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Mathematics (2 Unit)
Based on 1983 Syllabus, Written in 2004
This summary may be useful for revision, but also as a reading before or after lesson in class. It
is by no means intended to replace the need to actually attempt exam-style questions. Some
topics are covered more comprehensively than others for no real reasons. Proofs are given
when they can be easily derived in case you forget the formulae. Important results are boxed
for convenience.
The majority of this work is based on the Cambridge Mathematics textbook. Sections are
numbered according to the syllabus. This document was last updated on 24 December 2004.
2. Plane Geometry
Some Terms (know them if you can)
Collinear: when three or more points lie on the same line
Concurrent: when three or more lines intersect at the same point
Line: technically, a line with no endpoints
Interval AB: a line with two endpoints, A and B
Intercept: a section of an interval, for example, a point P on an interval AB divides the
interval into two intercepts, AP and PB
Transversal: a line that crosses two or more other lines
Ray AB: a line with one end, A, extending towards B onwards
Opposite ray AB: a line with one end, A, but extending not towards B
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Ratios of Intercepts on Sides of Triangle: suppose we have triangle ABC and a line parallel to
BC cuts the triangle at P and Q, P is on side AB. If AP : PB k : l , then AQ : QC k : l and
PQ : BC k : k l . Proof: use similarity of triangles APQ and ABC.
Transversals to Three Parallel Lines
The previous result can be used to obtain the following general result.
If we have 3 parallel lines and a number of transversals (lines) that cross the three of them, the
ratio of the intercepts on one transversal is the same as the ratio on any other transversals. The
transversals dont need to be parallel.
Conversely, if the ratios are equal, the lines are parallel.
Special Quadrilaterals
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with at least one pair of opposite sides parallel.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
A rhombus is a parallelogram with a pair of adjacent sides equal.
A rectangle is a parallelogram with one angle a right angle.
A square is both a rectangle and a rhombus.
Tests for parallelogram: Opposite angles are equal OR Opposite sides are equal OR One pair
of opposite sides are equal and parallel OR The diagonals bisect each other
Tests for rhombus: All sides are equal OR The diagonals bisect each other at right angles OR
The diagonals bisect each vertex angle
Tests for rectangle: All angles are equal [so they are 90 degrees] OR The diagonals are equal
and bisect each other
Tests for square: Must be a rhombus and also a rectangle
Area of Plane Figures
Square: (side length)2
Rectangle: (length) x (breath)
Parallelogram: (base) x (perpendicular height)
Triangle: x (base) x (perpendicular height)
Rhombus: x (product of the diagonals)
Trapezium: (average of parallel sides) x (perpendicular height)
Note: some figures belong to other more general figures. For example, a rhombus belongs to
the parallelogram family, and so you can use the formula for parallelogram.
Final Note: try to draw a picture on paper if you dont understand my wording.
3. Probability
Some Trivial Things
Cards: a pack contains 52 cards organized into four suits which are: clubs spades
diamonds hearts; picture cards are Jack, Queen and King only; odd-number cards often
include Ace (which can be regarded as number 1) although its value is higher than King; a
hand of Jack and Queen means the person gets a Jack and a Queen.
Word: any combination of letters, for example, asdfg and english are both words
Letters: there are 26 of them, 5 of which are vowels
Number [e.g. 856]: its first digit cant be zero [the number cant be 0856, for example]
Some Terms
Equally likely possible outcomes: consider the following. The chances of getting a head or
a tail when you throw a coin are essentially equal, but the chances of a person named
Jack being a male or a female arent equal.
Event: the condition we want, e.g. the event of getting a tail, the event of getting less than 5
when a die is thrown
Sample space: a set containing all of the possible outcomes
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Stages: something has more than one stage if: (i) there are multiple objects (e.g. two coins)
OR (ii) there is one object but its used twice (e.g. throwing a coin twice)
Independent events: to prevent confusion, lets call it independent stages, which is when the
outcome of one stage is not influenced by the outcome of the other stage(s)
Mutually exclusive events: if one event occurs, the other(s) cannot occur
P event
no of favourable outcomes
no of possible outcomes
[and so 0 P event 1 ]
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1
sin
sec
Pythagorean Identities
1
cos
cot
1
tan
tan 2 1 sec 2
cot 2 1 cos ec 2
2
[Hint: memorise sin cos 1 , then dividing both sides by cos 2 would give the second
identity, while dividing by sin 2 would give the third identity]
sin 2 cos 2 1
Complementary Identities
cos 90 sin
cot 90 tan
cos ec 90 sec
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Sample question: Solve sin 2 x 3 sin x cos x 2 cos 2 x 0 . Hint: divide the expression by a
power of cos x to produce an equation in tan x.
This type of equation is called a homogenous equation in sin x and cos x which means that the
sum of the indices of sin x and cos x in each term is the same.
Some Formulae for Triangles
With A refering to the angle facing side a,
Sine Rule
of the triangle
sin A sin B sin C
Note: when finding angle, remember that it can also be in quadrant 2 (because sine is positive
in quadrant 2). Depending on the known things, both values for the angle may be okay. Check
if the angles can add up to 180 degrees. You may need to use the fact that longer side is
subtended by larger angle.
Area Formula
: area ABC 12 b c sin A
Cosine Rule
: c 2 a 2 b 2 2 a b cos C
Note: c doesnt need to be the longest side.
The above three results can be proven by considering three cases, when A is acute, rightangled and obtuse, and constructing altitude for each triangle in the three cases (remembering
that altitude is the perpendicular height). For A 90 , this divides the triangle into two
right-angled triangles. To prove the sine rule, apply the definition sine = opposite / hypotenuse
to the two right-angled triangles. To prove the area formula, apply area = x base x
perpendicular height to the undivided triangle. To prove the cosine rule, apply Pythagoras
theorem to the two right-angled triangles.
Bearings
True bearing: expressed in 3 digits and usually ends with a T; measured clockwise from North.
For example, 090T (90 degrees clockwise from North so its exactly East) and 267T.
Compass bearing: For example, S60W (60 from South to West, corresponding to 240T),
N10E (corresponding to 010T).
Wording: make sure you can visualise bearing of A from B (draw a line from B to A and
measure from Bs perspective) and bearing of B from A.
Sample question: A ship leaves port P and travels 150 nautical miles to port Q on a bearing of
110. It then travels 120 nautical miles to port R on a bearing of 200. (a) Draw a diagram to
represent this information and explain why PQR 90 [hint: you can use property of cointerior angles on parallel lines both pointing to north]. (b) Find, to the nearest minute, the
bearing of port R from port P [hint: this is QPR 110 ].
Angle of Elevation and Depression
Both are always measured from the horizontal. Elevation goes up and depression goes down.
Gradient Formula
: m
(It doesnt matter which point is x 2 , y 2 as
run x 2 x1
y 2 y1
long as you dont do something like m
.)
x1 x 2
Parallel Lines
: gradients are equal
Perpendicular Lines
: product of gradients is -1
Angle of Inclination (anticlockwise from the x-axis) : gradient tan
Equations of Lines
Gradient-intercept form : y mx b , m will be the gradient and b will be the y-intercept
Distance Formula
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General form
: ax by c 0
Point-gradient form : y y1 m x x1 , with P x1 , y1 any known point on the line
Sample question: A line passes (1, 2) and (5, 7). Find the equation of the line.
72 5
. Then use y y1 m x x1 and P can be either (1, 2) or (5, 7).
5 1 4
x y
1 , with a the x-intercept and b the y-intercept
Two-intercept form :
a b
First find m: m
: p
Perpendicular Distance
ax1 by1 c
a2 b2
S n 12 n a l
S n 12 n 2a n 1 d
Geometric Progressions
The nth term of a GP : Tn a r n 1
a r n 1
a1 r n
Partial sums of GPs : S n
[ Sn
is the same thing as x c c x ]
r 1
1 r
a
a r n 1
Limiting sums of GPs (when 1 r 1 ) : S
(its just S n
with n )
1 r
r 1
Arithmetic and Geometric Means of Two Numbers
The arithmetic mean (AM) of a and b is the number x such that a, x, b forms an AP.
AM 12 a b
A geometric mean (GM) of a and b is a number x such that a, x, b forms a GP.
GM ab or ab (proof: condition for a GP is b x x a )
However, statements such as Insert three geometric means between 10 and 40 simply mean
Find three numbers between 10 and 40 so that the five numbers form a GP.
l
Sigma Notation :
T
nk
Tk Tk 1 Tk 2 ... Tl
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line(2)
line(3)
n log1.05 1.5
line(4)
ln 1.5
ln 1.05
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line(1) - (2): no change of the inequality sign when
we log both sides only if the base of the exponential is
greater than 1, e.g. 1.05]
line(2) - (3): log and exp with the same base cancel
each other
line(3) - (4): change of base rule
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principal getting interest and the individual instalments also getting interest. Again we develop
a formula for An , and you need to show the process.
Sample question: You took a huge loan of $200 000 on 1 January 2002. Interest is charged at
12% pa, compounded monthly. You decided to pay off the load in monthly instalments of
$2200 [actually, if its compounded monthly then you automatically need to pay monthly, and
vice versa]. (a) Find the amount owing at the end of n months (b) find how long it takes to
repay (i) the full loan (ii) half the loan (c) why would instalments of $1900 per month never
repay the loan. Answer:
Firstly, the interest is 1% per month.
The first instalment is invested for n 1 months [why not n? because you pay 1 month after
you took the loan], amounting to M 1.01n 1
The final (nth) instalment is invested for no time at all, amounting to M
The initial loan amounts to P 1.01n
An P 1.01n M 1.01M 1.01n 1 M P 1.01n 100 M 1.01n 1
For (b)(ii) put An 12 200000 . Just for quick comparison purposes, (b)(i) is around 20 years
and (b)(ii) is 15 years [it takes longer to pay the first half].
n
For (d), substituting M 1900 gives An 190000 1.01 10000 which is always
increasing. In fact, M 2000 is required just to pay the interest.
dx
f x x n , then f ' x n x n 1
f x K , then f ' x 0
f x K g x , then f ' x K g ' x
f x g x h x , then f ' x g ' x h' x
y u v, then y ' u ' v u v '
Rule 1
Rule 2
Rule 3
Product Rule
:
:
:
Quotient Rule
: If y
Chain Rule
u ' v u v'
u
, then y '
(if you forget which one to
v
v2
differentiate first, just do a quick test with something like y x 2 / x )
dy dy du
The chain rule can be used for algebraic and non-algebraic functions (learnt later).
Sample question #1: Differentiate
Let u 3x 4 x .
y 3x 4 x
with respect to x.
dy 3 12
3
u 12 x 3 1 12 x 3 1 3x 4 x .
dx 2
2
dy 1
cos x
cos x
cot x .
dx u
sin x
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Correct answers:
d 2
d 2
dx2
x 2
x 2 x OR
2 x and at x 1,
dx
dx
dx
dy
Let y x 2 , then
dx
2 x and at x 1, dy
dx
dy
Let y x 2 , then dy
dx
2 x [must let
y x 2 first] and
dx
at x 1, dy
dx
Also, the question should really say find the derivative of x 2 when x 1 with respect to x.
d dy
d2y
, d is squared and
Notation of Second Derivative: f ' ' x OR y ' ' OR
(think of
2
dx dx
dx
dx is too)
: x
Zeroes
: x
Vertex
b
(think of quadratic formula with zero discriminant)
2a
b
,
2a
b 2 4ac
b
,
2a
4a
b
a
c
a
Quadratic Identity
F(x) is identical to G(x) when they give the same value for all values of x. If two quadratics
intersect at more than two points then they are identical.
Sample question #1: Express 2 x 2 3 x 6 in the form a x 1 2 b x 1 c .
We set up an identity, 2 x 2 3x 6 a x 1 2 b x 1 c .
We can expand the RHS and equate coefficients. RHS is ax 2 2a b x a b c so a 2 ,
2a b 3 and a b c 6 .
Or, we can use substitution. When x 1 LHS = 5 and RHS = c, and so on.
Sample question #2: Given that a, b and c are three distinct constants, prove that
x a x b x b x c x b 2 x a c . Instead of expanding it is suffice to show that
LHS = RHS when x = a, x = b and x = c.
Parabola
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A parabola is the locus of a point which moves so that its distance to a fixed point (the focus) is
equal its perpendicular distance to a fixed line (the directrix) not passing through the focus. A
locus of P is the set of points, all denoted by P, which fit the given conditions. In a sense P is
movable.
The axis of parabola is the line through focus and vertex. The latus rectum is the line parallel to
the directrix, passing the focus. Note that all parabolas are similar (i.e. have the same shape,
only enlarged or shrunk).
Standard Notations
Parabolas with vertex at the origin: x 2 4ay , x 2 4ay , y 2 4ax, y 2 4ay , where a is
the focal length. The first concaves up, the second concaves down, the third concaves right and
the fourth concaves left. As with other functions, parabolas can be translated by doing this kind
of thing: x h 2 4a y k has vertex at (h, k) and concaves up.
For a cylinder :
V r
V r h
4
3
A 4 r 2
A 2 r 2 2 r h
For a cone :
V 13 r 2 h
A r2 rl
(l
r 2 h2 )
For a pyramid :
V 13 base height
A sum of faces
11. Integration
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xn x0
),
n
1
w f x0 2 f x1 2 f x 2 ... 2 f x n 1 f x n
2
: If f x x n , f x dx F x
Rule 2
Rule 3
Rule 4
f x dx F b F a
f x dx f x dx
x n 1
C
n 1
a
b
ax b
n
ax b dx a n 1 C
du
: f u dx f u du C , u f x
n 1
dx
(in words: when you have a function u of x and its derivative, you just need to integrate with
respect to u and pretend that the derivative was not there)
u 2 C .
2
Sample question #1: Find I 2 x x 1 dx . We have u x 2 1 , f u u . I
2
Sample
question
#2:
Find
1
I 2
2 x dx .
x 1
We
have
u x2 1,
f u
1
.
u
1
I du ln u C ln x 2 1 C .
u
Whenever you see unfamiliar integrand, the first thing you should do is check if it contains a
function and its derivative.
Area under the Curve
You need to pay attention to where the curve is below the x-axis. Sometimes symmetry is also
useful to avoid unnecessary process.
Sample question: Find the area under the curve of y x 3 from x 1 to x 1 . We see that
1
the curve looks sort of identical to the left and right of the y-axis. Area = 20 x 3 dx .
Volume of Solid of Revolution
: V a y 2 dx
: V a x 2 dy
2
2
Revolution about another curve : V a g x h x dx
b
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y x 2 , find
dx
dx
dy 2 x hence
dy (i.e. how x is changing with respect to y). Answer:
dx
dy
dy dy du
The term dx in 2 x dx is also a variable (and thats why you need to write it). 2x is the
height of the curve and dx is the width of the strip, hence definite integral represents the area
under the curve.
a
n
a x y a x a y
a x y
1
aq
Logarithms
Laws for Logarithms
a q
x n
ab x
ax
y
a
axn
ax bx
ax
bx
: y log a x means x a y
log a 1 0 (because 1 a 0 )
log a a 1 (because a a )
log a
log a a 12 (because a a 2 )
Change of Base Law
: log b x
x
y
log a x log a y
log a x n n log a x
log a x
[log of the number then log of the base]
log a b
Cancelling Out
log a a x x and a log a x x [the base must be the same though]
The Logarithmic Function
In this course, log e x, log x and ln x mean the same thing.
log x
d
log e x 1 ==> to differentiate other bases, convert them first, eg log 2 x
log 2
dx
x
The function y log x is the only logarithmic function whose gradient at the x-intercept is
exactly 1.
log x
k
The function x k dominates log x , k 0 : lim k 0 and lim x log x 0 . This is useful
x x
x 0
in curve sketching. For example, sketch y x ln x .
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LHS
log
1
5
x2
10
10
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x
2
10
10
dx 5 ln x
10
10 C ,
you
can
use
the
log
law
2
x 2 100
x
log x log y so 5 ln x
C 5 ln x 2 100 K .
10 C 5 ln
10
y
10
x dx log
Note: technically
1
dx , certainly an area
x
exists.
The Exponential Function
d x
x
e ex
==> other bases:
then using chain rule,
a x e log a e x log a ,
dx
d x
a log a e x log a a x log a . Similar process for integration.
dx
The function y e x is the only exponential function whose gradient is equal to its height above
the x-axis.
x k e x 0 and
The function e x dominates x k , k 0 : xlim
arc length
sec tor area
angle
2 or 360
circumfere nce
area of circle
segment, just remember it is area of sector minus area of the triangle (use
Period and Amplitude of Graphs, in Radians
1
2
bc sin A ).
2
. The first
b
Dividing through by sin x and using cos x 1 for extremely small x, we can show that
tan x
1
x
sin 2 x
sin 2 x
sin 2 x 2
sin 2 x 2
lim
lim
.
Sample question: Find lim
. lim
x 0
x
0
2
x
0
2
x
0
3
3
3
3
2
3
lim
x 0
sin x
1 and
x
lim
x 0
d
cos x sin x
dx
and
d
tan x sec 2 x
dx
Note: calculus formulae involving trig functions will assume that everything is in radians.
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To be safe you can always check for boundary solutions, such as x 0, and .
2
dA
kA .
dt
dA
k A0 e kt kA .
dt
(b) The amount of isotope is halved every 5750 years. Find the value of k. ANS: put this
condition into A A0 e kt : 0.5 A0 A0 e k 5750 e 5750 k 0.5 5750k ln 0.5 . Now you
can use calculator or express in exact value. The log law n log x log x n gives a nicer
expression: 5750k ln 2 .
(c) It is found today that A 0.15 A0 . How long ago did the tree die (answer to the nearest
year)? ANS: use A A0 e kt . If you used calculator in (b), use the full value shown on screen.
Motion
change in displacement x 2 x1
Average velocity =
= gradient of the chord
change in time
t 2 t1
Average speed =
Displacement counts direction, while distance always adds and has no direction. For example,
a person takes 2 steps forwards and then 5 steps backwards. Displacement is 3 forwards or
+3 backwards, while distance is 7.
Positive or negative? It doesnt matter which direction (forwards or backwards) that we take as
being positive. But keep that consistent throughout your answer.
Instantaneous velocity v is the velocity at a particular time (not the average over time).
Instantaneous speed is v . By differentiating x, we can find v.
v
dx
x = gradient of curve (i.e. gradient of its tangent)
dt
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Draw a graph of v as a function of time t, measured in seconds. (ii) Let s metres be the distance
travelled by the car from where it had stopped. On a separate set of axes, draw a graph of s as a
function of time and find the distance travelled.
Sample question #2: The positions of two particles A and B are given by x A 12 t 1 and
x B ln t 1 . (i) Find v A and v B in terms of t. Graph them on the same set of axes and
explain why there is only one occasion when the particles have equal velocity. (ii) By
examining the stationary point of the curve of D x A x B against t, show that the two
particles wont meet.
Rate of Change
In the General Notes on Calculus section, it was explained that the derivative of y with respect
to x represents the rate at which y is changing as x increases. The term rate of change
specifically refers to the rate of change as time progresses, and this is the derivative with
respect to time. We have seen a concept of rate of change in the motion topic above, where we
can differentiate or integrate a given expression to find some other function.
Sample question: A cylindrical tank had 200 litres of water in it. More water was pumped into
the tank for twenty minutes until it was full. The rate of flow of the water R, in litres per
minute, into the tank was given by R 80 4t . (a) Write down a formula for the volume V of
water in the tank after t minutes where t 20 . (b) What is the capacity of the tank when it is
full? (c) How long did it take for the tank to be half full?
Solutions: (a) R is dV
2
dt so you can integrate it. V 80t 2t 200 . (b) Put t = 20 into the
equation you obtained from (a). V = 1000 litres. (c) Put V = 500. Using the quadratic formula, t
= 4.2 minutes (reject t = 35.8 since t 20 ).
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