 5) Verify your work using the working drawing.
Work Clearance Request

Installation and repair of buried pipe is a common task in the WFSM (water and fuel
systems) career field. Before digging, it is very important to know ifthere are other underground
utilities in the vicinity. Utility services such as water, gas or electrical lines in the area of the
proposed excavation must be uncovered carefully. The results of accidentally cutting buried
utilities (such as gas, electrical or communication lines) could cost thousands of dollars and may
result in injury or death. Therefore, before any excavation work can begin, you must obtain
permission to excavate from the local approving authority (the local approving authority will be
the Base Civil Engineer (BCE) -Air Force; Director of Public Works (DPW) - Army; Resident
Officer In Charge of Construction (ROICC) - Navy. See figure 5-34 for a sample of a Ft. Hood,
Coordination for Land Excavation & Water Use.
Identification of existing utilities at the proposed excavation site and identification of
safety hazards are accomplished by obtaining a Work Clearance Request (usually referred to
as a digging permit) through the approving authority at your military installation. See figure 53 5 for a copy of an AF IMT 103, Base Civil Engineering Work Clearance Request.

5-21
('
COORD~ATION FOR L..\1\1> E~CAY_-\TI01' &
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Figure 5-34. Coordination for Land Excavation & Water Use
(\
5-22
loate Prepared
BASE CIVIL ENGINEER WORK CLEARANCE REQUEST

(Stt At11ehed lns!tuc~.ms J
1. Clear:n>Ce Is req11n1ed to pre<:ced wiU>worl<.31
on Wofk Otder No.
involving e~~w.llon or llli!ity diturhanee p<!r
Contr:ic!No.
ONE CALL
attached skcLch. This 3rea
D"'D
h:ls not been sl.1ked or clearly m;ir!ied.
DATE:
TIME:
2. TYPE OF FACll.JTYM'OOK INVOLVED
IA. PAVEMENTS
I
I
I
S. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
lo. FIRE DETECTION & PROTECTION SYSTEMS

I
IE. UTILITY
IOVERHEAD
IOVERHEAD
IF. COMM
UNDERGROUND
I
I
I
IG. MRCRAFT OR VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW

IH. SECURITY
Ii.
3, DATECLEARANCEREOUlRED
UNDERGROUND
OTHER
4. DATE OF CLEARANCE TERY.INATION
S. SIGNATURE OF REQUESTING OFFICIAL
6. TELEPHONE NO.
C. RAILROAD TRACKS
'
A. ELECTRICAL OISTRlSUT!ON
B
A
B. STEM! OlSTRIBUTION
C. WATER DISTR!6UTfON
ELECTRIC IN AREA CALI. 3743 3 DAYS PRIOR TO DIG TO
SCHEDULE LOCATE
UTIUTIESINAREACALL279Z30AYSP~
SCHEDULE LOCATE. POC: SHARP/REGE
G
INFR~TURE
D. POL DJSTftl6UTION
ORGAAlZATION
REVIEWER'S NAME ANO INTIALS
HlTEMP IN AREA CA.LL 3302 TO SCHEDULE LOCATE
KS rUs<: Revers"e fer 3ddili<Jt111 CQmll!"'1/sJ
ORGANIZATION
E. SEVIER DISTRlBUTJON
'
----------
F. ENVIRONMENTAL I HISTORICAL
OK
G. PAVEMENTS/GROUNDS
JOHN WRIGHT IN BLOG 321
G
H. FIRE PflOTECTION
I
CALL 3175 PRIOR TO BLOCKING ANY ROADWAYS
N
I. CATHOOIC PROTECTION
E
E
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9. SECURITY POl..lCE
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SECURITY FORCES
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16. REQUESTED CL&JW.ICE
DAPPROVED
DDISAPPROVEO
17. TYPED NAME NID SIGNATURE OF APPROVING OFFICER (Chief cl Q;ar.l!lons Flight or Chief of Eng<n~ng Fl;ghl)
AF IMT 103, 19940801, VJ
PREVIOUS EDITIONS llRlt OBSOLETE.
17.DATESIGNIOD
OVERPRINT 90 CESICEOC103
Figure 5-35. AF IMT 103, Base Civil Engineering Work Clearance Request.

5-23
SUMMARY
A bill of materials is a list of the supplies required to complete a plumbing project. It
should list the description of the part, part number, quantity, size, and the cost of each item. Using
the bill of materials, we can gather construction materials and supplies prior to going to the job
site. If completed correctly, this document saves time that might be spent going after parts or
materials during the project. To create a bill of materials,(!) locate a form or create one, (2)
examine the working drawing, (3) make a list of each type of fitting, fixture, or piping material to
include size and quantity, (4) make entries on the form for each type of item needed (as a
minimum, include a description, quantity, and size for each entty), (5) verify your work using the
working drawing.
EXERCISE: Exercise I-Sc

I. The pUipose of developing a bill of materials is to gather _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

prior to going to the job site
2. A bill of materials should include a description, part number,

item required for the plumbing portion of a construction job
size, and cost of each
3. Before any excavation work can begin, you must obtain permission to excavate from the local
4. The
creates the bill of materials.
5. What are the steps for creating a bill of materials?
APPLICATION
You should be ready for progress check Sc. If you feel you need to review the previous


OBJECTIVES
a. Given a list of mathematical rules and principles and identify basic facts with at least 70%
accuracy.
b. Given pipe measurement problems and a list of formulas, solve the problems with at least 70%
accuracy. Two instructor assists are permitted.
c. Given a list of statements pertaining to safety when digging and working in excavations,
identify procedures with at least 70% accuracy.
d. Without reference, name parts, tools, and simple facts about drain excavations with at least
70% accuracy.
e. Given procedures, equipment, materials, and working as a member of a team, grade a 25-foot
trench and sewer pipe at a slope of 1/4" per foot. A tolerance of 1/2" is pennitted.
f Given statements or questions pertaining to the backfilling of trenches, complete the
statements and answer the questions with at least 70% accuracy.
/~~

6-2
OBJECTIVE
a. Given a list of mathematical rnles and principles and identify basic facts with at least 70%
accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Utilities Specialists must be able to perform various mathematical tasks to effectively
install plumbing systems. During this lesson, we will address some basic math skills. Necessary
math skills include the knowledge of the order in which mathematical equations must be solved,
decimal rnles, how to round off numbers, and the rnles when working with fractions.
INFORMATION
MATHEMATICAL RULES AND PRINCIPLES

Basic Math Rules
In order to perform mathematical calculations that
involve more than one type of function (parenthesis,
exponents, multiplication, division, addition, subtraction) you
must perform the calculations in a specific order. Equations
must be completed in the order indicated below: See sample
problem in Figure 6-1.
Example:
2 + (4 +I) x 2 2 - 8 + 4=
2+5x22 -8+4=
u
u
2+5x4-8+4=
PARENTHESIS
EXPONENTS
MULTIPLICATION
DIVISION
ADDITION
SUBTRACTION
Note: Exponents indicate the

number of times you should
multiply a number times itself.
Example:
2 + 20- 8 +4 =
2 + 20- 2 =
22 =2 x 2
23 = 2 x 2 x 2
22-2=
20
Figure 6-1.
Basic Math Law
Decimal RULES
ADDING DECIMALS. When adding decimal values,
it is important to align the decimals before you add the
numbers together. See Figure 6-2.
12.345
+ 4. 3 2
1 6. 6 6 5
Figure 6-2
Adding Decimals

6-3
SUBTRACTING DECIMALS. When subtracting decimal
values, the same rule applies, "ALIGN THE DECIMALS". Then,
subtract as you would with whole numbers. Ensure you place the
decimal in the difference (solution) in line with the decimals in the
equation.
See the example in Figure 6-3.
421.050
20.013
401.037
Figure 6-3.
Subtracting Decimals
First, Multiply as if they're Whole Numbers
MULTILPYING DECIMALS.
2 5 0 . 0 (I Digit Past Decimal)

x . 1 0 (2 Digits Past Decimal)
0000
25000
25000
To multiply decimals:
Then, Move Decimal to Left in Product

(1 digit +2 digits= 3 digits)
2500!1.,
.J\_.AY
1. Multiply as if the numerical values

are whole numbers, and then count
the digits to the right of the decimal
in all the values being multiplied.
2. Add the number of digits to right of
the decimal in the multiplier and
multiplicand.
l"_ .
Solution = 2 5 . 0 0 0
3. Move the decimal in the product the same

total number of digits to the left
to determine the solution.
Figure 6-4. Multiplying Decimals
DIVIDING DECIMALS.
To divide decimal values:
I.
2.
3.
Move the decimal in the divisor to the right

to make it a whole number.
D. !2 j 2400Q.
<!<!,?, f2400Qv'-"
Move the decimal in the dividend the same

number of spaces to the right.
Add zeros if necessary.
12.1~24-00-00-0.
Divide as if working with whole numbers to

determine the quotient. See example
in Figure 6-5
200000.
12.J2400000.
Figure 6-5.
Dividing Fractions
6-4
Rounding Rules
We expect you to produce quality products and services as utilities specialists. However,
extremely precise measurements are not normally required during the installation or repair of
water, wastewater or gas piping systems. For that reason, it is normally acceptable to round off
decimal values to the nearest hundredth. When working with decimals, if the number indicated
in the thousandth place (third place to the right of the decimal) is 5 or higher, round up to the
nearest hundredth. For example, 18. 75.!! would be rounded up to 18. 76. If the number in the
thousandth place is less than 5, eliminate it and eve1ything to the right of that digit ( 9.832_12
would be rounded to 9.83).
Fraction Rnles
ADDING FRACTIONS. When adding fractions, follow the procedure indicated
below:
Determine the lowest common

denominator
Convert fractions to like

denominators
Add numerators to determine the

numerator of the sum
Do not add denominators
Reduce the sum to it's lowest terms
Example Problem
2/6 + 8/12 =
Lowest Common Denominator of 6 and 12 is 12
Convert 2/6 to ?/12: 2/6 x 212 = 4/12

Convert 8/12 to ?/12: No Conversion Necessary
Add
Numerator to Numerator
to determine sum
4/12 + 8/12 = 12/12
Reduce Sum to Lowest Terms
12/12=1

6-5
Example Problem
SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS. When subtracting
fractions, follow the procedure indicated below:
Determine the Lowest Common Denominator
Convert Fractions to Like Denominators
Subtract Numerators to Determine the Numerator of the

Difference
Reduce the Difference to it's Lowest Terms
2/3- 2/9 =
Lowest Common Denominator of
3and9is9
Convert 2/3 to ?/9: 2/3 x 3/3 = 619
Convert 2/9 to ?19
No Conversion Necessary
Subtract
Numerator from Numerator
to determine the difference (solution)
619 - 2/9 = 4/9

Reduce Difference to Lowest Terms
No Reduction Reguired
Difference = 4/9
MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS. To multiply fractions, the numerators are multiplied
straight across to determine the numerator of the product. The denominators are also multiplied
straight across to determine the denominator of the product. The product should then be reduced
to its lowest tenns See the example below.
Multiplication
Problem
3
4
4
x -5
Multiply
Straight Across
3:::::>
--
4:::::>
Reduce to
Lowest Terms
x -
=
5
12
20

=
4
6-6
DIVIDING FRACTIONS. To divide fractions, invert the second fraction in the division
problem (divisor), then multiply the fractions straight across, and reduce the product to its lowest
terms. See the example below.
EXAMPLE: Division Problem
Invert Divisor and Multiply Product
Reduce Product to Lowest Terms
10
1
SUMMARY
Utilities personnel will routinely use mathematical skills to install and maintain water,
wastewater, and gas piping systems. To accomplish this goal, you must know and practice some
basic math skills. These skills include (1) using the proper sequence of steps when solving basic
math problems involving more than one function, (2) adding, subtracting, multiplying and
dividing decimals, (3) rounding decimals to the nearest hundredth, ( 4) adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing fractions.
EXERCISE: Exercise l-6a

Directions: Using your study guide as a reference, solve the following problems. Show all of
your work.
1. 26 + 11 + 1 + (2 x 2) - 22 =
2. 1.23 + .015 =
3. 243.15-3.12=

6-7
4 . .44 x 12 =
5. 1.44 .,. 1.2 =
6. Round 123.456 to the nearest hundredth
7.
+
4
8.
9.
1
x
10.
APPLICATION

6-8
OBJECTIVE
b. Given pipe measurement problems and a list of formulas, solve the problems with at least
70% accuracy. Two instructor assists are permitted.
INTRODUCTION
Mathematical principles must be applied in order to effectively measure, cut and install
piping in a plumbing system. Numerous measurements can be significant during these
calculations, such as, pipe and fitting dimensions. Before any pipe or fitting measurements can
be made, and before any mathematical calculations can be perfonned, you must first learn to
read a tape measure.
INFORMATION
PIPE MEASUREMENT
Reading a Tape Measure
Tape measures are used to measure lengths of

construction materials and to perform other linear
measurements associated with construction activities.
Lengths of objects are determined by comparing the
reference lines on the tape to the length of the object
being measured. Reference lines used to indicate
length on the tape are perpendicular to its length. See
Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6. Tape

Measure.
Each individual reference mark on the tape shown

indicates a I /16" oflength. The length of the reference marks
increase to indicate larger units of measure such as 1/8", 1/4",
3/8", 1/2", 5/8", 3/4", 7/8" and!". See Figure 6-7.
.,.
I tI
I
+
.!.
'
+ .. +
'
. .
L
'
"MODERN PLUMBING"/GoodheartWillcox
.,.'
Figure 6-8. Measuring Lengths with a Tape Measure
*
St00,~088
Figure 6-7. Reference

Lines
In Figure 6 -8, the object at the top measures 4 and 1/2

niches in length. At the bottom of the same figure, the object
measures 2 and 3/4 inches in length.

6-9
Pipe Characteristics
GALVANIZED STEEL AND BLACK IRON. Galvanized steel and black iron piping
is most often assembled using threaded joints. Galvanized steel pipe is used to distribute water
and black iron pipe is used to distribute natural gas. Since the pipe and fittings are threaded
together, a portion of the pipe length is threaded into the fitting (thread engagement) during
assembly. For this reason, measurements and pipe calculations must take into account the length
of the thread engagement.
COPPER TUBING. Copper tubing and fittings are generally soldered together. Solder
joints are made by heating the copper tubing and fitting with a torch while melting a metal alloy
that is drawn into the space between the tubing and fitting to form a water tight seal. A portion
of the copper tubing is inserted into the fitting before soldering, which takes away from the
length of the overall assembly. The length of tubing that is lost in the assembly is called pipe
engagement. Pipe engagement must be included in the mathematical calculations associated
with copper tubing assembly.
PLASTIC. Plastic piping is commonly solvent cemented (glued) together using a liquid
primer and solvent cement that glues the pipe and fittings together. When connecting fittings in
plastic piping systems, a po1tion of the pipe is inserted in the fitting, which takes away from the
overall length of the assembly. Again, pipe engagement between pipe and fittings must be
included in the mathematical calculations associated with plastic pipe assembly.
FITTING TERMINOLOGY. To make piping
system measurements and calculations, you must be
familiar with some additional fitting tenninology.
Remember, as mentioned in an earlier segment,
CENTER means where lines of flow intersect. RUN is
the opening that is in line with the fitting. BRANCHES
are openings that are at an angle to the run of the fitting.
FACE refers to the outer most edge of a run or branch
opening. See Figure 6-9 .
Cenier
R=
Opnin< I
...,.
Fue
Figure 6-9. Fitting Tenninology

6-10
Thread
Engagement
I
I
Thread Engagement. When performing

calculations with threaded fittings, the length of pipe
that threads into the fitting (thread engagement) is
important. Thread engagement contributes to the
overall length of the assembled piping system. See
Figure 6-10.
Figure 6-10. Thread Engagement.
PIPE TERMINOLOGY. To measure, mark, and cut pipe for assembly in a plumbing
system, utilities personnel must determine the length of pipe required to make joints with fittings
that achieve the desired face to face distance between fittings. This length is referred to as an
end to end measurement. There are other types of measurements performed during plumbing
system assembly, yet eventually, end to end pipe measurements must be determined in order to
cut the pipe to proper length. See Figure 6-11 .
I
I
End to End
I
1
PipeMeasureme~
Figure 6-11. End to End Measurement
Calculating Threaded Pipe Lengths

6-11
When performing measurements for the installation of threaded pipe and fittings, you
must allow for the thread engagement of the components. Measuring the distance between the
fittings and then adding the thread engagement for each joint is necessary to determine the
correct end to end measurement of the pipe. See Figure 6-12.
1
~
Desired Location of 1
Next Fittin;
:
~~
~8
Face to Face
Thread
Engagement
Thread
ncagement
Formula:
End to End Pipe Measurement - Face to Face Measurement+ Thread ncagement x 2
Figure 6-12. Calculating Threaded Pipe Lengths
Calculating Soldered/Solvent Cemented Pipe Lengths

When performing measurements for the installation of copper or plastic pipe and fittings,
you must allow for the pipe engagement of the components. Measuring the distance between the
fittings and then adding the pipe engagement for each joint is required to determine the end to
end measurement of the pipe. See Figure 6-13.
Calculatin& Copper/Plastic Pipe Leniith
Desired Location of Next Fittin&
Face to Face
14'
Measw-eme~
~LJ__LJ
Existin11: Pipina:
Length of Pipe (End to End) =Face to Face +Pipe En&a&ement x 2
Figure 6-13. Calculating Soldered/Solvent Cemented Pipe Length
Calculating Slope for Waste Piping

6-12
WASTE PIPING SLOPED FOR GRAVITY FLOW. Wastewater piping receives water
discharged through plumbing fixtures such as water closets, urinals, lavatories, showers and
sinks, and then transports the collected wastewater to a treatment plant. The horizontal piping in
a waste system is installed at a slight slope so that the wastewater will flow due to the force of
gravity.
BURIED WASTE PIPE. As utilities personnel, you will install waste piping in structures
and in exterior waste water collection systems. Much of the horizontal piping that you install
will be below ground in a trench. You will have to grade (slope) the bottom of the trench by
manipulating the dirt or gravel in the floor of the excavation. After sloping the trench, the piping
will be installed. While laying the pipe, you will continuously check the grade to ensure you
have not altered the desired slope.
SLOPE TRENCH AND INSTALL PIPE BELOW FROST LINE. Most of the piping
you will install will be sloped at 1/4 inch per foot. You will have to perform some mathematical
calculations to achieve this grade during the installation. For example, you have been tasked
with installing 100 feet of pipe at a slope of 1/4 inch per foot. Before installing the pipe, you
must dig a trench and slope the floor of the excavation to the desired grade. One end of the
trench must be deeper than the other. The depth of the shallowest end of the trench will be
determined by the frost line (max. depth to which the soil freezes)*. The depth of the deepest
end of the trench is relative to the desired slope or grade, the frost line and the length of the
trench. See Figure 6-14.
*Note: Depth of the frost line varies with geo ra hie location.
100 foot long trench for
installing waste piping
Shallow End
2' deep
D~EM
?feet deep
(2' +? =)
Desired Slope = 1/4 inch per fool
Formula: Length (in feet) X Desired Slope (in Fractions of an Inch) =Additional Depth
at Deep End
Figure 6-14. Calculating Slope for Waste Piping
Application offormnla in Figure 6-14:

6-13
Length (In Feet) x Desired Slope (In Fraction of an Inch)= Additional Depth (in Inches)
100'
W'
100/4
25"
Depth of Shallow End+ Additional Depth= Depth of Deep End

2'
+
25"
=
24" + 25" =
49" = 4' 1"
On construction plans, the desired grade of waste pipe may be represented in degrees
instead of inches per foot. If this is the case, here are the conversions to assist you in your
calculations.
.5 = 1116" per foot
1.0 = 118" per foot
2.0 = 114" per foot
SUMMARY
Utilities personnel must be able to read a tape measure to install piping systems.
Knowledge of pipe and fittings, and the characteristics or terms associated with these
components is necessary to perform mathematical calculations for the installation of piping.
When calculating end to end measurements for threaded pipe assemblies, the utilities specialist
must allow for thread engagement between the pipe and fitting. Also, when calculating end to
end measurements for soldered or solvent cemented pipe, you must allow for pipe engagement.
Trenches and piping systems installed for the transport of wastewater must be correctly graded.
To detennine the criteria for creating a trench and installing pipe at the correct grade, you must
perform some mathematical calculations.
Directions: Using the rules and formulas provided in the study guide, solve the following
problems.
1. In the tape measure illustration below, what is the length of the thick line above the tape?
2. In the tape measure illustration below, what is the length of the thick line above the tape?

6-14
3. When performing mathematical calculations for threaded pipe assembly, the end to end pipe
measurement must include
engagement.
4. When performing mathematical calculations for so ldered pipe assembly, the end to end pipe
measurement must include
engagement.
5. When insta lling threaded pipe, the face to face measurement between fittings is 36". The
thread engagement is 1/2". What is the end to end measurement for the length of pipe required
for the installation?
Face
Face
~"v~---~
t
\
Thread Engagement 112"
End to End Pipe Measuzement=?
\\\\j
Formula:
End to End =Face to Face Measuzement + Thread Engagement x 2

6-15
6. When installing so ldered pipe, the face to face measurement between fittings is 40". The pipe
engagement is 1/2". What is the end to end measurement for the length of pipe required for the
installation?
II
40"
. .
I
I
Face:
Face
I:
t
\
Pipe Eng"'manl 112"
End lo End Pi.11.1 Musunme11I=?
FormiU:
End lo End Face lo Face MeUW"tmenl + Pipe Eng"menl x 2
('
7. You are preparing a trench for the installation of waste water pipe. The shallowest end of the
trench will be 3 foot deep. The trench is 50 feet long. The desired s lope is 1/4" per foot. What
is correct depth at the deepest end of the trench?
50 feet
Desired Slope= 1/4" per foot
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 6b. If you feel you need to review the
previous instruction, do so now.
"

6-16
OBJECTIVE
c. Given a list of statements pertaining to safety when digging and working in excavations,
identify procedures with at least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Most of the piping systems in use today are underground. Therefore, many of the tasks
that you encounter will require you to excavate in various types of soil. You may think digging a
trench simply means using a pick and shovel, but that is not the case. There are specific
procedures that you must follow. During this objective, we will address excavations as they
pertain to the installation of buried pipe, with an emphasis on safety considerations.
INFORMATION
EXCAVATION SAFETY
Digging Procedures
PERMISSION TO EXCAVATE. Installation and repair of buried pipe is a common
task in the utilities career field. Before digging, it is very important to know if there are other
underground utilities in the vicinity. Utility services such as water, gas or electrical lines in the
area of the proposed excavation must be uncovered carefully. The results of accidentally cutting
buried utilities (such as gas, electrical or communication lines) could cost thousands of dollars
and may result in injury or death. Therefore, before any excavation work can begin, you must
obtain permission to excavate from the local approving authority (the local approving authority
will be the Base Civil Engineer (BCE) -Air Force; Director of Public Works (DPW) -Army;
Resident Officer In Charge of Construction (ROICC) - Navy. Identification of existing utilities
at the proposed excavation site and identification of safety hazards are accomplished by
obtaining a Digging Permit through the approving authority at your military installation.
NOTE: Never excavate until the digging permit is completed and signed by the
appropriate authorities!
PROCEDURES. Earth moving equipment (such as backhoes and front end loaders)
should be used to dig large trenches for pipe installation. For smaller excavations picks and
shovels are used. Common sense will be the guide when deciding whether trenches are created
with hand tools or with heavy equipment. Regardless of the tools or equipment used, always
place the material removed from the excavation (soil) at least 24 inches away from the edge of
the open trench. Moving soil 24 inches away from the trench ensures that dirt, rock and debris
does not fall back into the trench during excavation. Separate all loose boulders, stumps, and
other debris from the soil removed from the trench and haul it away from the work site.

6-17
NOTE: To protect vehicle and pedestrian traffic, you may be required to place barricades,
warning signs or other protective devices at excavation sites. These safety devices are very
important in base housing areas, playgrounds and heavily populated areas.
Shoring and Safety Practices

PREVENT CAVE-INS. The purpose of shoring is to prevent cave-ins. Cave-ins have
claimed the lives of many workers who either neglected to shore the walls of trenches they were
working in or did not shore them properly.
INSTALLATION OF SHORING. Figure 6-15 shows a view ofa properly shored
trench. Strong materials such as 3/4" exterior plywood sheets or 2" x 6" boards are placed
vertically against the trench walls to form an inner wall. Fasten 2" x 4" strips of lumber
horizontally along the walls near the top, bottom, and in the middle to provide a firm base for
shoring jacks. Ifjacks are not available, doubled 2" x 4" cross braces can be used to prevent the
walls from collapsing. The shoring jacks extend across the trench between the 2" x 4" strips
which forces the inner wall against the excavated walls. Although shoring jacks may interfere
with construction worker's movements, their proper installation may prevent injuries or save
lives.
2" x
vertical
planking
earth
sere':' type
shoring
::.::':lJj~JIMJi
. ~.._.~..,~
jack
2 x 4 11
horizontal
bracing
Figure 6-15. End View of Shored Trench

6-18
SHORING AND EXCAVATION SAFETY. You must shore a trench ifthe excavation
reaches a depth of 5 feet and you are working in stable soil such as hard packed clay. However,
when working in loose or sandy soil, shoring must be installed when a depth of 4 feet is reached.
Alternate the placement of access ladders on each side of the trench at intervals of 50 feet
or less. All ladders must extend at least 36 inches above the excavated trench. Ladders provide
a very convenient and safe way to enter and exit trenches.
Inspect bracing and shoring frequently, particularly after heavy rains. Repair any
suspected or obvious failures inunediately. Cross braces or shoring jacks should be securely
fastened in place by some satisfactory means to prevent the walls from collapsing due to ground
movement or shifting.
AN ALTERNATIVE TO SHORING. Another simple method used to overcome the

hazard of cave-ins is to dig the trench walls with steps or shelves. This method of cave-in
protection results in a much wider trench. Use of steps or shelves is performed most often in
sandy soils where the soil shifts too easily to maintain shoring, or when shoring materials are not
available. When using this method, exposed rock and debris should be removed to prevent them
from dislodging and rolling into the trench.
NOTE: When removing shoring jacks, always start from the bottom and work up.
SUMMARY
Excavations are an inherent part of installing and maintaining buried piping systems.
Before excavations are performed, it is essential to process a digging permit. Digging permits
are used to identify existing utilities and hazards that may be encountered during the excavation.
Excavations can be accomplished with hand tools or heavy equipment. During the excavation,
soil should be placed 24" away from the edge of the trench. Shoring is installed in a trench to
prevent cave-ins. In sandy soil, steps may be created on the walls of the trench as a substitute for
shoring. Ladders should be spaced throughout the trench for entry and exit of utilities workers.
Open trenches should be ban-icaded and marked to prevent accidents involving vehicle or
pedestrian traffic.

6-19
EXERCISE: Exercise I-6c
1. Which form should be obtained and processed before digging an excavation?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Equipment Operator Clearance Request

Utilities Identification Request
Safety Clearance Permit
Digging Permit
2. If shoring materials are not available, what can be accomplished to reduce the risk of
cave-ins?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Cordon off the area

Use steps or shelves
Have an excavator on site
Do not attempt to accomplish the evacuation
3. Ladders are placed _ _ feet apart in order to provide a convenient and safe way to
enter and exit trenches.
4. You must shore a trench ifthe excavation reaches a depth of
working in stable soil such as hard packed clay.
5.
feet and you are
will be the guide when deciding whether trenches are

created with hand tools or with heavy equipment.
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 6c. If you feel you need to review
some the previous instruction, do so.

6-20
Blank Page

6-21
'"~-
OBJECTIVE
d. Without reference, name parts, tools, and simple facts about drain excavations with at least
70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we covered the procedures for excavation and the associated safety
procedures for doing the task. In this objective we will look at the procedures for removing
liquids from excavations.
INFORMATION
Drain Excavation
Leaks from improperly installed or damaged piping can saturate the soil surrounding the
system. Rain can also saturate soil at the excavation site. Either of these conditions can result in
standing water inside the excavation. Standing water may prevent repair or installation of the
pipe, and it prohibits visual inspection of the pipe for leaks. Additionally, standing water will
not allow compaction of the soil during backfilling. For these reasons, it may be necessary to
drain the open pit or trench periodically.
Pail or Bucket
One method for removing the water is by using a pail or bucket.
Trench/ Slopping
A second method is digging a small trench to drain water away naturally. This method is
useful if the water can be safely drained away from the excavation site.
Pumps
The third method to consider when time is critical and you are dealing with a large
volume of water is using some type of pump. When using a pump to remove the water, you need
to dig a sump for the pump or suction line to go into. The sump will allow you to remove all the
water in the excavation. If you are not using a diaphragm type pump, then you should use a
plastic bucket to set the pump into. The bucket will allow you to pump all the water out without
clogging the pump with mud and rocks.
A diaphragm pump is commonly referred to as a mud hog. These pumps are especially
suited to this task because oftheir design. A rubber diaphragm separates the mechanical paits of
the pump from the mud and small rocks that are passing through the suction chamber.
Centrifugal pumps are also used to remove water from excavations. They are normally used
when there is a large amount of water to be removed.
Do not place the intake hose of a centrifugal pump all the way to the bottom of the excavation
because it could pick up mud and small rocks that could damage this type of pump.
Nature
The last option which is seldom used is to allow the water to absorb into the soil or
evaporate during high sunny heat. The last method is only use if time is not c1itical and the
water in the excavation has shown signs of slow absorption. For example the trench is filled
with water from a. quick rain down pour.
SUMMARY

6-22
Drain excavation is a normal occmTence in the world ofWFMS. Often times we cannot
wait for the dry season to do our work. Since Mother Nature is somewhat unpredictable we must
be prepared for all contingencies.
EXERCISE: Exercise l-6d

1. Why should standing water be drained from an excavation?
2. Which types of pumps are used to drain an excavation?
3. Which method of drain excavation involves the use of pails or buckets?
4. Which method of drain excavation involves digging a small trench to drain water away from
the excavation site naturally?
5. Which method of drain excavation should be considered when time is critical and you are
dealing with large volumes of water?
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 6d. If you feel you need to review
some the previous instruction, do so.

6-23
OBJECTIVE
e. Given procedures, equipment, materials, and working as a member ofa team, grade a 25-foot
trench and sewer pipe at a slope of 1/4" per foot. A tolerance of 112" is permitted.
INTRODUCTION
Sewer or waste piping collects wastewater from plumbing fixtures (such as water closets,
urinals, sinks, and tubs) and transports the wastewater through buried piping systems that
eventually delivers the wastewater to a treatment plant. Much of this sewer piping is buried
below the frost line (depth at which the soil freezes). The buried piping is installed at a slope to
allow gravity flow of the wastewater through the piping system. To install sloped waste piping,
you must first grade the floor of the trench. In this lesson, we will address the procedures for
creating sloped trenches.
INFORMATION
GRADING TRENCHES AND SEWER PIPE

Proper grading of a trench for drain pipe installation is necessary to keep one end of the
pipe lower than the other so wastewater will flow freely (gravity flow) in the desired direction.
To determine the location of the proposed trench, you should refer to the construction plans. The
shallow end of the trench will be the inlet end of the proposed piping. The inlet end of the trench
should be deep enough to allow installation of the pipe below the frost line. From the shallow
end of the trench, you must dig the ditch gradually deeper towards the outlet end. The grade
created should correspond with the desired slope of the installed piping.
Waste pipe may be installed at various grades depending on the diameter of the pipe. Most
often, you'll install waste piping at a slope of 1/4 inch per running foot. This means that the
grade of the pipe will drop 1/4 inch in depth for each foot oflength. Larger diameter pipe may
be sloped slightly less. Slope of waste pipe should be designed to transport wastewater at a rate
that ensures solids are carried with the water through the piping system. If the flow is too fast,
the water flows faster than the solids. This leaves the solids sitting in the pipe to create
stoppages. If the water flows too slowly, solids settle out and are left in the pipe to create
stoppages. For these reasons, it is critical to grade trenches properly for the installation of sewer
p1pmg.
General requirements when digging the trench are: (1) remove the desired amount of soil to
create the desired excavation (undisturbed soil provides the best piping support), (2) make the
walls of the excavation straight or perpendicular to the trench floor, (3) keep the floor (or
bottom) of the trench as smooth and square as possible, (4) create the desired grade as you dig,
(5) check the trench depth constantly as you continue digging and grading.

6-24
Methods of Grading Trenches

The three methods of grading a trench are: (1) a string line and line level, (2) an
engineer's transit, and (3) a laser device. The most common method used by utilities workers to
grade a trench is the string line and line level method.
Procedures for Grading Trenches Using String Line and Line Level
STRING LINE AND LINE LEVEL. The correct procedures for using a string line and
line level are:
(I) Dig the trench at the minimum required depth and in the desired location as indicated by
the construction plans. See Figure 6-16 .
.:Sort-
Figure 6-16. Dig Trench to Minimum Required Depth

(2) Drive a stake at each end of the trench. A section of 1/2 inch galvanized pipe
can be used for a stake.
(3) Stretch a string tightly between two stakes.

6-25
(4) Level the string by fastening a line level on it and adjusting one end up or down so the
bubble in the level is centered between the two black lines in the center of the viewing window.
See Figure 6-17.
/;/:~
I'
/ _ ,.. STRvc..vR.
.....
S.TRll'JG- LEVEL
"
',;,Tf?tl~
s,....,~'?-~
----
sort..
~XISTtl.fC.
*2.-- -<rA"~
0
tW~4:.--~A
"""
$o;L
/NLi"'
PJ1
Ot,.1T'lf'T
i-jJ: WE.K.
"fAtrl
S1:.i1..
Q?
Figure 6-17. Drive Stakes at Each End and Level the String Between the Stakes
(5) Detemline the length of the run with a tape measure. Then multiply the length of the
nm by 114" (or the desired grade of the pipe). Example: A 24' long trench with a 114" slope has a
6" fall on the outlet side (24' x 114" = 6").
(6) Next, move the string down on the stake at the outlet end of the trench the same distance
as indicated by your multiplication calculation in step 5. Now your string is sloped at the same
grade that will be required for the floor of the trench. See Figure 6-18

6-26
Length of Trench (ft) x Desired Fall (fraction of an inch)= Fall (inches)
!'
. '$rR.1N&
{
b.T
~LPf"l(.J
'"DC$rli!'E/)
G.RAPf"
6"t
Lower String
on Outlet End
Figure 6-18. Lower String on Outlet Side ofTrench to Reflect Desired Grade
(7) Make a grade stick from a piece of l" x 2" lumber. Place the stick in a vertical position
directly under the string line and as close as possible to the inlet of the drainage system. Place a
mark on the stick where the string line crosses it. This mark will be your reference point for the
entire length of the trench.
(8) Grading of the trench will be accomplished from the inlet to outlet end. As you are
digging soil out of the floor of the trench to achieve the desired grade, set the base of the grade
stick on the floor to see ifthe reference mark is in line with the string. If the reference mark is
above the string, you need to remove more soil. If the reference mark is below the string, you've
removed too much soil. Make sure the mark on the stick lines up exactly with the string line as
you move the stick along the entire length of the trench. Readings should be taken every few
feet to determine if soil must be removed or added to obtain the proper grade. See Figures 6-19
and 6-20.

6-27
'
\h~~~ ~
;.<1'~ /
(>~<'"'"'
t-.r;J,
Figure 6-19. Mark Stick to use as a Reference while Grading a Trench
~
--------------..11<~
_______
_ ......
l!l -:::::."':._,._,,,,
........ -~w-r....->lf
--~~'$~;:-~JJ'!i
'<"L-
GRADE. STIC.K
.5<JJL
,.'j
_: ._ :. :'. :'_ -:._g
Ye.T
ro ee
RE'Mov(.I>
Figure 6-20. Grade Trench from Inlet to Outlet End using a Grade Stick to Check Slope
6-28
More accurate methods of grading trenches are necessary when installing long runs of pipe
(i.e. sewer mains). More accurate methods include the use of an engineer's transit or a laser
device. Since you will seldom install long runs of sewer piping, we will not address these
methods in detail during this course. You will learn more about these methods when you
graduate and begin working in the field.
Once the floor of the trench has been graded, you will then begin installation of the sewer
pipe. It is critical to install the pipe properly to ensure proper flow and to prevent leaks.
Methods of Grading Pipe
There are several ways to grade pipe. The simplest and most common method is a
carpenter's level. However, should you install long runs, the more accurate engineer's transit or
laser device methods may be used. Most of the time you'll be installing short runs of piping,
therefore, let's address the carpenter's level method in more detail.
The carpenter's level is the method most commonly used by utilities workers to grade
pipe; accordingly, we will use it during this course. The piping is installed in the trench starting
at the inlet end. As each joint is assembled, the carpenter's level is used to verify the correct
slope is being maintained (Figure 6-21). A block of wood is attached to the end of the level
using tape. The thickness of the block of wood used will vary with the length of the level and
the desired slope of the pipe. For example, when installing pipe at a slope of 1/4" per foot using
a (an):
1-foot level- tape a 1/4 inch block of wood to the end
18 inch level - tape a 3/8 inch block of wood to the end
24 inch level - tape a 1/2 inch block of wood to the end
ILEVEL
I
I
2'
AlRBUBBL~
1/2" BLOCK
,_,, ~
FLOW
u
Figure 6-21. Grading Pipe using a Carpenter's Level.

6-29
Procedures for Grading Pipe Using Carpenter's Level
The general steps are:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Select block of wood for length of level and desired slope

Tape the block of wood to the end of the level
Start at inlet end of trench
Measure and mark bell holes (See Fig 6-22)
4&0'o/4@~~"*"'WA
TOP OF DITCH
i'-"'-'~~~~W-4%-<'3"$..'\~~~,"$%'-
FLOW
"'''G-"'-''''".'''... ;,,'c.
:JQ:
SEWER
<.:,-o':.;"ND::..'
:J];~'"<C''f-.''., ..,.;lJ;"
.~
.. ,,;.'
PIPE
:-;;~,;;~4w~~v~w~~'o/4\~v~-.~
OF SANO
BOTTOM OF DITCH
BELL HOLES
31965297017
Figure 6-22. Bell Holes

(5) Assemble bell and spigot joints. The rubber seals on the bell and spigot ends are
lubricated, Next, a board is placed firmly against the outlet end of the pipe and then it is struck
with a sledge hammer to drive the spigot and bell ends of the pipe together. See Figure 6-23.
Strike
with
. Hammer
IT:
db /
Lubricate.:
Seals[:
~ I.'....
~
Board
Figure 6-23. Pipe Assembly.
(6) Verify slope of each joint Using the carpenter's level with the proper size block of
wood, grade each joint
6-30
SUMMARY
Sewer or waste pipe collects wastewater from fixtures and transports it to a wastewater
treatment plant. Most waste piping is buried and installed at a slope. Generally, wastewater
flows via gravity through these buried piping systems.
To install buried waste piping, sloped trenches must be created The slope of the trench
floor must coITespond with the desired slope of the waste piping. There are several methods
available for sloping the floor of a trench, they include: string line and line level, engineer's
transit and laser methods. The most common method used is the string line and line level.
When installing graded waste piping, carpenter's level, engineer's transit and string and
laser device methods are available. The simplest and most commonly used method is the
carpenter's level. It is essential to tape the correct size block of wood to the end of the level
when using tills method.
EXERCISE: Exercise l-6e
Using your study guide as a reference, answer the following questions.
1. Why is sewer pipe installed at a slope?
2. If the sewer trench is not sloped properly, what is the result?
3. Name three methods of grading a trench.
4. What is the most common method for grading a trench?
5. What is the slope of most of the waste pipe that you'll install?
6. Name three methods of installing graded pipe.
7. What is the most common method used by utilities workers for grading pipe?
8. What size block of wood is taped to one end of a 1 foot level when installing pipe at
a slope of 114" per foot?
9. What is the result of installing waste pipe at the wrong slope?
10. At which end of the trench do you begin laying waste pipe?

6-31
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 6e. If you feel you need to review
some of the previous instruction, do so.
J"-'',

6-32
OBJECTIVE
Given statements or questions pertainiog to the backfilling of trenches, complete the
statements and answer the questions with at least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Backfilling is a term used to describe the replacement of soil into an excavation.
Although a relatively simple task, specific procedures must be followed when backfilling a
trench.
INFORMATION
BACKFILLING
Draining Excavations
As we discussed earlier leaks from improperly installed or damaged piping can saturate the soil
surrounding the system. Rain can also saturate soil at the excavation site. Either of these
conditions can result in standing water inside the excavation. Standing water may prevent repair
or installation of the pipe, and it prohibits visual inspection of the pipe for leaks. Additionally,
standing water will not allow compaction of the soil during backfilling. For these reasons, it may
be necessary to drain the open pit or trench periodically. Backfilling should not be performed
until the trench is free from standing water.
Purpose of Backfilling
The purpose ofbackfilling a trench is to support and protect the pipe. Regardless of the
overall size of the trench, the backfilling procedures to be used remain the same.
When to Backfill the Excavation

Excavations should be backfilled as soon as possible after the piping is installed, or after
repairs have been made to existing pipe. Piping must be inspected for leaks before backfilling
the trench. In the interest of public safety; the sooner an excavation can be backfilled, the better.
Backfill Procedures
USE CLEAN FILL MATERIAL ONLY. Prior to starting backfill operations, you
should remove any rocks, tree roots, and other debris from the fill soil. Rocks, roots, and debris
can affect pipe alignment and could cause the joints to leak. Debris in the backfill material could
rub holes in the pipe surface causing leaks in the system. Also, large rocks being pushed into the
trench could damage unprotected po1tions of the pipe. Normally, the same soil removed from
the trench will be used as backfill material. If the soil removed from the original trench is not
enough, additional soil can be hauled in from another location.

6-33
BACKFILL IN 6 INCH INCREMENTS AND TAMP BY HAND. To protect against

lateral movement of the pipe, backfill around the pipe and tamp by hand. For best results,
backfill and tamp in layers of not more than 6 inches at a time.
STAY OFF THE PIPE. Do not stand directly on the pipe or the soil directly above the
pipe until 1 foot of hand tamped (packed) soil is above the newly installed pipe. This practice
ensures workers do not adversely affect the pipe joints during the backfill process.
CONTINUE TO BACKFILL AND TAMP BY HAND. Continue to add soil in 6 inch
!avers and tamp with hand tools until 1 foot of tamped soil is in place above the piping.
USE COMPACTION EQUIPMENT. When you reach 1 foot of compacted backfill
above the pipe, you may use compaction equipment to backfill the remainder of the trench.
Complete the backfilling of the excavation in 6 inch layers and tamp with compaction equipment
until the operation is complete.
BACKFILLING IN TRAFFIC AREAS (ROADWAYS). In traffic areas, you must
compact the backfill mate1ial all the way to the original ground level. Overfilling the trench is
not an option since this would cause an irregular surface in the repaired asphalt or concrete road
surface.
"""""''
BACKFILLING IN NON-TRAFFIC AREAS. Overfill trenches 6 inches above the

original ground level in non-traffic areas. The additional 6 inch mound of soil will eventually
settle to the level con-esponding with the sun-ounding surface.
SUMMARY
Backfilling is the replacement of soil into an excavation. Backfilling is performed to
protect and support underground piping. Before backfilling an excavation, remove any standing
water using diaphragm pumps. The piping must be inspected after the installation or repair has
been made. After water has been removed and the inspection is complete, you may begin
backfilling.
Always use clean fill material to complete this task. Using hand tools, backfill in 6 inch
layers and tamp or pack the soil until 1 foot of tamped soil is above the pipe. Do not stand on the
soil above the pipe until at least 1 foot of tamped soil has been placed above the pipe. At this
time, you can use equipment to continue with the backfilling task. Continue to backfill and tamp
soil in 6 inch layers. In traffic areas (roadways), backfilling is complete when soil has been
tamped even with the original ground surface. In non-traffic areas (lawns or non-paved areas),
backfilling is complete when 6 inches of tamped soil exists above the original ground surface.

6-34
EXERCISE: Exercise I-6f
I. Define backfilling.
2. What is the purpose of backfilling?
3. Why should rocks, stumps, and debris be removed from backfill materials?
4. How much dirt should be placed in the ditch and tamped at one time?
5. How much tamped soil must be placed above the pipe before you can use
compaction equipment?
6. Why should you not stand directly on newly installed pipe or the soil directly above the pipe
until after it has been hand tamped (packed) soil is above the minimum packing level?
7. How many inches of tamped soil should be placed in the excavation before you can stand on
the soil above the piping?
8. When backfilling in non-traffic areas, how far should you compact the backfill material?
9. Backfilling in a traffic (paved) area should be all the way to the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ground
level.
I 0. After reaching the minimum requirement of compacted backfill above the pipe, you may
inch layers and tamp with compaction
complete the backfilling of the excavation in
equipment until the operation is complete.
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 6f. If you feel you need to review

UNIT 7. Structural Openings
OBJECTIVES
a. Given an electrically powered jigsaw, operate the jigsaw applying appropriate safety
practices. Instructor assistance is pennitted.
b. Using hand and power tools, and working as a member of a team, cut openings for the water
closet and shower drain. The completed openings must be within 1/8" of given measurements.
Safety precautions must be followed when using tools.

7-2
OBJECTIVE:
a. Given an electrically powered jigsaw and a piece of lumber, operate the jigsaw and cut a
structural opening applying appropriate safety practices with no more than three instructor assists
allowed per student.
INTRODUCTION
Before operating electrical hand tools, you must be familiar with the appropriate safety
practices associated with the particular tool that you will be using.
INFORMATION
ELECTRICAL HAND TOOLS
Electrical Tool Safety
Under ideal conditions, the best way to learn how to properly use an electrically powered
hand tool, is to receive hands-on training from a qualified operator. If a qualified operator is not
available, you should read the manufacturer's Directions. As with most tools, you should only
use a tool for its intended purpose.
Before using any electrically powered hand tool, you should always inspect it before using
it. Some of the items to look at would include: checldng for cuts, fraying, or cracking of the
electrical cord insulation, the presence of and/or condition of the grounding prong, and any
damage to the frame or safety guards.
Always use appropriate safety gear or Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) when using
electrical power tools. Also check for the presence of water in the area that you will be working
m. If water is present, it should be removed to avoid possible electrocution.
Always follow proper operating procedures when using electrically powered tools. When
using an electric jigsaw to cut an opening in plywood for example, the first step would be to
mark the line or pattern to be cut. The next step would be to drill a pilot hole for safe blade
insertion. The fmal step is to cut the desired structural opening. Deviating from proper
operating procedures can result in damage to the equipment, and/or severe injury.
SUMMARY
When using any powered tool for the first time, it is always best to have a qualified person
to train you on its proper use. In the absence of a qualified operator, you should consult the
manufacturer's Directions and apply appropriate safety practices.

7-3

Using your study guide as reference, answer the following questions.
I. The best source of training on an unfamiliar power tool is from a _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2. An electrically powered jigsaw should only be used for its _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.
3. The power cord of an electrical hand tool should be inspected for _ _ _ _ _ __
4. What is the purpose of a pilot hole when using an electric jigsaw?
5. In the absence of a qualified operator, you should consult the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
APPLICATION
You should be ready for progress check 7a. If you feel you need to review some of the
previous instruction, do so.

7-4
BLANK PAGE

7-5
OBJECTIVE
b. Using hand and power tools, and working as a member of a team, cut openings for the water
closet and shower drain. The completed openings must be within 1/8" of given measurements.
Safety precautions must be followed when using tools.
INTRODUCTION
Openings must be cut or drilled in structures for the installation of plumbing systems. To
accomplish this task, .you will need a fundamental knowledge of how buildings are constructed
(structural design), and the necessarytools. The pipe will need to be supported to prevent it from
sagging or vibrating and consequently, developing leaks.
INFORMATION
STRUCTURAL OPENINGS
Structural Design
Buildings are constructed of wood, masomy products, metal or a combination of these

materials. Other materials such as drywall, asphalt shingles, paneling and plaster are also used in
the construction of buildings. However, wood, masomy products, and metal are the primary
materials used to build the major structural components of a building. We will address the most
common types of structural design.
WOOD. Buildings are constructed using either box or frame type construction. The type of
construction will determine how your plumbing system is installed.
Box Type. Box type construction uses only a single board thickness in the walls and has
only enough framework to support the floor and roof The studs inside the building are exposed.
Most plumbing is exposed. This is considered a temporary building.
Frame Type. The frame type is a more permanent type of construction. This type of
structure has a framework of studs, usually made of2"x 4"s or 2"x 6"s and covered on both sides
to form a double wall. All water supply and drainage piping located above the floor level are
usually concealed within the framework.
MASONRY. Most permanent structures are built of some type of masomy material. It may .
be solid concrete, stone, brick, brick veneer or cement block. In most masomy buildings, the
water piping is usually exposed, because of the possibility of leakage. The drainage system,
which is not pressurized, may be covered by a concrete floor, after it has been properly
inspected. You must, however, install an access point for cleaning in case of stoppages. This
access is called a cleanout.
/"'"""''

7-6
If a pipe must pass through a masonry wall, a sleeve (section of plastic pipe) is set in place while
the wall is being constructed. This sleeve prevents corrosion between the metal pipe and
masonry materials. The pipe can also be wrapped in insulation to prevent corrosion.
METAL. Metal buildings will have a framework of structural steel or pipe and are covered
with sheet metal. Most water piping in this type of structure is exposed. If metal buildings have
a concrete floor, the drainage system may be covered after it has been inspected.
STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION. During the construction ofa building, utilities
personnel complete the plumbing installation in two major phases. The first phase is referred to
as rough-in plumbing. The second phase is referred to as finish plumbing.
Rough-In. Before the concrete slab is poured, you will install horizontal water and
drainage piping below ground in trenches. From the horizontal piping in the trench, ve11ical
piping for each fixture is "stubbed up" to a height that will tenninate at least 12 inches above the
proposed finish floor. Any po11ion of vertical metallic pipe that comes in contact with concrete
is wrapped with insulation to prevent corrosion between the pipe and the concrete. Another
method to avoid corrosion is to install a sleeve (short piece of plastic pipe) around the stub-up.
The newly installed pipe is tested for leaks and inspected before the trenches are backfilled. The
concrete slab is then poured.
Once the building is framed and the exterior walls are installed, you will return to extend
vertical and horizontal rough-in piping. It is at this time that most of the structural openings are
cut. Po1tions of water and waste lines will be "stubbed out" past the walls for fixtures that will
be installed later.
Finish Plumbing. Once the rough-in plumbing is completed, the construction workers will
continue with finishing interior and exterior wall coverings. When the job is nearly complete,
utilities workers will return to install the fixtures and connect the water and drain piping to each
fixture. This final stage of plumbing installation is referred to as "finish plumbing".
Locating Structural Openings
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PLANS. Since most piping (either supply or drainage) is
installed to directly serve some type of fixture, you must know the location of all fixtures. You
can obtain this information from the building construction plans.
SPECIFICATION SHEETS. The specification sheets will indicate the exact model or
type of fixture to be used.
MANUFACTURER'S ROUGH-IN SPECIFICATIONS. These show the exact location
of all supply and drainage pipe openings. You must know this information when locating the
structural openings for the waste and supply piping. One reason for this is because you may
need to cut holes through structural members to align the pipe with the fixture location.

'-'"'
7-7
WORKING DRAWING. After you check the constmction plans, specification sheets and
manufacturer's rough-in specifications you will prepare a working drawing. This drawing should
indicate the location of all fixtures and the routing of all supply and waste pipes.
NOTE: Before cutting stmctural members for the installation of pipe, get permission from the
appropriate authorities.
Hole Cutting Tools. Most often, you will be using power tools to cut stmctural openings for the
installation of pipe. There are a variety of tools available for this purpose. On occasion, you
may have to cut these openings with hand tools.
ELECTRIC DRILLS AND HOLE SAWS. Electric drills and hole saws are most often
used when cutting holes in wood because the tool cuts a perfectly round hole for pipe
installation. Hole saws used with electric drills are available in various diameters to
accommodate most sizes of pipe. Figures 7-1, 7-2 and 7-3
Figure 7-1
Hole saw
Figure 7-2.
Angle Drill
Figure 7-3.
Electric Drill
Electric drills can be used with a variety of bits to drill through wood, steel, and masonry
materials.
Paddle bits are used with electric drills to make round

holes in wood. This type of bit only comes in sizes that will
acc01nrnodate smaller diameter pipe. Figure 7-4
Figure 7-4. Paddle Bits

7-8
I
\ ':=11======1-F'/
1:1~lil l~I ~ii
Carbide bits can be used to drill holes through

steel and some masonry materials. Figure 7-5
Figure 7-5. Carbide bits.
RECIPROCATING SAW. Reciprocating saws may be

used to create large openings for the installation of pipe.
Blades for reciprocating saws are available to cut through
wood and many types of metal. Figure 7-6
Figure 7-6. Reciprocating Saw

JIGSAW. Jigsaws are used to cut inegular shaped
openings in wood. When cutting a circular shaped
opening, a pilot hole is drilled within the area to be cut
out of the lumber. The jigsaw is then used to cut out the
circular shaped opening.
Figure 7-7
Figure 7-7. Jigsaw
HAMMER DRILL. A hammer drill is used to drill an

opening in masonry materials. The drill bit reciprocates and turns
simultaneously to bore the hole. Figure 7-8
Figure 7-8. Hammer Drill.

TIN SNIPS. Tin snips are used to cut
curved or circular shaped openings in sheet
metal. Figure 7-9
Figure 7-9. Tin Snips

7-9
BRACE AND BIT. A brace and bit is used to

manually drill holes in wood when electricity is not
available for power tools. Figme 7-10
Figme 7-10. Brace and Bit
KEYHOLE SAW
.,
Figure 7-11. Keyhole Saw
KEYHOLE SAW. The keyhole saw can be used to cut irregular shaped openings in
wood when electricity is not available for power tools. Figme 7-11
HAMMER AND STAR DRILL. When creating

openings in concrete it may be necessary to use a hammer and
chisel or a hammer and star drill. Using these tools to cut through
concrete requires more time and labor than using power tools.
Figme 7-12
IOUMOSI: Ctmil
"5"'*tJ
COlt>Ctl!Sll
STAllOlllU
Figure 7-12. Hammers, Chisels, and Star drill.

7-10
Structural Openings
A structural opening is an opening cut in a structural member that allows the piping to
pass through it. When openings are properly reinforced they can also help to support the pipe.
Structural openings are created when notching or drilling holes in a wooden structural member
during the installation of pipe. You may need to reinforce structural members whenever you cut
them, ifthe cut or hole, compromises the strength of the structural member. The following are
four basic types of structural openings.
CENTER CUT. The most desirable type of structural opening to use is the center cut. A
center cut is a round hole cut in the center of the board. It causes less damage to the structural
member than any other type of cut. The diameter of the opening should not exceed one-third the
width of the board. If a larger hole is cut, the board loses its ability to support weight and resist
stress.
Figure 7-13
OVER CUT. If a center cut cannot

be made, an over cut is acceptable. An
over cut is made by notching the top of
the board. The piping is installed through the
notch and the beam provides some support to
reduce movement of the pipe. Wedge a block
of wood and nail it into the notch. This
prevents the beam from sagging. Figure 7-14
Figure 7-13. Center Cut
Figure 7-14. Over Cut.
UNDER CUT. The under cut is a notch in the bottom of the structural member (Figure 715). Again, the piping is installed through the notch. To support the bottom of the pipe and the
beam, install strap iron and lag screws on the notch to reinforce the beam. It is important to note
that an over cut or an under cut should never be
more than 1/2 the width of the beam or it
will be weakened considerably.
NOTCH. A notch or "notch cut" is
similar to an over cut or an under cut.
If the opening (cut) is on the side ofa
vertical structural member such as a
wall stud, it is referred to as a notch.
Figure 7-15. Under Cut

7-11
Vertical Supports
Vertical piping must be supported to prevent stress on joints and the resulting leaks that
could occur. Listed below (Table 7-1) are some of the general guidelines for supporting vertical
piping. More detailed information can be obtained from the Uniform Plumbing Code. Support
can be provided by strnctural openings that have been reinforced, or by installing pipe supports.
CAST IRON PIPE

COPPER TUBE
AND PIPE
STEEL AND
BRASS PIPE
FOR WATER
ORDWV
SCHEDULE40
PVC AND ABS,
DWVAND
CPVC
- -
Vertical Pine S
rt Guider
Support at the base and each floor level not to
exceed 15 feet.
Support at each floor not to exceed 10 feet.
Every other floor not to exceed 25 feet.
Support at the base and each floor level.

Allow for expansion every 30 ft.
Provide mid-story guides.
Table 7-1
Horizontal Supports
Horizontal water and waste piping must also be supported to prevent sagging and the
resulting leaks that could occur. Again, supports can be in the form of reinforced openings
or pipe support materials. Criteria for supporting various types and diameters of pipe are
listed below on Table 7-2 (information derived from Uniform Plumbing Code manual).
Horizontal Pipe Support Guidelines
Cast Iron Pipe
Support at every other joint unless over 4 feet,

then sunnort at each joint.
I 1/2" and smaller - every 6'
2" and larger every - 10 feet
3/4" and smaller - every 10 feet
l" and larger - every 12 feet
Copper Tube/Pipe
Steel and brass pipe for
waterorDWV
Schedule 40 PVC and ABS
DWV
(CPVC)
All sizes every - 4 feet

Allow for expansion every 30 feet
I" and smaller - every 3 feet
I 1/4" and larger - every 4 feet
Table 7-2

7-12
NOTE: These notes on vertical and horizontal supports are general guidelines. There are
additional guidelines in the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) that can be consulted when
making a permanent installation.
Support Materials
A variety of pipe support materials and devices are available. Specialized supports or
pipe hangers are made for almost every possible situation you will encounter during your
duties as a utilities specialist. See Figure 7-16.
FOR SUPPORTING ONE FROM ANOTHER
I ;
SPl.\T PJPE CLAMPS
BACKTO-BACK
PIPE FIX
BRACKET
FOR HANGING METALLIC PIPE

IN WOOD FRAME CONSTRUCTION
f'!!!!.
'.l'HOOK
~ ./.f
~
PERFORATED
BANDlRON
a-~:.i~oo
WRAP AROUND
CLAMP
.,.HOOK
DOUBLE '.J' HANGER
Figure 7-16. Types of Supports

Electrical Tool Safety
Never use an electrical power tool without first receiving some training from a
person qualified to operate the tool you intend to use. Read the manufacturer's information
that comes with the tool. Inspect the power cord thoroughly for frays or cuts. Check the
housing for physical damage and ensure the cord has a ground plug. Use the tool only for
its intended purpose. Always wear safety glasses or a face shield when using power tools.
Remove water from the work area before using any electrical tools or equipment!

7-13
SUMMARY
Openings must routinely be cut in structures for the installation of piping. To
effectively drill or cut these structural openings, you must have a fundamental
understanding of structural design. The primary components of any structure are the
foundation, frame, walls and roof Remember; never cut any structural member without
proper approval. These structural components can be made of various materials such as
wood, steel, and masonry. Installation of plumbing systems takes place in stages during
the construction of a building. First, trenches are dug, and piping is installed below ground
and is stubbed up through the area where the concrete slab will be poured. Then, after the
structure is framed, and the exterior wall and roof coverings are installed; piping is
installed through the framed walls to each fixture and vent piping is projected through the
roof At that point the "rough-in plumbing" is completed. After the building project is
nearly complete, craftsmen begin the "finish plumbing" which entails the installation of all
the fixtures and the final water and waste connections.
You can locate the desired area of each structural opening by studying the
construction plans, specification sheet, and the manufacturer's rough-in specifications for
each fixture. Before cutting any structural members you must obtain approval from the
appropriate authority.
A variety of hole cutting tools are available for creating structural openings. These
tools include electric drills, hole saws, paddle bits, carbide bits, reciprocating saws, jig
saws, hammer drills, tin snips, brace and bit, key hole saws, hammers, chisels, and star
bits.
When cutting structural openings, you may need to reinforce them. There are a
variety of methods and devices for reinforcing structural openings. Each situation will be
different and may require compliance with the requirements of the Building Code or the
proper Administrative Authority.
Vertical and horizontal piping within the structure should be supported to prevent
sagging and undue stress on piping joints. The distance between supports will vary
depending on the type of piping material and the diameter of the pipe. Consult the Uniform
Plumbing Code for detailed guidance on supporting pipe.
There are a variety of materials available for supporting pipe in addition to creating
reinforcing structural openings. Hangers and supports are available for almost every
possible situation you'll encounter.
Since power tools are frequently used when cutting or drilling structural openings, you
should be qualified to use them safely. Know the tool, inspect it carefully, wear the safety
equipment, and use it for its designed purpose.
/-

7-14

Directions: Using your study guide as reference, answer the following questions.
1. What are the three types of structures?
2.
What are three sources of information you will need to prepare a working drawing?
3.
What are the four types of structural openings used in a wooden building?
4.
A center cut should not exceed_____ the width of the board you are drilling
through.
5.
Name the two stages of construction used when installing a new plumbing system on
a building under construction.
6.
Which documents are used to determine where structural openings must be cut or
drilled in a structure?
7.
Which tool or tools are most often used to cut holes in wood for piping installation?
8.
Name two tools that can be used to cut structural openings in masonry construction
materials.
9.
Which tool would you use to cut a circular opening in sheet metal?
10. What is the strongest type of structural opening to make in a wooden structural
member?
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 7b. If you feel you need to
review some of the previous instruction, do so now.

SW J8AQR3E431 OIAA-I-8
UNIT 8. Interior Wastewater Systems
OBJECTIVES
a. Given statements pertaining to the sanitary waste system, identify the correct statements with
at least 70% accuracy.
b. Given procedures, equipment, materials, and working as a member of a team, install a cast
iron and plastic interior waste system. No more than two instructor assists are allowed per team.
c. Given statements pertaining to locating leaks in interior wastewater systems, identify which
statements are true with at least 70% accuracy.

8-2
OBJECTIVE
a. Given statements pertaining to the sanitary waste system, identify the correct statements with
at least 70% accuracy
INTRODUCTION
In this section, we will address the sanitary waste system The sanitary waste system
collects wastewater from plumbing fixtures such as water closets, sinks, tubs, showers, and
lavatories and allows it to flow by gravity through the piping to a treatment plant. Waste piping
systems are installed to allow the waste to gravity flow through the piping as much as possible.
Therefore, horizontal piping in the sanitary waste system is generally sloped at 114 inch per foot.
Large diameter pipe may be sloped slightly less.
Knowledge of these systems are important for two fundamental reasons: (1) During
residential construction, detailed drawings of waste systems are not usually available, therefore,
you may have to design the system yourself(based on your knowledge of the function and
purpose of system components) and, (2) During commercial construction jobs, knowledge of
system design and function is required to install more complicated systems within the
requirements of the plumbing code.
INFORMATION
SANITARY WASTE SYSTEM
Sanitary Waste System
NOTE: Terms and definitions throughout this study guide have been taken directly from the
Uniform Plumbing Code. Some have been paraphrased for ease of understanding.
(For the following terms, refer to Figure 8-1)

SOIL PIPE. These are pipes that carry fecal matter and discharges from water closets,
urinals or similar fixtures.
WASTE PIPE. These are pipes that carry liquid waste free of fecal matter and discharges
from fixtures other than water closets, urinals or similar fixtures.
STACK. The vertical system of soil, waste, and vent piping extending through one or more
stories of a building.
BRANCH. Any part of the piping system other than a main, riser, or a stack normally any
horizontal pipe in a waste system is generically referred to as a branch.
I NOTE: Piping sizes are defmed by the length of sections, and the inside diameter.I

8-3
BUILDING DRAIN. The building drain is the lowest part of a building's drainage system
that receives the discharge from soil, waste, and other drainage pipes inside the building, and
conveys it to the building sewer, which begins two (2) feet outside the building wall.
BUILDING SEWER. The horizontal piping of the drainage system, which extends from
the end of the building drain (2 feet outside the building) is called the building sewer. It conveys
the discharge it receives from the building drain to a public sewer, private sewer, individual
disposal system, or other point of disposal.
Vertical Piping
Lw.i .tory
~
WastelPipe
'
:ofuset
Branch
Soil Pipe
Soil Branch
__J
Building Sewer
'
;;r;rfur;fa;r
Buildllk Dr.Wt
Figure 8-1. Basic Sanitary Waste System Components

SANITARY WASTE PIPING MATERIALS. Numerous piping materials can be used to
constrnct waste systems. Cast iron and plastic pipe are the most commonly used materials for
constrncting the interior sanitary sewer system. We do not discuss copper tubing for waste
systems: it can be used, but it is extremely expensive. Listed below is pertinent information
about some of the more common types of piping material that you may be installing.
Cast Iron. One type of piping used for sanitary drainage pipe and stacks in building
drainage systems is cast iron soil pipe. The types of joints made with cast iron soil pipe are: bell
and spigot pipe, which uses a compression gasket; and no hub pipe, which uses no hub
couplings. Disadvantages of using cast iron pipe are its weight (which requires more supports),
and cast iron is subject to corrosion. In addition, cast iron piping is difficult to cut and fit.
Plastic. Plastic pipe is commonly used on interior drainage systems. Plastic piping is
lightweight, easy to install and will not rnst, rot, or corrode. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) are the most commonly used piping for constrncting
interior DWV systems. They will be of either Schedule 40 or DWV thickness and can be joined
by specifically formulated solvent glue. PVC is by far the most commonly used plastic pipe
material.
8-4
Galvanized Steel. Galvanized steel pipe may be used for small drains and vent piping. It
should not be used for drains attached to urinals because it will quickly corrode and leak. Most
galvanized pipe is standard weight and will be joined by threaded joints.
COMMON SANITARY WASTE FITTINGS. There are waste fittings designed for
virtually any situation that you may encounter during the installation of a sanitary waste system.
Only the most commonly used fittings are addressed in the text below.
Bend. Bends are used for making turns in a run of waste piping.
The degree of tum a bend provides may be expressed in terms of
degrees or fractions. For example, a bend that makes a 45 degree tum
is called a 1/8 bend and a bend that makes a 90 degree tum is called a
114 (quarter) bend. See Figure 8-2
Figure 8-2. Bend
Closet Bend. The closet bend is a 90 or 1/4 bend

with a long branch designed specifically for making a
connection between a closet flange and a soil stack.
See Figure 8-3
Figure 8-3 Closet Bend
Wye. A wye is used to change the direction of flow less than

90. It usually branches off a pipe at a 45 angle. See Figure 8-4
Figure 8-4. Wye

Sanitary Tee. A sanitary tee is used for branching off of a
pipe at a 90-degree angle. Most often the sanitary tee is used to
change the direction of flow from a branch or horizontal drain to a
stack. The branch opening of the fitting is gradually sloped to
gently guide the wastewater from the branch into the vertical
piping of the stack. Branch openings of the sanitary tee may or
may not be tapped. The term "tapped" indicates that the opening
of the fitting has female pipe threads. A sanitary tee cannot be laid
on its back or side because when a sewer auger is used for
unclogging purpose the auger can go in either direction
in the line. See Figure 8-5

Figure 8-5.
Sanitary Tee
8-5
(\
Test Tee. The primary purpose of the test tee is to test
the system. It is normally the first fitting on top of the stack
base. A plug is threaded into the branch opening to seal the
system. The plug stays in place except when performing leak
tests. If no provisions have been made for cleaning the
sanitary sewer system, the test tee can be used as a clean out
because it is shaped similar to a sanitary tee. Ensure that you
do not damage the threads of the test tee with the auger cable.
See Figure 8-6
Figure 8-6. Test Tee.
Combination Wye And 1/8 Bend. This fitting is commonly

used as a stack base. It is normally installed at the base of soil or
waste stacks. Its design allows for use in branches or the
building drain to allow for change of direction from a vertical
pipe to horizontal pipe. This fitting allows for a 90-degree
change of direction off of a run of horizontal pipe. The branch of
the fitting is long, sweeping, and provides a more gradual change
of direction than a sanitary tee. A combo wye and 1/8 bend can
be used either laying on its back or side. See Figure 8-7
Figure 8-7
Combination
('
Double Tee. (Also referred to as a Waste Cross).

Used to connect piping from four different directions.
This fitting would be used to connect two fixtures to a
single soil or waste stack. Figure 8-8
Figure 8-8. Double Tee.
Cleanout. A cleanout fitting. It is designed to allow the

utilities worker access to the piping system for removing
stoppages. It is common to install a cleanout on the stack base
of the building drain during residential construction. Multiple
cleanouts are generally installed during commercial
construction. Figure 8-9
Figure 8-9. Cleanout.
('

8-6
TRAPS. A trap is a device or fitting used to provide a water seai which if properly vented,
will prevent sewer gases from entering the building. Sewer gases formed by decomposing
organic material in wastewater are potentially explosive and/or combustible. These gases,
besides being obnoxious, may also be harmful if inhaled. For these reasons, a trap should be
installed on every plumbing fixture. Traps are generally installed at the piping connection
between the plumbing fixture and the waste system piping. There are several types of traps that
may be installed to protect buildings and their occupants from sewer gases. Note the parts of a
trap as labeled in Figure 8-10.
/
Inlet
rown
......
utlet
...........
Dip
Figure 8-10. Parts of a Trap
Common P-Trap. P-traps are the most commonly used traps on plumbing fixtures. It gets its
name from its design. It is used mainly on lavatories, sinks, tubs, and shower units. It contains a
two-inch water seal. See Figure 8-11
Figure 8-11, Common P-Trap

8-7
Deep P-Trap. Deep P-traps are very similar to P-traps. The only physical difference is
that the Deep P-trap has a 4 inch water seal as opposed to the P-trap's 2-inch water seal. Deep
P-traps are generally installed on fixtures that are seldom
used such as a deep sink in a janitor's closet or a floor drain
in a remote location. The Deep P-trap will not evaporate as
quickly during periods of non-use and therefore will
continue to protect building occupants from sewer gases. See
Figure 8-12
4" DEEP
SEAL
Figure 8-12. Deep P-trap
---........_
FLUSHING RIM
WATED
---..._: __ .~
AR~A
PASSAGEWAY
ClosetDowl
Figure 8-13. Integral Trap

Integral Trap. Many plumbing fixtures may be manufactured with a trap as an internal part of
the fixture. This type of trap is called an integral trap. A good example of a fixture with an
integral trap is the water closet. See Figure 8-13. Some urinals are also manufactured with an
integral trap.

8-8
TRAP SEAL LOSS. There are several ways the water seal in a trap may be depleted or
lost. Again, lack of a sufficient water seal within a trap is dangerous due to the sewer gases that
form in a waste system. Therefore, you should be aware of how trap seal loss may occur. In the
four paragraphs that follow, you will find a description of ways by which trap seals are lost.
Direct Siphonage. Direct siphonage commonly occurs in unvented or improperly vented
traps. Direct siphonage starts when water in a fixture exits the fixture abruptly. The water
leaving the fixture creates unequal atmospheric pressure on the inlet and outlet sides of the trap
seal. The higher pressure on the inlet side pushes the water out of the trap. The result is most of
the water in the trap discharges into the vertical pipe that serves as a drain for the fixture. If trap
seal loss occurs, sewer gases can then enter the structure, thereby creating a fire or explosion
hazard, and also offensive odors. The way to prevent direct siphonage from occuITing is to
ensure all traps are adequately vented during installation of the waste system. See Figure 8-14.
Trap Seal Intact
Abrupt discharge
from bottom of fixture
Trap Seal Loss

due to Direct
Siphonage
Figure 8-14. Direct Siphonage due to lack of ventilation

Siphonage by Momentum. Siphonage by momentum is the loss of a trap's water seal due
to the momentum of water passing the trap outlet, which creates a negative pressure on the outlet
side of the trap. Consequently, the water is drawn out of the trap and is discharged into the
vertical pipe that serves as a drain for the fixture. Thls type of trap seal loss normally occurs in
buildings with more than one floor. Water is discharged from the fixture at the upper floor level,
and as the water drops in the vertical pipe, it gains momentum. As the water passes the opening
of the trap on the fixture at a lower floor levei the water is drawn out of the trap of the lower
fixture. Improper venting of fixtures (Figure 8-15) further aggravates this condition. It can be
avoided by individually venting each fixture. We'll discuss venting in more detail later on in this
unit of instruction.

8-9
"PROHIBITED
INSTALLATION"
Lavatory
waste Pipe
L:
:;Water Seal Siphoned Out of Trap on Lower Fixture

due to Momentum of Water Passing the Drain
Opening
ii11
Figure 8-15. Siphonage by Momentum
Capillary Action. This type of trap seal loss is caused by some foreign object lodged in the trap.
The object acts as a wick, absorbing water from the trap and dripping the water down the waste
piping. Rags, lint, string, hair, and mop strings are common objects that cause this problem.
Figure 8-16 depicts capillary action.
String or Hair
Figure 8-16. Capillary Action

,--~~

8-10
Evaporation. Trap seals can be lost due to evaporation when fixtures are not used for long
periods of time. This is especially true in warm or hot climates. When a trap seal evaporates,
you can replenish the water seal by running water into the fixture. If this is not possible or
convenient, then the drain opening may be sealed with a cap to prevent sewer gases from
entering the structure.
Stacks and Vents
STACKS. Vertical main of soil, waste, or vent piping extending through one or more
stories. Each type of stack is further defmed by the function it performs.
SOIL STACK. Portion of vertical piping that receives wastewater that contains fecal
matter or urine from fixtures such as water closets, urinals, or similar fixtures. See Figure 8-17
Stack Vent
t
T
Soil Stack
-~I_J------~
Figure 8-17. Soil Stack

8-11
WASTE STACK. A waste stack is vertical piping that receives wastewater discharges
from fixtures such as lavatories, sinks, tubs, showers, washing machines, and dishwashers.
These fixtures do not normally contain fecal matter or urine. See Figure 8-18
Stack Vent
Lavatory
1
T
Waste Stack
Figure 8-18. Waste Stack.

NOTE: A soil stack can receive discharges from soil and waste pipes, however, a waste
stack can only receive discharges from waste pipes.
VENTS. A vent is a pipe that allows air into a waste piping system to protect trap seals and
allow sewer gases to escape. By allowing atmospheric pressure into a waste piping system, equal
pressure is provided on both sides of a trap seal. Allowing sewer gases to escape from the piping
systems reduces the chance of explosions, fire, and offensive odors inside a strncture.
Stack Vent. A stack vent is an extension of a soil or waste stack above the highest
horizontal drain connected to the stack. It is important to note that stack vents are a part of a soil
or waste stack. Remember each stack is defined by the function it performs? A stack vent is
nothing more than a vent for a stack.
[ NOTE: Refer back to Figure 8-17 and Figure 8-18 for examples of stack vents.
Vent Stack. Vertical pipe installed primarily for the purpose of providing circulation of air
to and from any part of the drainage system. Absolutely no fixtures drain into a vent stack. A
vent stack could be one lone stack that provides circulation of air through the drainage system, or
it could be in the form ofa main vent. See Figure 8-19.

8-12
Main Vent. A main vent is a

vent stack. It is the principle
artery of a venting system to
which vent branches are
connected. It connects full size at
the base of the soil or waste stack
below the lowest fixture drain. It
Main Vent__..
extends full size through the roof
(Vent Stack)
or connects above the highest
fixture branch to a main vent tee.
Absolutely NO fixtures drain into
a main vent!
Figure 8-19
Stack
Figure 8-19. Main Vent
Individual Vent. A pipe installed specifically to vent one fixture trap and which
connects with the vent system above the fixture served, or terminates in the open air. Figure 820.
Individual
Vent ___,i--tt----.
6"
Lavatory
,/
Figure 8-20. Individually vented fixture

''""'
8-13
0
Dual Vent. A section of pipe
that ventilates two fixtures that are back
to back or side by side at the same
elevation, is called a dual vent.
Figure 8-21
Fixtures are back to
back or side by side
at same elevation
Figure 8-21. Dual Vent.

Wet Vent. A wet vent is a section of vent pipe that also serves as a drain for another
fixture. Because it is not common for both fixtures involved to be used simultaneously, wet
venting is an acceptable practice. When connecting a wet vent to the drain piping of another
fixture, both fixtures must be on the same floor. The advantage of wet venting is that fewer
vents will have to be projected through the roof Although wet venting is permissible, it is not
the recommended method of venting :fixtures. Figure 8-22
('
Stack Vent
.~
...
0
Lavatory's drain serve

~as a vent for the tub.
(wet vent)
Figure 8-22. Wet Vent.
[NOTE: Refer to Figure 8-23 as you read the fo llowing three paragraphs
(\
Loop Vent. This vent is used primarily in single story buildings but may be used on the top
floor of multiple story buildings. Loop vents are used to ventilate a battery of fixtures that drain
8-14
into a common branch pipe. A battery of fixtures is a group of two or more fixtures that share a
common drain. A loop vent ties into the branch between the two fixtures that are furthest from
the soil or waste stack and "loops" back and ties back into the soil or waste stack. Loop vents
may also be used where no adjacent wall is available to house the vent pipe.
Circuit Vent. The circuit is basically the same as a loop vent, with the exception that a
circuit vent connects back to a main vent and not a soil or waste stack. In multiple story
buildings (with the exception of the top floor), circuit vents are used to ventilate a battery of
fixtures.
Relief Vent. The primary function of relief vents is to provide circulation of air between
drainage and vent systems. An example on the use ofreliefvents would be between branch
lines, and the loop or circuit vents that serve these lines. This type of vent is used to provide
additional venting to fixtures located closer to the stack.
Cmmectsto
Stack Vent
' ,,
Loop VeuL
,.
;RelicfVcnts
c.annert!I-. ---1'i.'m1+------...-'1-------i.
/
,..C:irr:uir. Vr.nr.
~:ml l,
Figure 8-23. Loop, Circuit and Relief Vents

Waste Rough-ins for Fixtures
When constructing waste piping for the drainage of specific fixtures, the diameter of the
drain will vary depending on which fixture(s) you are servicing. Also, drain openings will have
to be at the co1Tect location and height to attach to the fixture. Specific locations for fixture
drains can be determined by reading the construction plans and manufacturer's rough-in
specifications for each fixture.

8-15
WATER CLOSET. Water closets may be wall or floor mounted. In residential

installations, the floor-mounted type is the most common. In commercial installations, either the
floor or wall mounted may be installed.
Floor-Mounted Water Closet. Floor-mounted water closets must be firmly attached to
a closet flange. Therefore, during rough-in of the piping to the fixture, the piping is branched
from the soil stack through the use of a sanitary tee. From the sanitary tee, a closet bend is
installed which is then connected to the closet flange. It is essential to have the installed closet
flange level with the floor and rigidly (securely) installed. If the closet flange is not level or
rigidly installed, the porcelain fixture will crack which renders the device useless.
Vertical piping must be plumb, and horizontal piping from the flange to the stack must have
the desired slope of 1/4 inch per foot. Figure 8-24 is an example of a floor-mounted water closet.
Figure 8-25 illustrates the typical piping connections to a floor-mounted water closet.
Water Closet
Stack Ventr::
(\
Soil Stack
Figure 8-24. Floor Mounted
Water Closet
Figure 8-25. Piping Connections
Wall-Mounted Water Closet. Wall mounted water closets (Figure 8-27) are attached to a
chair carrier. The chair carrier device is shown in Figure 8-26. When installing wall mounted
water closets in a commercial structure, a chair carrier is installed in the wall for each fixture.
Piping connections must be made between the chair carrier(s) and the soil stack or the branch
that leads to the soil stack. Chair carriers may have horizontal or vertical discharge openings to
the drain piping for the fixture. Additionally, vent piping may be connected to the chair
carrier(s) to construct individual, loop, circuit or relief vents. Ve1tical pipe should be plumb.
Remember to slope branch piping at 1/4 inch fall per foot.

8-16
Figure 8-26. Chair Carrier
Figure 8-27. Wall Mounted Water Closet
Rough-In Guidance. The minimum size drainpipe to be attached to a water closet is 3

inches I.D. When using cast iron pipe to construct drain piping, 4-inch I.D. pipe is normally
used. Refer to the floor plans and any detailed plumbing plans to determine the specific location
of the fixture(s) within the structure. Additionally the manufacturer's rough-in specifications
should be studied to determine the location of drain openings during installation of the fixture.
See Figure 8-28.
Figure 8-28. Manufacturer's Rough-In Specifications

8-17
NOTE: When roughing-in vertical piping from the closet bend to an elevation above a concrete
slab foundation, the piping is wrapped with insulation and cardboard to create enough room for
the flange connection. After the concrete slab is in place, the plumber then removes the
cardboard and connects the flange. Any voids around the flange are filled with concrete. The
opening in the flange is then covered or plugged to keep debris out of the waste piping until the
fixture is connected to the flange.
LAVATORY. Numerous types and styles oflavatories are available. Regardless of
which type or style you are installing, the waste piping connections will be similar. Most often
you'll install wall hung or counter top lavatories. Wall hung lavatories are routinely installed
during commercial construction because they are easier to keep clean. Counter-top lavatories are
most often installed in a vanity (cabinet) during residential construction. We will discuss the
actual installation oflavatories in more depth when we get to Block III. In this section we will
only discuss the rough-in of the lavatories.
Note: Always refer to manufactnrer's rough-in specifications before you install any water,
drain, or vent lines to any fixture.
Wall Hung Lavatories. When installing a lavatory, you can locate all the information you
need in the manufacturer's rough-in specifications. Figure 8-29 shows a sample for a lavatory
rough-in specification. Everything you need to know about installing this lavatory is on this
drawing.
rB1/4"
,,;~~
--"'<"<
,(,;i..,
O.T.i1
~o~
.1 ..... -
61M"
~~~
-0
1T
31 11
,
112" Hot--,.
'-
r --\'
L.
'-i'""'
cJ'
112" Cold
f_a . ~
29 3/4"
0'\1114" Drain
19''
--------Finished Floor
-...;i
Figure 8-29. Manufacturer's Rough-In Specifications for a Wall Hung Lavatory.

8-18
Cautiou: lustallation of the draiu more thau 24 inches below the fixture outlet may subject
the fixture's trap to direct siphouage.
The following is some information to be found in the manufacturer's rough-in specifications
that can be useful to the utilities worker:
The Backing Board. A 2"x 6" board is nailed or screwed between the studs in the wall
during the framing of the structure. It is installed to support wall hung fixtures such as
lavatories. See the example of a backing board in Figure 8-30.
Stud!:
::
,,--11-~!l
'I
..~-Vent
II
11
---<<---
2 x 6"
Backing
Board
~#~~#~~~::
............................
Waste
Stack
Figure 8-30. Backing Board
Drain Height. Don't install the drain more than 24 inches below the fixture outlet because
it will cause direct siphonage.
Lip Height. Ifthere are no manufacturer's rough-in specifications, the recommended
height from the finished floor to the lip of the lavatory is 31 ". You also need to consider the
height of the user (elementary school compared to a high school).
Minimum Size Drain and Trap (11/4" I.D.).Lavatories are often used as a receptacle for
objectionable matter. Loose hair, gum, toothpaste caps, small toys, etc. are often carried down
the waste pipe causing stoppages. You can improve the efficiency of a lavatory by using the
minimum number of fittings and eliminating long runs of horizontal piping. The smallest drain
and vent for a lavatory is 1 1/4". The minimum size P-trap used on a lavatory is also 1 1/4"
Minimum Size Water Supply. The minimum size water supply lines for a lavatory are
l/2" l.D. These are the water lines that are "stubbed up" through the floor and through the walls.
A shutoff valve or cap is installed on these lines when the system is tested.
Counter top lavatories. These lavatories are roughed-in the same as the wall hung
lavatories with the exception that the counte1top is mounted in an opening on a countertop of a
cabinet or vanity as opposed to a hanger bracket like the wall hung lavatory.
8-19
URINAL. Urinals are installed in men's latrines in most public structures on military
installations. Various types and models are available. The two most common are the wall hung
with external trap, and the wall hung with the integral trap. Installation procedures for the wall
hung urinal are similar to those used for the wall-hung lavatory. The height of the hanger bracket
(and backing board) and the height and location of waste piping will be specified in the
construction plans and manufacturer's rough-in specifications. See Figure 8-31
3/4""
l.P.S. SUPPLY TO
FLUSH VALVE
+?-T
I I
I
3/4" SP\!D
43 3/4"
"
0
i
16 1/4"
24"
17"
Figure 8-31. Manufacturer's Rough-In Specification for a Wall Hung Urinal.

Note: As with all the other fixtures always refer to the manufacturer's rough-in
specifications when installing the urinal drain, water, or vent lines.
Wall Hung Urinal with External Trap. The following information is found in
manufacturer's specifications for the wall hung urinal with an external trap.
Hanger Bracket. It is supported on a hanger bracket just like a wall hung lavatory. The
hanger bracket attaches to a backing board (2 x 6) which is mounted between the studs in the
frame wall.
Trap. The minimum size trap on a urinal with an external trap is 1 1/2 ". The trap is
exposed (accessible). See Figure 8-32
Drain. The drain should be a minimum of2" in diameter. The rough-in soil piping consists
ofa sanitary tapped tee connected to the soil stack. A short threaded pipe (nipple) is threaded to
the sanitary tee, and extends through the wall. When the fixture is hung on the bracket, a
chrome-plated brass P-trap is connected between the fixture and the nipple that protrudes
through the finished wall. Any deviations from the manufacturer's specifications would be
specified in the construction plans. See Figure 8-32

8-20
Figure 8-32. Wall hung urinal with external trap

Wall-Hung Urinal with Integral Trap. A wall-hung urinal with an integral trap is
mounted on a hanger bracket. The waste connection is made between the horn on the back of the
urinal and a flange fitting that is attached to the sanitary tee in the soil pipe within the wall (See
Figure 8-33). A gasket seal is used to make a watertight connection between the urinal and the
flange. Figure 8-34 shows a wall-mounted urinal with an integral trap.
HANGING : - - - _ _
BRACKETS
-~.
------
FLANGE - - - - -
Figure 8-33. Flange Connection

;
:...
...
.
--~~~;L;:~~::~f:i'.~:.. :... . ..
Figure 8-34. Wall Hung Urinal with Integral Trap.

8-21
{\
The following information is found in the manufacturer' s specifications:
Hanger bracket. The hanger bracket attaches to the backing board the same as on the wallhung urinal with external trap.
Trap. The 2" trap is built inside the fixture on a winal with an integral trap.
Drain. The drain size is also 2" on a urinal with an integral trap. This is different from the
urinal with an external trap where the trap size was 1 1/2" and the drain was 2".
TUBS AND SHOWERS. Tubs and/or showers are installed during residential and
commercial construction. Types of units you may install include the tub and shower
combination, individual showers, and gang showers.
(''
Tub and Shower Combination. It is common practice to install tub and shower
combination units in residential structures. A tub and shower combination may be a single precast fiberglass or plastic unit. (Figure 8-35) Another type of tub and shower combination is a tub
with surrounding walls that are tiled (Figure 8-36a). A curtain or glass enclosure is installed to
contain the water when the shower is being used. When roughing in waste pipe to a tub, or tub
and shower combination unit, the minimum size trap and trap arm is 1 1/2". A continuous waste
and overflow is used to make the connection between the fixture and the drainage system
(Figure 8-36b).
Figure 8-35. Pre-cast Tub and Shower
Figure 8-36a. Tub and Shower with Tile

8-22
The waste connection consists of a flanged tailpiece that is sealed to the tub with
plumbers putty. The tailpiece, along with the other components form what is called a waste and
overflow connection. This is the most common connection used for the drain on a tub and
shower combination. A pipe is stubbed up from the P trap that is installed during the rough-in.
The tailpiece from the waste and overflow connects to the top of the P-trap, and the trap arm
connects to the soil or waste pipe.
Material reproduced by permission of Black & Decker

Figure 8-36b. Continuous Waste and Overflow
Individual Shower. Individual showers may be of the tiled type or the prefabricated type
that may be plastic or fiberglass. The tiled type has tile installed on the walls and floor (and
sometimes the ceiling). Tiled shower units require installation of a shower pan (lead, copper or
other material) which is coated with asphaltum, and filled with mortar.
An alternative to the tiled shower unit is a pre-cast
fiberglass or plastic shower stall. If you are planning to
install a plastic or fiberglass shower, the pan normally
comes with it. Regardless of which type of shower that
will be installed, the shower drain and shower pans are
assembled during the rough-in. Figure 8-37Sliding or
hinged doors may be installed on both types of individual
showers to complete the enclosure, and to contain water
when the shower is in use. In addition, both require a
minimum two inch drain.
Figure 8-37. Shower Pan

for Tiled Floor.
The minimum size trap and trap arm for an indiv idual shower is 2". The waste connection
for an individual shower is shown in Figure 8-3 8.

8-23
Figure 8-38. Waste Connection for Individual Shower

Gang Shower. Gang showers are installed in commercial structures such as gymnasiums
and dormitories. The installation involves forming a shower pan made from lead or copper that
is then coated with asphalt (a tar like substance), and filled with mortar. The floor, walls, and
ceiling of gang showers are generally tiled. Multiple floor drains may be installed. The
minimum size trap and trap arm for a gang shower is 3". See Figures 8-39 and 8-40.
SOLDERED LEAD OR
COPP.ER CORNER
LAYER Oji
ASPHACTUM
CAULKED~~
JOINT
Figure 8-39 Gang shower.
.,
Figure 8-40. Shower drain assembly

8-24
Rough-In Guidance. When roughing-in tubs or showers, always refer to the constrnction
plans and the manufacturer's rough-in specifications.
FLOOR DRAINS. Utilities personnel install floor drains to prevent flooding of strnctures.
Common areas that will have a floor drain include: laundry areas, basements, public rest rooms,
janitor's closets, and dining facilities. Floor drains attached to the sanitary sewer system will be
equipped a deep P-trap. The minimum size for a floor drain is 2". The strainer on the floor drain
must be removable for maintenance purposes.
SUMMARY
The sanitary waste system collects wastewater from various plumbing fixtures and
transports the waste to a wastewater treatment plant where the solids and impurities are removed.
Horizontal piping in the system is usually sloped at 114 inch per foot fall to permit gravity flow
of the wastewater. Primary components of the sanitary waste system include: branches, stacks
and vents, building drain and the building sewer. Soil pipe transports fecal matter and urine.
Waste pipe transports wastewater that does not contain fecal matter or urine.
Piping materials used to constrnct the sanitary waste system include cast iron, plastic and
galvanized steel. Cast iron pipe is used most often during commercial construction because of its
ability to withstand fire. Plastic pipe is used most often in residential construction.
Commonly used waste fittings include: bends, closet bends, wyes, sanitary tees, test tees,
combination wye and 1/8 bends, double tees, and clean outs. Traps are also used in waste
systems. Traps are installed to trap water that forms a seal to prevent sewer gases from entering
a structure. Types of traps are the P-trap, deep P-trap, and integral trap. Traps can lose their
water seal by direct siphonage, siphonage by momentum, capillary action, or evaporation.
Stacks and vents are vertical pipe in the sanitary waste system. Vertical pipes that
receive waste from fixtures are called soil or waste stacks. The portion of a soil or waste stack
above the highest drain opening is called a stack vent. Vertical pipes that serve to allow air into
the system to protect trap seals are called vents. Commonly used types of vents are individual
vents, main vents, dual vents, wet vents, loop vents, circuit vents, and relief vents.
When roughing in waste piping to fixtures it is important to consult the construction plans
and the manufacturer's rough-in specifications.

8-25
EXERCISE: Exercise I-Sa
1.
Which generic term could be used to describe a horizontal pipe in the sanitary waste system?
2. What is the tenn used to describe the lowest ho1izontal drain in the interior sanitary waste
system?
3.
Where does the building drain end and the building sewer begin?
4.
What type of waste does a soil pipe carry that a waste pipe does not?
5.
What piping materials are used to construct new sanitary waste systems?
6. Which fitting would be used to transition from a sanitary tee in a soil stack to a closet
flange?
7.
Which fitting(s) is/are commonly used to transition from a branch to a vertical pipe?
8.
What is the purpose of a trap?
9.
What depth is the water seal in a common P trap?
10. Give an example of a fixture that has an integral trap.
11. List four types of trap seal loss.
12. What term is used to describe a portion of a vertical pipe that transports waste from a water
closet or urinal?
13. What term is used to describe a vertical pipe in the sanitary waste system that is installed
solely for ventilation and that does not receive waste from any fixtures?

8-26
14. What type of vent is used to ventilate two fixtures that are back to back, or side by side at the
same elevation?
15. What type of vent is designed to ventilate a battery of fixtures in a single story structure?
16. What is the purpose ofa vent?
17. During the rough-in of waste piping to a wall mounted water closet, what device is installed
to support the weight of the fixture?
18. What is used to suppo1t the weight of a wall hung lavatory?
19. What are the two types of traps found on wall-hung urinals?
20. What two documents should be studied before installing waste piping to any fixture?
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 8a. If you feel you need to review the

8-27
OBJECTIVE
b. Given procedures, equipment, materials, and working as a member of a team, install a cast
iron and plastic interior waste system. No more than two instructor assists are allowed per team.
INTRODUCTION
Cast iron soil pipe (CISP) and plastic (PVC/DWV) are the most common type of piping
material used in the construction of waste systems. Other types of piping materials may be used;
however, to give you some experience working with PVC and cast iron soil pipe we will make
these the focus of this lesson. Specifically, we will address the types of cast iron soil pipe, how
to measure, cut, assemble, install and support this type of waste piping. For plastic (PVC/DWV)
pipe, you should read pages 41, 42, 56 through 61 and ages 80 through 86 in the commercial
text.
INFORMATION
CAST IRON AND PLASTIC SOIL PIPE INSTALLATION
Cast Iron and Plastic Pipe Measurement

TYPES OF CAST IRON SOIL PIPE. Cast iron soil pipe (CISP) is available in two
different types. No hub pipe (Figure 8-41) is uniform in diameter along its entire length and is
available in 5 and 10 foot lengths (5 foot lengths are the most commonly used). Bell & spigot
(hub) CISP pipe (Figure 8-42) is also used to construct waste systems. Bell & spigot pipe is
sometimes referred to as hub pipe. It is also available in 5 and 10 foot lengths. Both hub and no
hub pipe are available in service (SV) and extra heavy (XH) weights. These weights refer to the
wall thickness of the pipe. Service weight is used in non-traffic areas and extra heavy weight is
used in traffic areas. Service weight is normally used in residential structures, while extra heavy
is used during construction of multi-sto1y commercial buildings, or sewer mains under paved
surfaces.
-,:::;:;
',:::.'.7::r,o:;,~
M<1millWlll<Wn~1F.mF.~;i~Nl!EWllAWJTI.iHll!ltlJ.ji:)H/,l~llt'
Figure 8-41. No Hub CISP.
Figure 8-42. Bell & Spigot (Hub) CISP

8-28
METHODS OF MEASURING. Measuring and cutting Cast Iron Soil Pipe (CISP) for
installation requires knowledge of fitting terminology, and an understanding of the methods by
which piping may be measured. The type ofCISP (bell and spigot, or no hub) is also a factor in
pipe measurements. When installing bell and spigot, you must take into consideration the pipe
engagement (PE). Measuring the bell is important to get the correct pipe engagement. The
formula to obtain the end to end measurement is: (face to spigot) +PE x 2. See Figure 8-43
EndtoEnd
'r--
Face to Spigot
+PE
--J '
x2
Figure 8-43. CISP Bell and Spigot Measurement.
The process for finding the end to end measurement of"No-Hub Pipe" is much simpler.
With no-hub pipe, there is no pipe engagement or thread engagement. The fittings and pipe
simply butt together and are attached using a no-hub coupling. Therefore, a face to face
measurement is all that is required. See Figure 8-44 below.
End
End
End to End
'-#
Face
Face
Ll
Ll
Face to Face
Figure 8-44. Measuring No-Hub Pipe.
Measuring PVC bell and spigot is the same as for CISP shown in Figure 8-43. Measure
the size of the bell, and follow the formula: (face to spigot)+ PE x 2. When installing PVC pipe
that has glued joints, refer to objective 6b.
Cutting Cast Iron and Plastic Pipe

SOUND PIPE. Before and after cutting cast iron soil pipe, it is tapped with a ball peen
hammer to detennine if the pipe is cracked. This process is referred to as sounding pipe. It is
best to tap on the surface in several locations along its length to locate cracks in the pipe wall. A
clear ringing sound indicates the pipe is not cracked and may be used. A dull sound indicates a
crack in the pipe wall. Cracked pipe should be not be used to construct a waste system.

8-29
MEASURE AND MARK PIPE. After determining the end-to-end length of the pipe
required for installation, the pipe is measured and marked with soapstone. The soapstone makes
a clearly visible white mark on the black cast iron soil pipe. Mark around the entire
circumference of the pipe so that the mark can be used as a reference when cutting the pipe.
CUTTING TOOLS. Several tools may be used to cut cast iron soil pipe. We will address
the three tools that are most commonly used for this purpose.
Chop Saw. The chop saw is an electrically operated saw with a rotating circular blade. The
cutting blade is mounted on an arm that can be raised and lowered from a stationary platform.
The type of cutting blade may be changed to cut various types of construction materials. A blade
designed for cutting cast iron pipe must be installed for this application. The tool may be
operated on the ground or from the bed of truck. See Figure 8-45
Figure 8-45. Chop Saw
K-12 Rescue Saw. This saw is

po1table and is operated similarly to a
chain saw. It is powered by a gasoline
engine that rotates a circular blade.
Again, ensure you install a blade that is
designed for cutting cast iron before
using the tool for this application. See
Figure 8-46
Figure 8-46. K-12 Rescue Saw

8-30
Warning: These tools must be operated with all safety guards in place. Safety glasses or face
shields must be worn when operating the tool. Always read the manufacturer's operating
Directions and have an experienced operator demonstrate the proper use of the tool before you
attempt to use the tool.
Manual Snap Cutter. The manual snap cutter consists of a two long handles, a chain
and jaw assembly. The chain consists of links and cutting wheels that are wrapped around the
pipe. The chain is wrapped around the pipe and attached to a hook in the jaw assembly. One of
the long handles (with flat side) is set on the ground. The other handle is grasped by the utilities
personnel and pushed downward. The leverage provided by the handles applies even pressure to
the chain and cutting wheels to cut the pipe. See Figure 8-47.
Figure 8-47. Manual Snap Cutters.
NOTE: After cutting CISP, sound out the piping to ensure that it was not cracked
during the cutting process.
CUTTING PLASTIC PIPE. Plastic pipe is a relatively soft material, and can be cut using
a variety of tools. The plastic hand saw is designed specifically for cutting plastic. The tubing
cutter and pipe cutter are for cutting copper and steel pipe, but will also work effectively on
plastic. Other methods of cutting plastic pipe include hacksaws, carpenter saws, miter box saws,
and even string.
Methods of Assembly
NO HUB.COUPLINGS/NO HUB PIPE. No hub couplings consist of a neoprene seal and
a stainless steel clamp assembly (with two hose clamps). Figures 8-48 through 8-51 illustrate the
steps of assembling a joint using a no hub coupling.

8-31
:::J
, . .,.,!
.':'.!
Figure 8-48. Separate the neoprene seal from the steel clamp assembly.
!!
Figure 8-49. Slide the stainless steel clamp assembly onto the pipe.
Figure 8-50. Insert the ends of the pipe into the neoprene seal until they meet the separator ring
inside the neoprene seal.

8-32
>". ,.'
'', ' '' '
<f}-
Figure 8-51. Slide the stainless steel clamp assembly over the neoprene seal and tighten the hose
clamps between ranges of 48 to 60 inch pounds using the preset torque wrench.
COMPRESSION GASKETS/BELL AND SPIGOT PIPE. Compression gaskets are

made from neoprene rubber (See Figure 8-52). These gaskets are designed for use in bell and
spigot (HUB) joints and are available for service weight (SV) and extra heavy weight (XH) cast
iron soil pipe. Use the compression gasket designed for the weight of pipe that you are
assembling, because the gaskets are not interchangeable. The steps for assembling bell and
spigot cast iron soil pipe with compression gaskets are:
Figure 8-52. Compression Gasket.
(1) Clean the bell and spigot ends to remove dirt, mud, gravei or other debris from the
inside the bell and spigot ends of the pipe.
(2) When using cut pipe, remove the shaip edges from the outer edge with a rasp or by
tapping on the outer edge of the spigot end with a ball peen hammer (peening). See Figures 8-53
and 8-54.

8-33
~A
Figure 8-53. Rasping sharp edges.
Figure 8-54. Peening sharp edges.
(3) Insert the gasket into the cleaned hub. Because the gasket fits snugly into the hub, you'll
have to bump the gasket with a board or with your hand to completely insert the gasket. See
Figures 8-55.
.....
f.~
{/lll
--
Figure 8-55. Bumping a gasket with your hand.

(4) Lubricate the gasket with a thin coat of approved lubricant (do not use petroleum based
lubricants). Be sure to cover the entire interior surface of the gasket. See Figures 8-56 and 8-57.
-.......... -,.
~
1i
--
t~''
..
Figure 8-56. Lubricant
''"
Figure 8-57. Applying Lubricant
(5) To install pipe or fittings, insert the spigot of the fitting into the seal and complete the
joint with a pulling tool. See Figure 8-58.
8-34
Figure 8-58. Pulling tool.

ASSEMBLING PLASTIC PIPE. Refer to the following eight steps for final assembly of
plastic pipe. Figure 8-59
How to Solvent-glue Rigid Plastic Pipe
Rcin0vp rough bum~
usmo
ci
on ('1;1
0nd~ n! pla<":tc piD0
ut.hty knife
Mmk cfepth o! lhc fitting sockets on popes Take

ppcs DpJrt Clean end<; of popes anrJ !1tt>ng sock
cts with cnicry r!orh
Tc:;t flt ;:ill PPCS and f1lhll{j':O P1r0~ tl"lOU.

' Id t.1 1.qhtly
ml' !1..-<110111 d tne M!lr<q Sr''l'~rt'>
c'lf)<llW,t
Apply plas\1c pipe pnmN to !IX
en(!~;
o! the p1prs
nnd 10 !Ile' 1rU(l';c, of l!le f1ttin9 so\:l<r:ts Pnmcr
clulls gTm;sy ~urlacc<; an\J ensure; a n0NJ SPJI
Figure 8-59. Steps for Assembling Plastic Pipe (1-4)

8-35
f~'
Solvent-glue each 101nt by applying a thick coat of
Sprcnd solvent by hv1sting the pipe until marks are
solvonl glue to end of pipe. App!y a thin coal or
solvent glue to 1ns1de surface of fitting socket Work

quck!y. solvent glue hardens in ab-Out 30 seconds
olgncd. Hold pipe 1n place for about 20 seconds
10 prevent irnnt from shpprng
Quickly position pipe and htt1ng so that alignment

marks are offset by about 2 inches. Force pipe
6into fitting
until the end f11s flusl1 against the bottom of

tt1e socket
Wipe away excess solvent glue with a rag. Do not

disturb join! for 30 minutes alter gluing
Figure 8-59. Steps for Assembling Plastic Pipe (5-8)
Installation of Cast Iron and Plastic Pipe

DETERMINE SYSTEM LAYOUT. Read the construction plans to determine the location
of fixtures, exterior walls, and interior walls within the proposed structure. Fixture locations
may be marked with stakes so that piping is assembled to the correct locations to receive waste
from each fixture.

8-36
Construction plans will also indicate where the sanitary waste system should exit the
structure. If not specified in the construction plans, the location of the building drain and branch
lines will be determined by the location of fixtures within the structure. The arrangement of the
building drain and branches should be designed to facilitate adequate drainage with efficient and
economical use of piping materials.
Read the manufacturer's rough-in specifications to determine the waste piping requirements
for individual fixtures. The size and height of each fixture's drain and water line will be
indicated in the specifications. The height of backing boards for wall hung fixtures will also be
identified in the rough-in specifications.
HORIZONTAL PIPING. Once the location of the fixtures, building drain and branch
piping has been determined, trenches are dug and graded for the installation of horizontal piping
within the forms. These trenches are normally dug by hand since the soil within the forms is
loosely packed during this stage of construction. Most often the horizontal interior waste piping
is installed at 1/4 inch fall per foot. If the piping is larger than 6 inches in diameter the slope
may be slightly less.
After the trenches are dug and graded, the building drain is assembled with the necessary
fittings for stacks and branch lines. Branch lines are then assembled with the necessary fittings
to receive waste from fixtures that will not be located directly above the building drain. The
fitting installed on the building drain at the base of stacks will be a combination wye and 1/8
bend. It is referred to as the stack base.
VERTICAL PIPING. The location of stacks will be determined by the location of the
fixtures. In some cases, several fixture drains may be attached to a single stack. Additionally, the
fixtures installed within the building will determine the number of stacks in a building. Vertical
piping is stubbed up above the proposed surface elevation of the concrete slab. To hold vertical
piping in place until the concrete slab is poured, wires and stakes may be used to maintain the
desired position of the piping.
Extend the vertical piping from its base to an elevation, which is 12 inches above the
proposed concrete slab surface. Upon completion of the sub-grade pipe installation and with
vertical pipe "stubbed up" above the proposed slab, the system is inspected and tested for leaks.
Methods of testing waste systems will be addressed later in this unit of instruction.
After the concrete slab is poured, you'll return to the construction site to continue
installation of stacks and vents. Tapped sanitary tees will be installed in the stacks at the proper
height to receive waste from individual fixtures such as lavatories, sinks, and urinals. Nipples
(sections of threaded pipe less than 12 inches in length) will then be threaded into the branch
openings of the sanitary tees. The nipples protrude past the framed wall to provide an accessible
connection for fixture connections after the wall coverings are installed. The nipples are capped
to prevent debris or insects from entering the piping until fixtures are installed in the structure.
Vents are constructed within the walls and are projected through the roof as necessary to protect
trap seals, and to allow sewer gases to exit the waste piping system. With the rough-in of waste
piping complete, the system will again be inspected and tested for leaks.
8-37
SIZING VENTS. Numerous factors are considered when sizing vents, such as, drainage
fixture units, horizontal and vertical length. As a general rule, the minimum size vents should be
I W' I.D., but should never be less than half the size of the drain it serves.
Supporting Cast Iron and Plastic Pipe
HORIZONTAL. Cast iron bell and spigot pipe with compression gaskets and no-hub cast
iron pipe with no-hub couplings should be supported at every other joint, unless supports are
spaced more than 4 feet apart. If this is the case, then support at each joint. Plastic pipe should
be supported every 4 feet on horizontal runs.
VERTICAL. Cast iron bell and spigot pipe with compression gaskets and no-hub cast iron
pipe with no-hub couplings should be supported at its base and each floor level, not to exceed 15
feet. Plastic pipe should be supported at its base and each floor when run vertically.
Safety
You're fortunate that the work required of you in this course will be done in training
booths, otherwise, you might have to craw1 under a building to accomplish your training. It is
important that you are aware of the hazards that could be awaiting you in the crawl spaces of
buildings.
~
CONFINED SPACES. These crawl areas under buildings are considered confined
spaces. A confined space is described as; large enough, and configured so that a worker can
bodily enter and perform assigned work, has limited or restricted means of entry or exit, and is
not designed for continuous human occupancy. Anytime you enter a confmed space, special
precautions should be taken.
HAZARDS. Insects, spiders, snakes, and various rodents often live in crawl spaces. If a
sewer line has burst, you could encounter sewer gases and waste products that could cause injury
or illness. In addition, there are many mechanical hazards, such as, piping, braces, protruding
nails and screws, and other structural components.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT. You can save yourself from a lot of
suffering if you protect yourself with the appropriate protective equipment. When entering a
crawl space you should wear long sleeves, steel toed boots, a hard hat, a face shield and gloves.
SUMMARY
Cast iron soil pipe is frequently used to construct interior sanitary waste systems. This is
especially true during the construction of commercial structures. Cast iron pipe is available in
bell and spigot (hub) or no-hub forms. It comes in two weights: extra heavy and service weight.

8-38
To measure cast iron pipe, you must be familiar with fitting terminology such as branch
and run opening, the center and face of a fitting and fitting allowance. Types of piping
measurements include end to end, and face to face on no hub pipe. Bell and spigot pipe will be
measured from the base of the hub to the spigot end. Ultimately, all measurements must be
converted to an end to end measurement so that piping may be cut to the required length for
installation.
Before cutting cast iron pipe, you should sound out the pipe to ensure that it is not
cracked. The pipe should then be measured and marked to the desired length. Several tools are
available for cutting cast iron pipe, to include the chop saw, K-12 rescue saw, and manual snap
cutters. Cast iron pipe may be assembled using no-hub couplings or with compression gaskets
for hub cast iron soil pipe. PVC/DWV pipe has become the pipe material of choice for most
DWV systems and it also comes in a wide variety of sizes, schedules (weight) and fittings.
To install the interior sanitaiy waste system, you must first determine the system layout
using the construction plans and manufacturer's rough-in specifications. Horizontal piping is
installed within sloped trenches to construct the building drain and branch lines. Vertical piping
is installed from each stack base to an elevation of 12 inches above the proposed slab surface.
The piping is then inspected and tested for leaks. After the concrete slab is poured, the vertical
piping runs are continued in order to construct the stacks and vents. The system is again
inspected and tested for leaks. Vertical pipe must be suppmted at its base and at each floor level
not to exceed 15 feet. Horizontal pipe must be supported at every other joint not to exceed 4 feet,
in which case, supports should be installed at each joint.
Waste pipe is sized based on drainage fixture unit values. These values are relative to the
amount of water that the fixture will discharge within one minute. Vents can be a minimum size
of 1 114" LD., but should never be less than 1/2 the size of the drains whlch they serve.
EXERCISE: Exercise I-Sb

1. Which type of cast iron soil pipe is uniform in diameter along its entire length?
2. Which weight of cast iron soil pipe is normally used to construct an interior waste system?
3. Where is extra heavy (XH) CISP used?
4. What terms are used to describe the openings in a fitting?

8-39
5. What are two methods for cutting PVC pipe?
6. What tool is used to "sound out" cast iron soil pipe for cracks?
7. Name three tools that can be used to cut cast iron soil pipe.
8. What wrench is used for installing CISP no-hub couplings?
9. What tool is used to join bell and spigot CISP using compression gaskets?
I 0. Which documents should be consulted to dete1mine the layout of an interior waste system?
11. What is the minimum size vent allowed on a drainage system?
12. How often should you supp011 horizontal cast iron pipe?
13. How often should you support vertical cast iron pipe?
14. What type of glue can be used to join PVC piping and PVC fittings?
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 8b. If you feel you need to review

BLANK PAGE

8-41
/~
OBJECTIVE
c. Given statements pertaining to locating leaks in interior wastewater systems, identify which
statements are true with at least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Upon completion of each stage of the rough-in of the interior sanitary waste system, piping
must be inspected and tested for leaks. Leaks can result in damage to the structure and could
possibly result in fire or explosions from sewer gases accumulating within the building.
INFORMATION
LOCATING LEAKS IN INTERIOR WASTEWATER SYSTEMS
Causes of Leaks
DEFECTIVE MATERIALS. Use of defective materials during the installation of waste
systems could naturally result in leaks. Pipe and fittings should be visually inspected for cracks
or other defects prior to installation. Cast iron soil pipe should be "sounded out" before and after
it is cut for installation.
POOR WORKMANSHIP. The utilities worker can contribute to leaks in numerous ways.
Improper grading, back filling, or compaction of soil in trenches during pipe installation can lead
to leaks in the waste system. Improper installation or lack of piping supports can also contribute
to this problem. Inspecting the system at the proper stages of construction will help you to
identify and correct leaks before any major damage to the structure occurs.
Methods of Locating Leaks
AIR TEST. To perform an air test, plug or cap all openings in the system including the
vents through the roof Attach a hand pump or an air compressor with an air gauge to a suitable
opening (test tee). See Figures 8-60 and 8-61. Pressurize the system to 5 pouuds per square inch
(psi). The system must hold and maintain 5 psi for 15 minutes. If the air pressure should drop
during the test, then apply a soapy water solution to the suspected area. Bubbles will appear at
any joints that are leaking. Once the leaks have been identified and located, repair any leaking
joints.
The air test is ideal to use in freezing temperatures. Linseed oil is used in lieu of soapy
water during freezing temperatures for this test. The air test must be administered under the
supervision of the plumbing inspector. All joints should be exposed for the inspector to observe.

8-42
Figure 8-60. Hand Pump and

Gauge Assembly.
Figure 8-61. Air Compressor.
Figure 8-62. Test Plugs.
WATER TEST. The water test is the simplest method to locate leaks. It is an excellent
alternative to the air test. Plug all openings except the highest one, using test plugs or caps. See
Figure 8-62. The system is then completely filled with water through the highest opening in the
piping system. The system must hold water with no drop in the water level for at least 15
minutes before inspection starts. If there are any leaks in the system, water will seep out at that
location and will be easily detected. For this reason, the water test makes it easy to locate leaks
in the system. Unfortunately, the water test is not feasible under freezing conditions.
SUMMARY
Upon completion of each stage of the rough-in of the interior sanitary waste system, the
piping must be inspected and tested for leaks. Causes of leaks in the waste system could be the
result of defective materials or poor workmanship. The air or water test is conducted to identify
and locate leaks in the system.

8-43
EXERCISE: Exercise I-Sc

l. How can you prevent the installation of defective materials when constructing the sanitary
waste system?
2. List some examples of poor workmanship that could result in leaks in the sanitary waste
system.
3. How much air pressure is required to conduct an air test?
4. What is used to stop up openings while conducting a water test?
5. Which test would you conduct during freezing conditions?
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check Sc. If you feel you need to review


SW J8AQR3E43 l OIAA-I-9
UNIT 9. Valves
,-~~"'
OBJECTIVES
a. Identify basic facts and tenns pertaining to valve fundamentals with at least 70% accuracy.
b. Given a list of statements pertaining to the inspection of valves, identify basic facts with at
least 70% accuracy.
c. Given a list of statements pertaining to the replacement and repair of valves, identify basic
facts with at least 7 5% accuracy.
d. Given a list of statements pertaining to the installation, inspection, and maintenance of valve
boxes, identify basic facts with at least 75% accuracy.

9-2
OBJECTIVE
a. Identify basic facts and terms pertaining to valve fundamentals with at least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Valves are considered one of the most important devices available in operating a water
distribution system. A valve is a fitting installed in a piping system to control the flow of fluids.
In order to control fluids within a piping system, you will need to know about the fundamental
operation, of some of the inore common valves found in a water distribution system.
INFORMATION
VALVE FUNDAMENTALS
Purpose
Valves are used for the routing of fluids, control of pressure, flow, and liquid levels. A
valve is a fitting installed in a piping system to control the flow of fluids in one or more of the
following ways:
* To tum the flow on or off (Gate, or Ball Valve)

* To regulate the flow. (Globe Valve)
* To allow flow in one direction only. (Check Valve)
* To regulate pressure (Pressure reducing Valve)
* To relieve excess temperature I pressure. (Temperature &
Pressure
Relief Valve)
Let's take a moment to discuss the three major components of any valve. In some form or
fashion, all valves have a body, a seat, and a disc. The body simply houses the internal
components within the valve. The seat is an internal opening within the valve body that allows
the passage of water through the device and also serves as a sealing surface for the disc. The
disc is the movable internal component that regulates or completely stops the flow of water
through the opening in the seat of the valve.
Types of Valves
CHECK VALVES. The purpose of check valves is to allow water to flow through
piping in one direction only. Regardless of type or model, check valves all operate under the
same principle. As water passes through the check valve (in the designed direction of flow), a
disc opens allowing the water to pass through. When water flow reverses direction, the disc
seats (seals the seat opening), thereby stopping the reverse flow of water through the valve. The
two basic types of check valves are the swing check valve and the lift check valve.

9-3
Swing Check Valve Operation. Swing check valves contain a hinged disc that seats
against a machined seat within the
valve body. The disc swings freely
on its hinge pin from a fully closed
Cap
r 11
u-u
~
position, to a position parallel with
!'.'Cl "''
the flow (open). When fluid enters
Disk hinge pin
the valve, pressure raises the disc
"'\\- 4
'S''"""'~
Disk hinn.o
<>..-~
'Ir"
allowing continuous unrestricted
Disk laceflow through the valve. When the
~9
O~h:rrut
flow stops or reverses direction, the
Body
disc will return to the closed
seat ring
position. The disc is held in place by
Body
the backpressure thus limiting the
flow in one direction only. See
Figure 9-1. Swing Check Valve
Figure 9-1.
~;:Q
1,c;,1
CJ
INSTALLATION. When installing a swing check valve, several factors must be

considered. Swing check valves can be installed in the vertical or horizontal position. Critical
here is to consider the direction of flow. Always remember to install a swing check valve with
the arrow (stamped on exterior valve body), pointing in the direction of flow. In a piping system,
a gate valve is normally installed ahead of the swing check valve for maintenance purposes. The
gate valve is closed to stop the flow of water through the swing check valve to allow for
disassembly, inspection, and repair of valve components or complete valve replacement if
necessary. Additionally the design application of the gate valves (fully open or fully closed)
matches the design ofa swing check valves (fully open or fully closed).
Lift Check.
OPERATION. Lift check valves contain a disc that seals against a horizontal seat in the
valve body. When fluid enters the valve, pressure raises the disc vertically and permits
continuous flow through the valve. When the flow stops, the disc will return to the closed
position via gravity. Sho1i guides located above and below the disc ensure proper disc alignment
within the valve body.
Body
--+
Disk
Figure 9-2. Lift Check Valve

9-4
INSTALLATION. As with any valve, several factors must be considered when installing a
lift check valve. Unlike the swing check valve that can be installed vertically or horizontally, the
lift check valve is installed in the horizontal position only. Always ensure that the arrow
stamped on the exterior valve body is pointing in the direction of flow within the piping system.
In a piping system, a globe valve is installed ahead of the lift check valve for ease of
maintenance. The other reason is; the design application of the globe valve is similar to the
design of the lift check valve. The globe valve is closed to stop the flow of water to allow for
disassembly, inspection, and repair of internal valve components, or replacement of the entire lift
check valve if deemed necessary.
Globe Valve
The purpose of globe valves is to throttle (a partially open valve), or regulate the flow of
water. Because of the globe valve's ability to throttle the flow of water, it is frequently used in
faucets, shower mixing valves, and hose bibs.
OPERATION. The configuration ofa globe valve requires water flowing through the
valve to change direction several times, causing turbulence, resistance to the flow of water and a
considerable pressure drop. Globe valves throttle or regulate fluid flow by changing the size of
the seat opening through which the fluid flows. This is achieved by changing the position of the
disc (by turning operating wheel clockwise or counterclockwise), in relation to the seat. The
basic components of a globe valve include the wheel, stem, stuffing box, bonnet, body, seat, and
disc. See Figure 9-3 for a typical globe valve. The wheel connects to the stem.
S1om
Disk stem ring
Body seal ring
Figure 9-3. Globe Valve

By turning the wheel you will raise or lower the stem and disc, thus throttling or regulating
the flow tluough the valve. The stuffing box is located at the top of the bonnet and serves to
house the packing that prevents leaks from occurring around the stem.

9-5
/'~'"
INSTALLATION. Install globe valves for services requiring frequent operation, and where
the valve may be used to throttle or regulate the flow. Depending on the existing piping material,
you will install the globe valve using threaded, soldered, flanged, or welded joints. As with check
valves (discussed earlier), install globe valves in the direction of flow as indicated by an arrow
stamped on the exterior valve body. Although globe valves are installed in either the horizontal or
vertical positions, remember to ensure accessibility of the operating wheel or handle.
Gate Valve
Handwheol and
stem rise together
Split wedge
Figure 9-4. Gate Valve

The gate valve is one of the most commonly used valves within a plumbing system. Its
purpose is to start or stop the flow of water. To open the valve, turn the handle or hand wheel
completely counterclockwise. To turn the valve off, turn the handle or wheel clockwise
completely. Although many applications exist for the use of gate valves, they should be used
only where they will be left either fully open or fully closed. They should never be used in the
partially open or closed position for throttling service. This can cause erosion or turbulence,
which results in vibration and chattering of the disc. All ofthis could lead to damage of the
valve parts.
OPERATION. Gate valves control the flow of fluid by a gate-like wedge disc that fits
against a smooth machined surface within the valve body called a seat. When the disc is in the
open position, it pennits a straight, full, and free flow of fluid. To stop the flow in a gate valve,
the disc slides down between two seating surfaces. Gate valves have the same basic components
as globe valves.
The main difference between gate and globe valves is the position of the seats within the
valve body and the way the disc seals against the seating surfaces. Figure 9-4 shows the
components of a gate valve.
Gate valves have many types of wedge discs as illustrated in Figures 9-5 and 9-6 on the next
page.
9-6
NOTE: After fully opening or closing gate or globe valves, reverse operating handle
1/8 to 114 tum to prevent seizing.
lr:llNTlflCATlOH PLATI
tD!NfllfCATION
\ ..
""JI
ACO:/HG NUT
aOllY
50UO WIOGI DISC
SPUT WIDGI DIK
RISING SHM, SOLID WlPGE DISK GATE VALVE
Figure 9-5. Solid Wedge Gate Valve
RISING SUM. SPUT WlDGI OISI( G.UI VAtVI
Figure 9-6. Split Wedge Gate Valve
INSTALLATION. The most often used gate valve (solid-wedge) illustrated in Figure 9-5
may be installed in any position. The split-wedge gate valve, which is the best sealing of the two
types of gate valves, is designed so that closing pressure forces the two parallel halves of the
wedge disc outward onto the body seat. This type of gate valve will close off the flow of fluids
completely, even when there is scale trapped on one seat. Split-wedge gate valves should be
installed with the valve stem in the vertical position. For maintenance purposes, a union is
installed on either side of a gate valve. A union is a fitting installed in a pipe to allow removal
and replacement of an installed plumbing component or piping section without cutting the pipe.
Last, but not least, always remember to install gate valves with the operating wheel (handle) in
an accessible location.
Ball Valve
A ball valve is a quick opening/closing device with a low-pressure drop. Ball Valves, like
gate valves, are used to start or stop the flow of water through plumbing components or piping
systems. They are used on water or other types of supply lines in place of gate valves. Ball
valves are not designed for throttling service. Figure 9-7

9-7
Figure 9-7. Ball Valve
OPERATION. The basic components of the ball valve are the handle, a stem, a disc (ball),
and a seat, which are machined into the valve body. Figure 9-7 illustrates a ball valve. A quarter
tum of the handle opens or closes the valve. When the handle is inline (parallel) to existing
piping, the valve is fully open. When the handle is across (perpendicular) to the piping, the valve
is fully closed. The disc in a ball valve is a ball with a hole drilled through it. In the open
position, the port (opening) in the ball is aligned with the inlet and outlet ports in the valve body.
INSTALLATION. Before installing a ball valve, consideration must be given to the type
of fluid the valve will be servicing. The steel (carbon, forged and stainless) ball valve is used for
steam and high-pressure applications. Brass, ball valves are used on water services. Finally, you
can also use the plastic ball valves on water services, but they are well adapted for use when a
high resistance to acids is required. The type of ball valve and piping will dictate what type of
joint that is used to install the valve. The common joints used to install ball valves include the
threaded, soldered, mechanical, and solvent glued. Finally, ball valves can be installed in the
vertical or horizontal positions, but again, remember to make certain that the handle is
accessible.
Altitude Valve
Altitude valves are used primarily on supply lines to elevated storage tanks. These valves
are designed to (I) regulate the water level in the water storage tanks to prevent them from
overflowing or running dry, and (2) maintain a constant water level as long as water pressure in
the distribution system is adequate. Figure 9-8 illustrates the altitude valve in relation to an
elevated storage tank.
""'-,,

9-8
Altitude Valve
::: :::: :: ::
...........
...
....
.... ....
...
....
...
....
...
....
.... ....
...
....
..
... .... .. ....
.. .
. ..
D str bution Li
....................
...
... ....
.... ...... ..........
.......... ...
...
... ....
.... .. ..........
.......... .
....... 1
::: :::: :: :::::::::::
::: : :: :: :::::::s~p
.p. i~ .i:.i~~. :==::::"'="I
: : : : : ......... !. ......... : : : : : : : : : : : : :
1:. :_ :_:_ :_ :_ :. :_ :.:. :_ :. :. :_ :.
Figure 9-8. Altitude Valve with Elevated Storage Tank

OPERATION. As stated earlier, altitude valves are used primarily on supply lines to
elevated storage tanks. When used on elevated storage tanks, the altitude valve automatically
opens when the pressure in the distribution system drops below normal working pressure.
Altitude valves will automatically close or shut-off the flow into an elevated tank when the water
level in the tank reaches a pre-determined level.
INSTALLATION. The installation criteria for altitude valves will vary from type and
manufacturer. Altitude valves have automatic sensing and operating devices installed on them.
For this reason, always refer to the manufacturer's specifications for step-by-step procedures
when installing an altitude valve.
Pressure Regulating Valve

A pressure-regulating valve is an automatic device used for converting high, inlet water
pressure to a lower constant pressure. A pressure-regulating valve is installed where needed to
regulate excessively high water main pressures (elevated water storage tank outlets).
0 PERATl 0 N. The pressure-regulating valve is sometimes referred to as a pressure
reducing valve. A diaphragm assembly is the only moving part controlling pressure-regulating
valves. A resilient (flexible material) disc is held in place by a disc retainer and forms a tight
seal with the valve seat when pressure is applied above the flow side of the diaphragm. Most
pressure regulating valves are equipped with an adjustment screw to adjust the outlet pressure.
Figures 9-9 and 9-10 represent a typical pressure-regulating valve.

'V''
9-9
fto-------ADJUSTMENT NUT
-------DIAPi-ffi.AGM
1 - - - INLE.T
PORT
SCREEN
OUTLET PORT
Figure 9-9. Pressure Regulating

Valve Components
Figure 9-10. Pressure Regulating

Valve (exterior view)
INSTALLATION. When installing a pressure-regulating valve (PRV), ensure that the

arrow (stamped on exterior valve body) is pointing in the direction of flow. Pressure regulating
valves are normally installed in the horizontal position. When installing PRVs, pressure gauges
are installed on both the inlet and outlet sides of the valve to ensure pressure is in fact, being
reduced. Additionally, a pressure regulating valve is installed on the outlet side to protect
equipment in case the PRY malfunctions.
Pressure Relief Valve
A pressure relief valve is a safety device that

automatically provides protection against excessive
temperatures, excessive pressures, or both. Utility
personnel install pressure relief valves of the type pictured
in Figure 9-11 to protect water-heating equipment from the
dangers of overheating and explosion. Pressure relief
valves are available for pressure only, or for temperature
and pressure (T&P). T&P relief valves, the more
commonly used of the two, are used on domestic water
heaters.
Figure 9-11. Pressure Relief Valve
OPERATION. Some piping systems and fixtures are designed to operate at specific
maximum or desired pressures. Quick opening or quick closing of a line valve, or sudden
starting or stopping of a pump can cause sudden changes of velocity/pressure. To eliminate
damage, these valves respond to pressure variations at their inlets. They open very rapidly at an
increase in pressure above a set control point, and discharge the pressurized air or water to the
atmosphere. The pressure at which the valve discharges is normally preset by the manufacturer,
9-10
or could be manually adjusted. A temperature and pressure relief valve is set to discharge at a
pre-determined temperature or pressure.
INSTALLATION. Pressure relief valves are installed on compressed air systems, water
heaters, and low water pressure systems to avoid damage if the pressure reducing valve fails to
operate. Always refer to manufacturers specifications when installing a pressure relief valve.
Quick Opening Valve

Some situations require the use of a valve that can be opened quickly, hence the name, quick
opening valve. Valves that operate by a quarter-turn of the operating handle are considered
quick-opening valves (ball valves, which were covered earlier in the text, are perfect examples).
Quick-opening valves require minimal effort by the operator.
COMMON TYPES. Other types of quick-opening valves besides the previously
mentioned ball valve which includes butteJjly valves, quick-opening gate valves, and certain
types ofplug valves. See Figures 9-12 and 9-13 for two examples of these quick-opening valves.
Figure 9-12. Butterfly Valve
Figure 9-13. Quick Opening Gate Valve
Butterfly Valves have a rotating disk (the butterfly) that fits within a shaft controlled valve
body. In its closed position, the disk seats against a resilient seat.
Quick Opening Gate Valves are equipped with a lever that allows the operator to open or
close the valve with a single stroke of the lever.
Plug Valves are used in water, gas, and fuel systems. In fuel systems, they are used to isolate
fuel systems and their components for maintenance and repair. They are also used to direct fuel
to different parts of the fuel system. All plug valves can be divided into two types: lubricated
and non-lubricated. The lubricated type uses a lubricant that raises the plug from its seat to
permit ease of turning, and it forms a high pressure seal between the plug and seat. With fuel
9-11
systems, all valves installed downstream from the filter /separator in a fuel system will be of the
non-lubricated type. Using non-lubricated plug valves eliminates the possibility that lubricant
will enter the system on the down-stream side of the filter/separator. Their use also prevents the
blocking or clogging of line strainers and filters.
OPERATING DEVICES. Operating devices are what turn a valve on or off. Operating
devices for quick-opening valves include: quarter-tum handles, manually operated levers, and
mechanically, pneumatically, or electrically driven devices.
INSTALLATION. Refer to the manufacturer's specifications and Directions for proper
installation procedures.
SUMMARY
A valve is a fitting installed in a piping system to control the flow in one or more of the
following ways: (!)To tum the flow on or off or (2) To regulate or throttle the flow (3) To allow
flow in one direction only and ( 4) To regulate pressure\temperature. In this section we discussed
the fundamentals and components of valves. As you can see there are a variety of valves that all
have their own paiticular use within water distribution systems. It is very important that a
WFSM (utilities) worker understands when, where and why a paiticular valve is used within a
system. Finally, when in doubt, do not hesitate to refer to manufacturer's specifications for
installation, procedures for one of the most important devices within a water distribution system
-VALVES.
EXERCISE: Exercise 9a
I. Naine the three main components of any valve.
2. State the purpose of check valves and list the two types.
3. What is the purpose ofa globe valve?
4. What should you do after fully opening or closing a gate valve? Why?

9-12
5. What type of valve regulates the flow of water; is used for throttling, and is frequently used
in faucets, shower mixing valves and hose bibs?
6. A ball valve will be considered open ifthe position of the handle is _ _ _ _ _ to the
piping.
7.
What component of the exterior water distribution system uses altitude valves?
8.
What is the purpose of a pressure-reducing valve?
9. Which valve provides protection against excessive temperatures, excessive pressures, or

both?
10. Name types of quick opening valves.
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 9a. If you feel you need to review the
previous instrnction, do so.

9-13
OBJECTIVE
b. Given a list of statements pertaining to the inspection of valves, identify basic facts with at
least 70% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous objective, you learned about the fundamentals and basic operational
characteristics of some specific valves. In this objective you will learn some basic facts
pertaining to inspection of those valves.
INFORMATION
VALVE INSPECTION
Purpose
Inspection of valves on a periodic basis is vital to insuring the trouble free and continuous
operation of a water system. Regular inspections also identify the need for preventive
maintenance, thereby minimizing the possibility of unexpected or premature failure of
equipment, (valves in this case).
Inspection of Specific Valve Types
CHECK VALVES. There are two basic types of check valves.
Swing Check Valve. To inspect the internal components ofa swing check valve, you
must disassemble it by: (1) Closing the gate valve to stop the flow of fluid through the swing
check valve, (2) Removing the cap, (3) Removing the hinge pin and disc; use care not to damage
any components after disassembly, inspect the disc and seat for scratches, pitting, and/or scale
build-up.
Lift Check Valve. To inspect the internal components ofa lift check valve, you will
have to disassemble it. First, to stop the flow of fluid through the lift check valve, close the
globe valve, which should have been installed just prior to the lift check valve. Next, remove the
cap and lift the disc from the valve body. Visually inspect the disc, seat, and guides for pitting,
and/or scale build-up.
,,,-.""
GLOBE VALVES. Two of the more common discrepancies associated with globe
valves includes water leaking around the stem at the packing nut, and water seeping past the disc
and seat when the valve is in the fully closed position. If water is seeping past the disc and seat
while the valve is in the fully closed position, you would first shut off the water to the globe
valve. Next, unscrew the wheel-locking nut and remove the wheel handle. Loosen the bonnet
from the valve body with the disc and stem attached. Remove the stem from the bonnet and disc
from the stem. You can now visually inspect the stem, disc and seat for scratches, pitting, or
scale build-up.
9-14
GATE VALYES. Inspect for leaks at the valve seat, around the stuffing box, or at the
body-bonnet joint. Also check for signs of corrosion and/or physical damage.
BALL VALYES. Inspecting a ball valve is quite simple. First shut off fluid flow to
valve. Second, disassemble the valve, and remove the disc (ball) from the body. Next, visually
inspect the disc and seating surfaces for obvious scratches or scale build-up. If needed, the ball
valve may have removable /replaceable seats.
ALTITUDE VALVES. The inspection criteria for altitude valves will vary from type
and manufacturer. Altitude valves have automatic sensing and operating devices installed on
them. For this reason, always refer to the manufacturer's specifications for step-by-step
procedures when inspecting an altitude valve.
PRESSURE REGULATING VALVES. Inspection of pressure regulating valves will
vary because of the many designs and manufacturers. Refer to the manufacturer's specifications
before proceeding. First, you must check (compare) the inlet and outlet pressure gauges to
ensure that pressure is being regulated. Next, if pressure cannot be regulated, inspect the internal
components by disassembling the valve according to manufacturer's specifications. Look for
any worn or defective parts and replace as needed. Finally, reassemble the valve and check the
inlet and outlet pressure gauges to ensure that the valve is functioning properly. It cannot be
emphasized enough that the manufacturer's Directions and specifications must be followed to the
letter when attempting repairs on a pressure-regulating valve. If discrepancies cannot be
corrected, remove and replace the entire valve.
PRESSURE RELIEF VALYES. When inspecting a PRV, one inspection item of
concern is to ensure that the discharge port of the valve is not clogged or plugged. If so, flush
the valve by momentarily depressing or pulling the discharge handle located on top of the valve.
Another common problem associated with pressure relief valves is that water continuously seeps
past the disc and seat assembly. If this occurs, attempt to flush the valve as mentioned earlier. In
both instances, if discrepancies cannot be corrected, remove and replace the entire valve.
QUICK OPENING VALYES. The inspection of other quick-opening valves requires

an operational check. A quarter-tum should completely open or close the butterfly valve. When
closed, ensure that the flow has stopped completely on the outlet side of the valve. This is the
same for quick-opening gate valves where the handle is raised or lowered. If flow does continue
when in the closed position, you must disassemble the valve and perform maintenance to the disc
and/or seat. As with any valve, always refer to the manufacturer specifications when performing
inspections.
SUMMARY
In this section we discussed the inspection procedures of specific valves. As you can see all
valves have their own particular characteristics. It is very important that you follow the

9-15
inspection procedures specified for each valve. Finally, when in doubt, do not hesitate to refer to
manufacturer's specifications for inspection procedures.
EXERCISE: Exercise 9b
I. To inspect the internal components of a swing check valve, you must
2. When inspecting a globe valve, two common discrepancies are
and
3. After disassembly of a ball valve for inspection, you would look for - - - - - -
4. Valves are periodically inspected for what purpose?
5. !fa pressure relief valve discharge po1t seems to be clogged, it might be cleared by
- - - - - - - the valve.
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 9b. If you feel you need to review the

9-16
Blank Page

9-17
OBJECTIVE
c. Given a list of statements pertaining to the repair and replacement of altitude and pressure
relief valves, identify basic facts with at least 7 5% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous objective, you learned about the inspection procedures for specific valves.
In this objective you will learn some basic facts pertaining to the repair and replacement of
altitude and pressure relief valves.
INFORMATION
REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT OF VALVES
Altitude Valve
Altitude valves vary by type and manufacturer. If an altitude valve is not operating
properly and cannot be calibrated according to manufacturer's specifications, it may be
repairable using a specified repair kit. Otherwise, it may have to be replaced.
Some reasons you may have to repair an altitude valve are that the water tower is
overfilling or not filling at all, the diapluagm is broken, or that the sensing lines may be plugged
or damaged.
Below are some general repair procedures obtained from an altitude valve manufacturer;
remember to double check the specific valve technical data before performing any maintenance.
PROCEDURE A : DIAPHRAGM REPLACEMENT

------------------1. Isolate the valve from !he system by closing
2.
3.
4.
5.
upstream amd downstream block valves.

Loosen one of the Lubing connections on the
bonnet. Allow any residual pressure to bleed off.
Remove all tubing connected at the bonnet.
Remove the bonnet nuts.
Remove the bonnet. If the bonnet sticks in place,
it may be loosened by rapping sharply around its
edge with a rubber-headed mallet. NOTE: 8"
and larger valves are equipped with eye bolts
through which a chain can be.fastened to aid in

9-18
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
I 1.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
lifting tlze bonnet.

Remove the spring.
Remove the diaphragm plate capserews and the
diaphragm plate.
Remove the old diaphragm.
Making sure the dowel pin holes are in the
proper location, place the new diaphragm over
the studs and press down until it is flat against
the body and spool.
Replace the diaphragm plate and the diaphragm
plate capscrews.
Tighten all diaphragm plate capscrews snugly.
Replace the spring.
Replace the bonnet and reinstall the bonnet nuts.
Tighten the bonnet nuts snugly using a crisscross tightening pattern.
Reinstall the control tubing.
Reopen the upstream and downstream block
valves.
Before placing the valve back in service, perform the air bleed procedure described in the first
section of this manual.
Pressure Relief Valve

If discrepancies on a pressure relief valve cannot be corrected by clearing the discharge
port and/or flushing the valve, remove and replace the entire valve. A good example ofthis
would be the pressure and temperature relief valve on the standard water heater. If this valve is
failing, it is more economical and safe to remove the valve and install a new one in lieu ofrepair.
Of course, if a pressure relief valve allows water to continuously seep past the disc and
seat assembly, flush the valve prior to replacement to loosen any debris from the seat/disc.
f
CAUTION: Do not attempt to disassemble and repair a pressure relief valve.
SUMMARY
In this section we discussed the repair and/or replacement procedures for specific valves.
The procedures can vary widely depending upon the type of valve, and who the manufacturer is.
It is very important that you follow the repair/replacement procedures specified for each valve.

9-19
EXERCISE: Exercise 9c
I. If an altitude valve cannot be repaired, it must be ____________.
2. A
repairable.
valve that does not function properly is not
3. What is the first thing to accomplish with a pressure relief valve if water continuously seeps
past the disc and seta assembly?
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 9c. If you feel you need to review the
"'~

9-20
Blank Page

9-21
('.
OBJECTIVE
d. Given a list of statements pertaining to the installation, inspection, and maintenance of valve
boxes, identify basic facts with at least 75% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Valve boxes are in some cases a necessary and integral component of valve installations,
and like any other component or accessory, they require proper installation, inspection, and
maintenance.
INFORMATION
INSTALLATION INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF VALVE BOXES

Valve Boxes
Valve boxes provide access to underground valves (figure 9- 14), thereby allowing for
operation of the valve by hand, or by a valve key to reach the operating nut or handle. Valve
boxes can be made of cast iron, concrete, or plastic. Some have covers with lock mechanisms to
prevent unauthorized access. They also protect the valve and piping against mechanical damage
(pedestrian and vehicular traffic), and adverse weather if located outside.
f'
Figure 9-14. Valve Boxes
INSTALLATION PROCEDURES
(\
9-22
Take care when installing the valve box over the pipe. The piping or valve should not
support the weight of a properly installed valve box; instead, let the soil around the pipe support
the valve box. A valve box that is full of debris or not aligned properly does not allow proper
alignment of the valve key on the operating nut or easy access to the handle. Debris also causes
corrosion of valve handles, making it hard to turn off the valve.
INSPECTION PROCEDURES
Inspection of valve boxes consists mostly of checking the condition of the boxes, and
ensuring that the boxes are perfonning the function for which they were designed. The physical
integrity of the boxes should be checked for cracks, broken covers, and if made of metal, checked
for excessive corrosion. If the physical condition is such that it is no longer performing its
proper function, then it should be replaced. Valve boxes should also be checked for elevation,
alignment, and position relative to the piping and/or the valve. In other words, the structure of
the valve box should not in any way be resting against the piping or the valve. If it is in contact
with the piping or valve, then you need to reposition the valve box so that it is supported by the
surrounding soil instead of the piping or the valve. Also inspect for excessive debris buildup
within the box and always check any locking mechanisms.
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
Clean debris out of the valve box periodically and ensure elevation and alignment are
correct. Additionally, the box lid may need to replaced or repaired. Finally, the contents of the
box may need to be replaced or the entire box itself may have to be removed (water main break
or a leaking valve or water meter).
SUMMARY
Valve boxes provide a means of access to valves for both operation and maintenance.
They also afford a degree of protection for the valve against pedestrian and vehicular traffic, and
if outside, the weather. Valve boxes need to be periodically inspected to ensure they are
performing their intended function.

9-23
EXERCISE: Exercise 9d
1. The physical integrity of the boxes should be checked for
and if made of metal, checked for excessive
broken covers,
~~~~~~~~-
2. Debris also causes

3.
of valve handles, making it hard to tum off the valve.

around the pipe is used to support the valve box.
APPLICATION: You should be ready for progress check 9d. If you feel you need to review the
previous instrnction, do so.
/""""

9-24
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The complete guide to home plumbing. (2001). Minnetonka, Minnesota: Creative Publishing.
Professional Tools. (2009). Rigid Professional Tools. Retrieved April 28, 2009, from
http://www.ridgid.com/


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Water & Fuel Systems Maintenance Apprentice (Qua! I)

Block I Introduction to Utilities Systems

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782 TRAINING GROUP

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Use and Care of Tools and Equipment

Interior Waste Systems and Cast Iron Pipe Assembly

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COMMONLY USED FLAMMABLES. Natural gas, gasoline, oil, solvents, paints;

Remove clothing soiled with flammable substances

Prohibit smoking or open flames within a specified range

Use non-sparking tools or equipment

Keep fire extinguishers nearby

Wear rubber soled boots to avoid sparks

Store soiled rags in metal containers away from other flammables

Advise personnel of presence of flammables in work area

STORING FLAMMABLES. Containers housing flammables should be clearly marked

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Color of Symbol: Green

Color of Symbol: Red

Color of Symbol: Blue

Pull the pin on the operating handle

Figure 2-2. Extinguisher Components

Manual Lifting Awareness

.sp.ICU' ..,. not P'fl'lf'tfKJ. If 7y llWrm IS not ~. Cl'