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Temperature, heat and thermal equilibrium, basic definition and law of heat transfer, modes of heat
transfer, steady and unsteady heat transfer, and significance of heat transfer. Conduction Heat Transfer:
Fourier equation, general heat conduction equation: Cartesian co-ordinate, cylinder co-ordinate, spherical
co-ordination, conduction through plane wall, composite wall cylindrical, multi cylindrical wall, spheres.
Critical thickness of insulation , heat transfer from extended surface , steady state flow of heat along a rod,
governing differential equations and their solution, heat dissipation from infinite long fin, insulated tip , fin
performance .
Unit 2. Convection: Stroke energy equation, hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers: laminar
boundary layer equation; forced convection appropriate non dimensional members, flow over flat plate,
similarity solution. Von-karmans method, effect of Prandtl number. laminar flow through circular pipe.
Natural Convection: Dimensional analysis Grashoff number, boundary layers in external flow (flow over
a flat plate only), boundary layer equations and their solutions. Heat transfer Correlation.
Unit 3. Radiation: Salient features and characteristics of radiations, absorptive, reflectivity and
transmissivity, spectral and spatial energy distribution, wavelength distribution of black body radiation,
plancks law. Total emission power. Stefan Boltzman law, Wiens displacement law,kirchoffs law ,
intensity of radiation & Lamberts consine law.
Unit 4 Heat transfer in IC engine: Water and air cooling of engines, combustion systems and variation
of gas temperatures, heat transfer coefficients, calculations of heat rejection to coolant. Heat transfer,
temperature distribution and thermal stress in piston, piston ring, cylinder liner. Heat transfer through
cylinder head, fins and valves, Effect of various operating parameter on engine heat transfer.
Unit 5. Heat exchangers used in IC engine : Principles of different type of Heat exchanger. Type of
radiators , inter cooler and after cooler . EGR cooling and EGR coolers. Engine coolant and their
properties.
CONTENTS
ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BY MANU GUPTA- manukota1@gmail.com
Page |2
Unit 1
Unit 1 interview questions
Unit 1 numerical questions
First mid term paper
3-30
31,32
33
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 3 interview questions
35-51
52-55
HEAT TRANSFER
Unit1
ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BY MANU GUPTA- manukota1@gmail.com
Page |3
Page |4
2
Natural convection: the mixing is carried out by difference in density of cold and hot partials(induced
by buoyancy forces)..
Ex:
Hot plate to atmosphere.
Water heating system.
Heating of room by stove.
Forced convection: the mixing is carried out by pump, fan etc. here heat transfer rate speeds up.
Cooling of I.C engine.
Heat transfer through wall to fluid or fluid to wall is very important in engineering heat transfer.
Page |5
q = h As T
Where:
q = heat flow from surface, (W)
h = heat transfer coefficient (which is not a thermodynamic property of the material, but may
depend on geometry of surface, flow characteristics, thermodynamic properties of the fluid,
etc. (W/m 2 K)
As = Surface area from which convection is occurring. (m 2 )
T = TS Tw Temperature Difference between surface and coolant. (K)
Q. An air cooler has surface area 0.12m2 and temp 65 oC. atmospheric temp is 30 oC surface
coefficient of heat transfer 45.5 W/m 2 K. calculate heat transfer.
Sol.
q = h As (TS Tatm)
= 45.4 X (0.12)(65-30) =190W
Q. Water is heated up to boiling by a wire (rod) of 10cm X 1mm , 23.5 watt of power is
consumed. h=5000 W/m 2 K find temperature of wire for steady state.
Sol.
q = h As (Twire Twater)
23.5=5000 x ( x d x l) (Twire Twater)= 5000 x ( x 0.001x 0.1) (Twire 100)= 1.57(Twire 100)
Twire= 23.5/1.57 + 100 = 115 oC
Radiation:
Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation (where the energy is
carried by photons of light in the infrared and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum) that
arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation does not need matter.
Mechanism: heat flow through radiation occurs in 3 phase
1. Thermal energy is converted in to em waves: all body above absolute zero emit radiant energy
via photons.
2. photons can travel in space without media @ light
3. when photon strike another surface they are absorbed /reflected/ transmitted but absorbed
and converted in to heat in perfect black body.
Radiation rate equation is described by the STEFAN BOLTZMAN LAW: Total emission
from a black body per unit area per unit time is proportional to forth power of absolute
temperature of the body.
E=Ts4 (W/ m 2 )
Where:
Page |6
E=A(Ts4 - Tsur4 )
Where:
Tsur = Absolute temperature of surroundings. (K)
EXAMPLE1:
Two perfect black bodies surround each other such that all radiant energy of inner surface at 1000oC
reaches outer surface at 200oC find net rate of heat transfer per unit area.
Sol
Ts1 = 200+273 = 473
Ts2 = 1000+273= 1273
E/A=(Ts14 Ts24 )
= 146kW/m2
EXAMPLE2:
5 cm dia pipe at steady state temp 60 oC kept in a room of temp 25 oC , =0.7, h= 6.5 W/m 2 K
Calculate total heat loss / unit length
Sol
Conv. q = h As T= h ( x d x l)(60-25)= 6.5x ( x 0.05x1)(60-25) = 35.72W
Rad. q= A(Ts14 Ts24 ) = 0.7 x ( x d x l) x 5.67 x 10 -8 ((60+273)4-(25+273)4)
total
q= 33.72W
Q=35.72+33.72=69.44W
hiA(Ti-Ta)
kA(Ta-Tb)
l
qco = hoA(Tb-To)
= (Ti-Ta)
Rci
= (Ta-Tb)
Rk
= (Tb-To)
Rco
Ti
Ta
q
ci
Tb
q
To
q
co
qci = qk = qco = q
Now we can measure Ti and T o but not Ta and Tb so we eliminate them
(Ti-Ta) + (Ta-Tb) + (Tb-To) = q Rci + q Rk + q Rco
Ti To = q (Rci + Rk + Rco)
q=
(Ti To)
(Rci + Rk + Rco)
By Newtons law of cooling
q = UAT = (Ti To)
(Rci + Rk + Rco)
UA=
1
.
Page |7
(Rci + Rk + Rco)
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY TO HEAT FLOW
Ti
Ti
Ta
q
ci
Tb
q
Ta
Tb
To
To
q
co
V= I(R1+R2+R3)
T= q (Rci + Rk + Rco)
Rci
1/ hiA
Rk
l/kA
Rco
1/ hoA
Page |8
Assumptions:
Consider a small volume whose dimensions are dx, dy, dz. Material is
homogenous and isotropic. Means its properties (density, h, k ) are same
everywhere.
Temperature is indicated by T
Temperature is a function of distance do T changes as distance changes ( T changes as dx changes).
So rate of change of temperature T/ x
Change of temperature at a distance dx=> Tx - Tx+dx =>
In d s Kumar it is
Now
heat inflow during
time dt
=>
+ heat generated Eg
during time dt
/x
dx
/x dx
= heat outflow
during time dt
+ change in
internal energy
during time dt Est
c(dx.dy.dz)dT
Page |9
Est =mcdT
m= X volume
Now consider single direction x and apply Fourier eq
Heat inflow per unit time:
dqx = -k(dydz)
/x
-k (dx dydz)
= -k (dx dydz)
2T
2T
/y2
/y2
Putting them in energy balance eq and solving we get GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQ
2T
cT
Change in thermal
energy storage
/dx2
=0
P a g e | 10
Assumptions: same
Thermal energy
generation
Change in thermal
energy storage
/r2+(1/r) T/r = 0
1
/r2 d/dr ( r dT/dr ) = 0
P a g e | 11
Derivation:
Assumptions: same
Volume = (dr.rd.rsin.d)
Heat flow r- plan, direction per unit time
T
( q ) r. sin .d .dt
r. sin .
dq+d - dq = k(dr.rd.rsin.d) [
Heat flow r- plan, direction
1
2T
.dt
r 2 . sin 2 . 2
(q) . rd
r.
dq+d - dq = k(V)
dqr+dr - dqr =
(q) . dr
r
(r
T
r
) . dt
) ( sin ) +
(r
T
r
=0
OVER ALL
Steady-state conduction, no internal generation of energy
For one-dimensional, steady-state transfer by conduction without heat generation
P a g e | 12
i = 0 rectangular coordinates
i = 1 cylindrical coordinates
i = 2 spherical coordinates
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a materials ability to transfer thermal energy by conduction.
heat equation is first order in time, requiring specification of an initial temperature distribution
for solution.
Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions must be specified.
P a g e | 13
Constant Heat Flux: Applied Flux
-k T at x=0 = qs
x
Convection
P a g e | 14
General heat equation:
For one-dimensional, steady-state transfer by
conduction without heat generation.
d dT
k 0
dx dx
Integrating
dT = C1 ....(i)
dx
T=C1 x + C2(ii)
Boundry conditions
T= Ts1 at x=0
T=Ts2 at x=L
Apply these conditions to (i) , (ii)
Ts1=0 + C2
C2= Ts1
Ts2=C1 L + C2 C1= Ts2 - Ts1
L
Temprature distribution eqn.
T = Ts1 + { Ts2 - Ts1}x
L
Points to remember
Temp distribution is linear across the wall.
Temp distribution is independent of material as it do not involves k.
HEAT FLOW
qx= - kA dT
dx
qx 0 L dx = - kA Ts1 Ts2 dT
= -kA Ts2 - Ts1
L
THERMAL RESISTANCE:
qx= Ts2 - Ts1 = Ts2 - Ts1
L/ kA
Rt
P a g e | 15
THERMAL ANALOGY:
Conduction resistance in a plane wall:
L/ kA
Conduction resistance in a plane wall:
1/ hA
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:
Rt,cond
L
k
Rt,conv
1
h
CONTACT RESISTANCE:
Whenever two surfaces are in contact there is large resistance to the flow of
heat.
This is because of Materials, surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and contact
pressure.
Rtot = (RA+ Rb + Rcontact)
TC
o n ta c t
P a g e | 16
Series Composite Wall:
qx = T1 - T4
Rtot
Rtot = 1/ h1A + L/ kA + 1/ h2A =
Rtotal Rconv ,1 Rwall , A Rwall , B Rwall ,C Rconv , 4
Rtotal
Rtotal
L
L
L
1
1
A B C
h1 A k1 A k 2 A k 2 A h4 A
R ' 'total
A
P a g e | 17
Terms
Inside radius=r1, outside radius = r2
T inside = Ts1, T outside = Ts2
Length L
Assumptions
one dimension / without generation /
steady state
General Heat Equation
Cylindrical Coordinates: One
Dimension / Without Generation /
Steady State
d 2T 1 dT
0
dr 2 r dr
1 d dT
r
0
r dr dr
d dT
1
r
0 if 0
dr dr
r
Integrating
r
dT
= C1 .... (i)
dr
Ts 2 Ts1 log e r 2 / r1
HEAT FLOW
qr= - kAmean
qr= - kA
q
2kL
dT
dT
= -k (2rL)
dr
dr
r2
r1
dr
=
r
Ts 2
dT
Ts1
r 2 / r1 1
Ts2 - Ts1
Ts2 - Ts1
= q = (2kL)
rmean
log e r 2 / r1
A2 A1
2 ( r 2 r1) L
Amean =
log e r 2 / r1
log e A2 / A1
rmean =
q
r2
loge
= Ts2 - Ts1
r1
2kL
(r 2 r1)
log e r 2 / r1
Ts2 - Ts1
Ts2 - Ts1
=
log e r 2 / r1
Rt
log e r 2 / r1
Rt =
(2kL)
Or q = (2kL)
Where
P a g e | 18
GENERAL HEAT EQ FOR SPHER:
1
1
2T
2 T
.dt + ( 2
)
( sin
)+
(r
) + Eg/k =(1/) (T/t)
2
2
2
r . sin .
r
r
r . sin
Terms
Inside radius=r1, outside radius = r2
T inside = Ts1, T outside = Ts2
Assumptions
For one dimension / without generation / steady
state the equation FOR SPHER is
1
/r2 d/dr ( r2 dT/dr ) = 0
1
d
/dr ( r2 dT/dr ) = 0 AS 2 0
r
First integration
r2
dT
= C1..(i)
dr
Second integration
T=-
C1
+C2..(ii)
r
Boundary conditions
T=TS1 at r=r1 and T=TS2 at r = r2
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION EQN:
(temperature T at any distance r)
Applying boundary conditions and solving/
Putting then in (i) and (ii) and replacing C1 and
C2
T TS 1
r (r r1 )
2
TS 2 TS 1 r (r2 r1 )
q
2k
q
2k
r2
r1
qr= - kAmean
Ts2 - Ts1
Ts2 - Ts1
= (4k r1r2)
rmean
r1 r2
HEAT FLOW
qr= - kA
r1r2
dT
dT
= -k (4r2)
dr
dr
Ts 2
dr
dT
= r2
Ts 1
1 1
r1 r2
Ts2 - Ts1
THERMAL RESISTANCE
Where
Rt =
1 / r1 1 / r2
(4k )
SHAPE FECTOR
Regular textbook design and Design data book design.
Section
q
Shape fector
P a g e | 19
Plane
Cylinder
sphere
(4k r1r2)
Ts2 - Ts1
r1 r2
A
L
(2L)
1
log e r 2 / r1
4 r1r2
r1 r2
These are regular shapes but in actual design any shape(eg. edges, corners of Furness walls) can be
there. For such situations the concept of shape factor is applied. Different shape factors are calculated
experimentally and interpolated then listed in design data books. The shape factor has unit of length.
Eg.
For edges, 0.54 times unit of length of edge.
For edges, 0.15 times unit of length.
(Page3.69 D.S
Kumar)
q= - ko (1+T)A
dT
dr
T2
T1
q dx = - ko A (1 T )dT
Solving:
(T T1 ) A(T2 T1 ) k m A(T2 T1 )
)
Q= k o (1 2
=
2
Significance of equation:
(i). when = 0, conductivity do not vary with temperature.
(ii). In steady state condition, rate of heat flow is constant so slop of temperature is constant,
temperature profile is linear.
(iii).
P a g e | 20
The addition of insulation always increases the conductive thermal resistance.
But when the total thermal resistance is made of conductive thermal
resistance and convective thermal resistance.
The addition of insulation in some cases (cylinder, sphere) may reduce the
convective thermal resistance due to increase in surface area and the
total thermal resistance may actually decrease resulting in increased heat
flow.
It may be shown that the thermal resistance actually decreases and then
increases in some cases. The thickness up to which heat flow increases and
after which heat flow decreases is termed as critical thickness. In case of
cylinders and spheres it is called as Critical radius.
P a g e | 21
T1 T
T1 T
1
Rins Rconv ln(r2 / r1 )
2Lk
h(2r2 L)
ln(r2 / r1 )
1
Rt =
2Lk
h( 2r2 L)
d 2 Rt
ve for minimum resistance
dr 2 2
now
Let the figure be a cross section of a
CYLINDER of length l
d ln(r2 / r1 )
1
d Rt
= 0
=
dr2
2lk
h(2r2l )
dr2
d 1 1 1
1
d Rt
=
=0
dr2 4k r2 r1 4r 2 2 h
dr2
1 1
2
2
3 = 0
4r2 h
4k r2
2k
rc = h for sphere
1
1
2 = 0
2lr
2
lr
h
2
rc =
k
for cylinder
h
Current
Resistance
Potential
Difference
Electrical
Cartesian Conduction
Cylindrical Conduction
I
q
q
R
kAL
kLrr2ln12
V
T
T
q
q
krr4/1/121
1hAs
T
T
PROBLEM 3.11
KNOWN: Drying oven wall having material with known thermal conductivity sandwiched between thin
metal sheets. Radiation and convection conditions prescribed on inner surface; convection conditions on
outer surface.
FIND: (a) Thermal circuit representing wall and processes and (b) Insulation thickness required to
P a g e | 22
maintain outer wall surface at To = 40C.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in wall, (3) Thermal
resistance of metal sheets negligible.
ANALYSIS: (a) The thermal circuit is shown above. Note labels for the temperatures, thermal
resistances and the relevant heat fluxes.
(b) Perform energy balances on the i- and o- nodes finding
Substituting numerical values, and solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously, find
L 86 mm
COMMENTS: (1) The temperature at the inner surface can be found from an energy balance on the
i-node using the value found for L.
It follows that Ti is close to T,i since the wall represents the dominant resistance of the system.
(2) Verify that 2
Q50 W/m2 and
Q150 W/m2 . Is the overall energy balance on the systems?
P a g e | 23
It is needed to increase heat transfer from surface to surroundings in some
engineering situations.
How it is done?
It is possible to increase the heat transfer rate by increasing the surface of heat
transfer. The surfaces used for increasing heat transfer are called extended
surfaces or sometimes known as fins.
Define fin.
A fin is an extended surface attached to the wall. Fin (also known as a combined
conduction-convection system ) is a solid within which heat transfer by
conduction is assumed to be one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by
convection (and/or radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of
conduction.
Application of fin.
The main applications of fins are
1. Cooling of electronic components
2. Cooling of motor cycle engines.
3. Cooling of transformers.
4. Cooling of small capacity compressors.
P a g e | 24
dt
dx
Qx = -KAc
-T )
Base temperature = Tb
Ambient temperature = T
dt
dx
(T b
Qx+dx = -KAc
x dx
x dx
dt
dt
t x
Qx+x = -KAc
dx
dx
dx
-KAc
dt
x
L
Q
dt
x
t
= -KAc
dx
x
dx
dx
x+dx
+ h(Px)(Tx dx
T)
Simplifying
d 2T
hP
(T T ) 0
dx 2 kAc
NOW
Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended surface of
constant conductivity and uniform cross-sectional area with negligible generation
and radiation, the fin equation is of the form:
P a g e | 25
d 2T hP
d 2T
2
(
T
T
)
m (T T ) 0 (i)
dx 2 kAc
dx 2
perimeter
Next we notice that the equation is non-homogeneous (due to the T term).
Recall that non-homogeneous differential equations require both a general and a
particular solution. We can make this equation homogeneous by introducing the
temperature relative to the surroundings:
T ( x ) T
or
b Tb T ;
d b
dT
;
dx
dx
d 2 b d 2T
dx 2
dx 2
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION can be obtained as follows: Note that the hyperbolic sin, sinh, the
hyperbolic cosine, cosh, are defined as:
sinh(m.x) =
e mx e mx
2
sinh(0) = 0
d sinh( m.x )
= m.cosh(m.x)
dx
cosh(m.x) =
e mx e mx
2
cosh(0) = 1
d cosh( m.x )
= m.sinh(m.x)
dx
A B m. x A B m. x
e mx e mx
e mx e mx
.e +
.e
+B.
=
2
2
2
2
A B
A B
We replace
by C1 and
by C2
2
2
A. cosh(m.x) + B. sinh(m.x) = A .
** Generally the exponential solution is used for very long fins, the
hyperbolic solutions for other cases.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BY MANU GUPTA- manukota1@gmail.com
P a g e | 26
Since the solution results in 2 constants of integration we require 2 boundary
conditions.
First condition
First one is obvious, as one end of the fin will be attached to a hot surface and
will come into thermal equilibrium with that surface. Hence, at the fin base,
(at base) = Tb T = b ;
The second boundary condition: depends on the condition imposed at
the other end of the fin. There are various possibilities, as described below.
Q fin kAc
at base x 0
but T = T +(Tb - T) e mx
dT
dx
= [ -m (Tb-T)e-mx]x=0 = -m(Tb-T)
at base x 0
= PhkAc (Tb-T)
This is the total heat flow through the fin, i.e. the heat flow entering at the base
(x=0).
P a g e | 27
(at base) = Tb T = b ;
at x=0
First condition
Assume that the tip is insulated and hence there is no heat transfer:
dT
dx
=0
at end x L
Apply the first boundary condition at the base in eq. C1e mx C2e mx :
b = C1 + C2 (i)
Apply the second boundary condition at the tip
= T T C1e mx C2 e mx
dT
dx
at end x L
C1 =
e mL
mL
mL
e e
T T
e m L x e m L x
cosh m( L x)
mL
mL
b
Tb T
e e
cosh mL
fin
Heat flow via fin:
dT
dx
Q fin kAc
dT
dx
at base x 0
at base x 0
= Tb T
but
T T
= Tb T
cosh m(l x)
cosh mL
sinh m(l x)
(-m)
cosh mL
=-m(Tb-T) tanh(mL)
Q fin =kAcm(Tb-T) tanh(mL) =
PhkAc
(Tb-T) tanh(mL)
**If we compare this result with that for the very long fin, we see that the primary difference in
form is in the hyperbolic tangent term. That term, which always results in a number equal to or
less than one, represents the reduced heat loss due to the shortening of the fin.
at x=0
First
P a g e | 28
The fin is loosing heat at the tip via convection :
dT
dx
Q fin kAc
at base x L
= hAs(T-T)
at x=L
As = Ac
Further solving
Temperature distribution equation
T T
b
Tb T
cosh mL h/km sinh mL
==
PhkAc
(Tb-T)
tanh mL h/km
1 h/km(tanh mL)
Fin Performance
ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BY MANU GUPTA- manukota1@gmail.com
P a g e | 29
Fin efficiency
The fin efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy transferred through a real fin
to that transferred through an ideal fin.
Ideal fin: - one made of a perfect or infinite conductor material. In short whole fin is
at base temperature Tb.
qf
q max
qf
hA f b
PhkAc (Tb T )
tanh ml
tanh(mL) =
ml
h( Pl )(Tb T )
Significance
(i). For a very long fin:
tanh ml
=
ml
length.
(ii). For a very short fin:
tanh ml
= 1 **fin efficiency increase with decrease in length.
ml
t.f
= .h. A
f
f
Fin Effectiveness
Ratio of the fin heat transfer rate q f to the heat transfer rate that would exist
without the fin.
f
qf
hAc ,b b
PhkAc (Tb T )
=
hAcb (Tb T )
Ph
kAc
Where b=Tb-T, and Ac,b is the fin cross-sectional area at the base
* here Acb=Ac
Significance
(i). f =
Ph
>1 at least otherwise no use to use fin. (at least >5)
kAc
(ii). It is advantageous to use higher conductivity materials for fins then to use
cheap and lower conductivity materials (cupper, aluminum)
(iii).Though high quantity of fin should always be useful, but very closely packed
fins reduces heat transfer due to boundary layer.
UNIT 1 ASSIGNMENT
ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BY MANU GUPTA- manukota1@gmail.com
P a g e | 30
Sol.
Prescribed temperature
Prescribed heat flux
Convection boundary conditions.
=0
1. Fuel rod nuclear reactor. 2. Electrical conductor. 3. Chemical and combustion process.
4. Drying and setting of concrete.
P a g e | 31
24. The inner surface at r = a and the outer surface at r = b of a hollow
cylinder are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and T2
respectively. The thermal conductivity of the solid is constant.
Develop an expression for the one dimensional steady state
temperature distribution in the cylinder and for the radial heat flow
rate through the cylinder over a length H.
25. Write down the general equation for one dimensional steady state
heat transfer in slab or plane wall without heat generation. And what
it is called.
26. Define overall heat transfer co-efficient.
The overall heat transfer is defined as amount of transmitted per unit area per unit time
per degree temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the metal. It is
denoted by 'U'.
examples?
28. What do you understand by critical radius of insulation, obtain the
expression for the same?
29. Define fins or extended surfaces give DIAGRAM of heat loss by fin Q
Vs L.(ref my notes or ds kumar)
30. State the applications of fins.
The main applications of fins are
1. Cooling of electronic components
2. Cooling of motor cycle engines.
3. Cooling of transformers.
4. Cooling of small capacity compressors.
P a g e | 32
P a g e | 33
P a g e | 34
RADIATION
Energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves(or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules
All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation
That is All molecules with a temperature above zero Kelvin (-273.15C) emit radiant energy.
Quantum theory predicts that energy transmitted as electromagnetic radiation exists in discrete
units called photons.
Energy of a Photon
The energy, Ep, associated with a photon of radiation is specified by
Ep = h
where
h is Plancks constant (h=6.626x10-34 J s)
is the frequency of radiation
So radiation
Does not require an intervening medium
Fastest (at the speed of light)
Possible also in vacuum
Example: energy of sun reaching the earth
Thermal radiation: form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature
different from other forms of electromagnetic radiation; X-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, and
television waves that are not related with temperature
Although there are three mechanisms of heat transfer, a medium may involve combination of
modes of heat transfer simultaneously.
Solids: conduction and radiation
Fluids:
conduction and radiation (no motion)
convection and radiation (in motion)
conduction and convection (no radiation)
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation
only
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4.28x1014 s-1?
Ep = (6.626x10-34 J s)x(4.28x1014 s-1)
Ep = 2.84x10-19 J
Radiant Flux
The radiant flux is the rate of radiant energy transfer.
Radiant flux has units of J s-1.
Note: 1 J s-1 = 1 Watt (W)
The radiant flux of the sun is 3.9x1026 W.
Irradiance
The irradiance is the radiant flux divided by the area through which it passes.
The irradiance has units of W m-2
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++=1
Most solid are opeque (does not transmit thermal radiation) except glass, crystel, rock solt etc for them
+ =1
Gases
+=1
Black body absorb all radiation
=1
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute temperature is;
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Real surfaces emit less radiation
Q emit AS TS4
Combined heat transfer coefficient includes effects of both convection and radiation in such an
example and conduction heat transfer may be neglected.
4
Q rad AS (TS4 Tsurr
)
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PLANK LAW
LIMITATION OF STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW gives total emmisive power. But id doesnt tell us
distibution of energy as per wave length.
Max Plank gave relation which give total emmisive power as a function of wave
length.
The Planck Law gives a distribution that peaks at a certain wavelength, the peak
shifts to shorter wavelengths for higher temperatures, and the area under the
curve grows rapidly with increasing temperature.
Eb
c1-5
C2
T
exp
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BRIGHTNESS TEMPERATURE
Is determined by inverting Planck function
100 m
1m
0.1 m
10-3 m
10-6 m
7x10-7 m
4x10-7 to 7x10-7 m
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Eb
c1-5
exp
C2
T
c1-5
exp
C2
T
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max is the wavelength at which the maximum radiant energy is emitted,
and
T is the temperature in Kelvins
Wein Displacement Law
- It tells us as we heat an object up, its color changes from red to orange to white
hot.
- You can use this to calculate the temperature of stars.
C2
T
C2
1 C2
=1+
+ 2! T
T
C2
=1+
T
Planks eq becomes
C1-5
C1T
Eb
=
C2
4
1
1 C2
T
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- The area of Earth's disk as
viewed from space is, Area =
r2.
- The total energy incident on
Earth is, Incident energy =
(r2)So.
- The energy absorbed by the
Earth/atmosphere system, as
viewed from space is
Absorbed energy = (r2)So(1 A). As we know that bodies
must be in radiative
equilibrium. The solar energy
striking Earth's disk as viewed
from space is re-emitted as
thermal radiation by the
surface of the entire globe, as
described by the StefanBoltzmann Law, Emitted energy
= (4r2)T4.
- Set the absorbed energy equal
to the emitted energy:
(r2)So(1 - A) = (4r2)TE4,
Solving for T yields:
TE = [So(1 - A)/(4)](1/4)
= [1370(1-0.3)/(45.67x108)](1/4) = 255 K.
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U s in g w a v e le n g th s
c 2/T
B ( ,T ) = c 1 3 / [ e
-1 ]
2
1
(m W /m /s te r/c m )
B ( ,T ) = c 1 /{ 5 [ e
(m W /m 2/s te r/ m )
(m a x in c m -1 ) = 1 .9 5 T
(m a x in c m )T = 0 .2 8 9 7
B ( m ax,T ) ~ T * * 3 .
B (
E = B ( ,T ) d = T 4 ,
o
c 13
T = c 2/[ln (______ + 1 )]
B
E = B ( ,T ) d = T 4 ,
o
c1
T = c 2/[ ln (______ + 1 )]
5 B
m ax,T
c 2 /T
-1 ] }
) ~ T**5.
Typical Scene
Temperature
220
Temperature
Sensitivity
4.58
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900
1200
1600
2300
2500
300
300
240
220
300
4.32
5.76
9.59
15.04
11.99
A
o
o
o
black body:
Is a model of a perfect radiator.
Absorbs all energy that reaches it; reflects nothing.
Therefore = 1
REAL BODIES
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An object at some non-zero temperature radiates electromagnetic energy. If it is a perfect black
body, absorbing all light that strikes it, it radiates energy according to the black-body radiation
formula. More generally, it is a "grey body" that radiates with some emissivity multiplied by the
black-body formula. Kirchhoff's law states that:
So what is absorbity?
Absorbity is the ratio of emmisive power of a given body to a black body at same temperature.
This is also called emmisitivity
BLAC K BO D Y
G R AY BO D Y
E M IS IV E P O W E R
R EAL BO DY
W AVELEN G TH
P a g e | 47
= (360/2)(s/r)
Now consider a cone which intersects the sphere of radius R. Let S be
the area of surface subtended by the intersection of the cone and the
sphere.
As shown here in figure, for a observer standing at
An
sphere center O will see a curve ( here it is a circle
r
of center O1) being formed on the surface of the
sphere.
The ratio of this surface area observed to square of
radius of sphere will give the solid angle.
= An / r2
This is the solid angle in steradians
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INTENSITY OF RADIATION:
The RADIATION ENERGY emitted per unit area and per unit of solid angle in a certain
specified direction, emanating from a point source.
d A = r s in d d
2
r d
r s in d
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But
dA = r2 sin d d
= sin d d
So
dEb = In cos sin d d . dA
Now solid angle in term of venith and azimuthal angle = 0 to /2 and
= 0 to 2
dEb
sphere
dEb
= In dA
2
0
= In dA [ 2 cos
0
2
0
= 2 In dA [
Eb
= 2 In dA
In
sin d
d .
sin d] 2
2. cos . sin .d
dEb
Eb
cos
cos 2
2
0
= In . dA . = .T4.dA
=
.T 4
Mechanical
UNIT 5:-Thermal Radiation: Plank distribution law, Krichoff's law; radiation
Automobile
Unit 3.
Radiation: Salient features and characteristics of radiations, absorptive, reflectivity
and transmissivity, spectral and spatial energy distribution, wavelength
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distribution of black body radiation, plancks law. Total emission power. Stefan
Boltzman law, Wiens displacement law,kirchoffs law , intensity of radiation &
Lamberts cosine law.
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A black surface is the perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. It is an idealized concept (no
surface is exactly a black surface), and the characteristics of real surfaces are compared to that
of an ideal black surface.
5. What are the conditions to be satisfied for the application of a thermal circuit ?
The problem must be a steady state, one-dimensional heat transfer problem.
10. When can the unsteady temperature in a spatial body be considered uniform ?
When the Biot number is small (Bi << 0.1).
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thermal diffusivity,
t = time
L = characterisitic length
The Fourier number is a dimensionless measure of time used in transient conduction
problems.
12. What is internal energy generation ? Give examples where internal energy generation occurs.
Internal energy generation is the generation of heat within a body by a chemical, electrical
or nuclear process. Examples are the heating of a nuclear fuel rod (due to fission within
the rod), the heating of electrical wires (due to the conversion of electrical to heat
energy), microwave heating and the generation of heat within the Earth. The heat
generated in each case is being converted from some other form of energy.
13. What do you understand by stability criterion for the solution of transient problems ?
When solving transient problems using finite-difference methods, it is possible that the
solution undergoes numerically induced oscillations and becomes unstable i.e. the
temperature values diverge. The stability criterion is a restriction on the values of t and
x which ensures that the solution remains stable and converges. The criterion is usually
expressed as a function of Fourier's number. For example, for an interior node in a two
dimensional system the stability criterion is :
Fo < 1/4 or
t/(x)2 < 1/4
13. Both the Nusselt number and the Biot number have the same form. What are the differences
between them in terms of the variables employed and their physical significance ?
Both the Biot number and the Nusselt number are of the form (hL/k). However, for the
Biot number, the thermal conductivity k used is that for the solid; for calculating Nusselt
number the k value as that of the fluid. The Biot number is a measure of the ratio of the
temnperature drop in the solid material and the temperature drop between the solid and
the fluid. The Nusselt number is a dimensionless version of the temperature gradient at
the surface between the fluid and the solid, and it thus provides a measure of the
convection occurring from the surface.
14. What is the effect of the Prandtl number of a fluid on the relative thicknesses of velocity and
temperature boundary layers when the fluid flow is parallel to a flat plate ?
For laminar flow, the ratio of the boundary layer thickness to that of the thermal boundary
layer, t, is given by:
t Prn
The higher the Prandtl number, the larger is the ratio.
16. Two fluids, with different properties, flow with equal free stream velocities parallel to a flat
plate. What property of the fluid determines whether the velocity boundary layer of one is thicker
than the other ?
The thickness of the boundary layer depends on the Reynolds number:
17. What do you understand by the terms fully developed velocity and temperature profile
regions in internal flow ?
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In the fully developed region, the cross-sectional velocity/temperature profile is of a constant
shape at any axial location. Thus the profile has ceased to change. Also there is no radial
component of velocity i.e. every particle of fluid is flowing purely in the axial direction.
18. Do you expect the convective heat transfer coefficient in the thermally developing region to
be higher or lower than the convective heat transfer coefficient in the fully developed
temperature profile region ? Support your answer with qualitative logic.
We should expect that the convective heat transfer coefficient is higher in the thermally
developing region. Near the tube entrance, the thickness of the boundary layer is very small, and
the temperature gradients at the surface will be high, implying high rates of convective heat
transfer. As the flow develops, the thickness of the boundary layer increases and the temperature
gradients decreases, decreasing h. In the fully developed region, the temperature gradients are
constant and h is also a constant.
19. Explain why the temperature boundary layer grows much more rapidly than the velocity
boundary layer in liquid metals.
Liquid metals are characterised by very low Prandtl numbers since their thermal conductivity is
high, hence the heat diffusion is much faster than momentum diffusion.
20. You are told that in a particulat case of fluid flow over a flat plate the temperature boundary
layer thickness is much smaller than the velocity boundary layer thickness. What can you
conclude about the nature of the fluid ?
You can conclude that the fluid is a high Prandtl number fluid e.g.oil.
21. What is a gray surface ?
A gray surface is defined as one for which the emissivity ( and the absorptivity ( are
independent of wavelength (.
22. What is a diffuse surface ?
A diffuse surface is defined as one for which the emissivity ( and the absorptivity ( are
independent of direction ().
23. Define a view factor.
A view factor is defined in the context of two surfaces A and B. It is defined as the fraction of
radiation leaving A which is incident directly on surface B. A view factor must be defined in terms
of surface A to surface B (FAB).
24. If a surface emits 200 W at a temperature of T, how much energy will it emit at a
temperature of 2T ?
Since E T4, a 2-fold increase of temperature brings a (24) = 16-fold increase in energy. Thus
the surface will emit (16)(200) = 3200 W.
25. You might have observed early morning frost on a clear day even when the minimum air
temperature during the night was above 0 C. On a clear day, the effective sky temperature can
be as low as -45 C. Explain how such frost formulation takes place.
The frost is created because of radiative losses to the sky
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26. A greenhouse has an enclosure that has a high transmissivity at short wavelengths and a
very low transmissivity (almost opaque) for high wavelengths. Why does a greenhouse get
warmer than the surrounding air during clear days ? Will it have a similar effect during clear
nights ?
Solar radiation is skewed towards shorter wavelengths. On a clear day the glass of the
greenhouse admits a large proportion of the incident radiation. Inside the greenhouse, the
various surfaces (plants etc.) reflect the radiation; but the reflected radiation is spectrally
different, having more of a high wavelength contribution. Thus the reflected radiation is not
transmitted well by the glass, and is reflected back into the greenhouse. The interior heats up
due to this 'trapped' radiation. The same effect will not be seen on a clear night, since there is no
solar radiation.
27. Define overall heat transfer coefficient.
The overall heat transfer coefficient is defined in terms of the total thermal resistance between
two fluids. If there are a number of thermal resistances between the two fluids, the overall heat
transfer coefficient is given by:
U = 1/R
28. Your friend asserts that, in a heat exchanger, it is impossible for the exit temperature of the
cold fluid to be greater than the exit temperature of the hot fluid when both fluids are single
phase fluids. What is your response ?
The statement is true for a parallel flow heat exchanger. However, in a counterflow heat exchanger the
outlet temperature of the cold fluid can in fact exceed the outlet temperature of the hot fluid
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