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2004 HSC Mathematics (2 Unit)

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Mathematics (2 Unit)
Based on 1983 Syllabus, Written in 2004
This summary may be useful for revision, but also as a reading before or after lesson in class. It
is by no means intended to replace the need to actually attempt exam-style questions. Some
topics are covered more comprehensively than others for no real reasons. Proofs are given
when they can be easily derived in case you forget the formulae. Important results are boxed
for convenience.
The majority of this work is based on the Cambridge Mathematics textbook. Sections are
numbered according to the syllabus. This document was last updated on 24 December 2004.

1. Basic Arithmetic and Algebra

Square of a sum/difference : A B 2 A 2 2 AB B 2 (for difference, B is negative)


Difference of squares
: A 2 B 2 A B A B
Cube of a sum/difference : A B 3 A 3 3 A 2 B 3 AB 2 B 3 [you can do A B 2 A B ]
Sum/difference of cubes : A 3 B 3 A B A 2 AB B 2
Completing the Square
Sample question: Express 2 x 2 20 x 7 in perfect square. Method: to make it perfect square
we need the coefficient of x 2 to be 1 (not -1 either) and we need the square of half the
coefficient of x.
2
2 x 2 20 x 7 2 x 2 10 x 7 2 x 2 10 x 5 2 7 2 5 2 2 x 5 50 .
Inequalities
When we multiply or divide both sides by a negative number, change the inequality sign (
, , , or ). When it is a fraction and we invert it, also change the sign.
Absolute Values
x a can be thought of as a distance between points x and a on the number line.
x a a x and x a a x
Sample question: Solve 3 x 7 3 . We have two inequalities: 3x 7 3 , 3x 7 3 .
Simplifying, 3 x 10 , 3 x 4 . Combining, 10 3x 4 3 13 x 1 13 .
Significant Figures and Decimal Places
The number of significant figures indicates the degree of accuracy.
0.050 litres. It has two significant figures and four decimal places. It is accurate up to a
millilitre (it can be anywhere from 49.5 mL but below 50.5 mL).
0.05 litres. It has one significant figure and is accurate to 10 mL (it can be anywhere from 45
mL to below 55 mL).
5 10 2 has one significant figure, but 500 has three significant figures.

2. Plane Geometry
Some Terms (know them if you can)
Collinear: when three or more points lie on the same line
Concurrent: when three or more lines intersect at the same point
Line: technically, a line with no endpoints
Interval AB: a line with two endpoints, A and B
Intercept: a section of an interval, for example, a point P on an interval AB divides the
interval into two intercepts, AP and PB
Transversal: a line that crosses two or more other lines
Ray AB: a line with one end, A, extending towards B onwards
Opposite ray AB: a line with one end, A, but extending not towards B
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Straight angle: has a size of 180 degrees


Reflex angle: has a size of more than 180 degrees [and less than 360 degrees]
Complementary angle: the angle which adds up to 90 degrees with another angle
Supplementary angle: the angle which adds up to 180 degrees with another angle
Vertically opposite angles: a pair of angles, one behind the other, created by the same two
lines; they are equal in size
The Three Lines (the two lines dont need to be parallel) and Angles on Them
Name: example in diagram [property if the two lines are parallel]
Corresponding angles: the two angles facing up on the right of the / [equal]
Alternate angles: the angle facing down on the left of the / and the angle facing up on the
right of the /; technically they must be inside the = [equal]
Co-interior angles: they are inside the = and to the right of the / [supplementary]
Conversely, if one of the parallel properties above is satisfied, the two lines are parallel.
Interior and Exterior Angles
Interior angle: the angle inside a polygon at its vertex (when a question mentions only angle
then its the interior angle)
Exterior angle: the angle between a side and the extension of another side, located at the vertex
and outside the polygon; each vertex actually has two exterior angles but they are equal
Sum of Interior Angles
Triangle: anything with 3 vertices. Sum of interior angles: 180 degrees.
Quadrilateral: anything with 4 vertices. Sum of interior angles: 360 degrees.
Polygon: any closed figure with vertices [including triangle and quadrilateral]. Sum of interior
angles: n 2 180 , n is the number of sides or of vertices [hint: think of triangle and
quadrilateral and follow the pattern]. Proof: draw up n triangles with one side of each triangle
being a side of the polygon and all triangles having a common vertex inside the polygon. Sum
of angles of the triangles is n 180 degrees. But we have 360 around the common vertex.
Convex and Non-Convex Polygon
A convex polygon is the one youre probably imagining just now. A non-convex polygon has at
least one interior angle greater than 180 (try to draw one).
Sum of exterior angles of any convex polygon: is 360 degrees. Proof: use the fact that at each
vertex, the interior and exterior angles form a straight line and add to 180 degrees and that the
sum of interior angles is n 2 180 degrees.
Regular polygon: has equal sides, and so equal interior angles and equal exterior angles
Triangles
Standard congruence tests for triangles (notation: )
SSS; SAS [A is the included angle]; AAS; RHS [the hypotenuse and one other side of a
triangle are equal to those of another triangle]
Note: there is no ASS test for congruence (unless the angle is obtuse).
It is a good idea to name the vertices, sides and angles in corresponding order. When
A F , B D and C E , write ABC FDE instead of ABC DEF .
Two vertices in two triangles are called corresponding if the angles at those vertices are equal.
Standard similarity tests for triangles (notation: ||| )
SSS; SAS; AA [or AAA]; RHS [hypotenuse and another side are proportional in the s]
[A is for equal angles, S is for proportional sides]
Again, you should write the vertices in corresponding order.
Test for a triangle to be isosceles: if two angles of that triangle are equal
Test for a triangle to be equilateral (has equal sides): if the 3 angles are equal, each being 60
Median: the line joining a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. Altitude: the line
perpendicular from a vertex to the opposite side. The three medians are concurrent. The three
altitudes are also concurrent.
The size of an exterior angle in a is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.
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Ratios of Intercepts on Sides of Triangle: suppose we have triangle ABC and a line parallel to
BC cuts the triangle at P and Q, P is on side AB. If AP : PB k : l , then AQ : QC k : l and
PQ : BC k : k l . Proof: use similarity of triangles APQ and ABC.
Transversals to Three Parallel Lines
The previous result can be used to obtain the following general result.
If we have 3 parallel lines and a number of transversals (lines) that cross the three of them, the
ratio of the intercepts on one transversal is the same as the ratio on any other transversals. The
transversals dont need to be parallel.
Conversely, if the ratios are equal, the lines are parallel.
Special Quadrilaterals
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with at least one pair of opposite sides parallel.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
A rhombus is a parallelogram with a pair of adjacent sides equal.
A rectangle is a parallelogram with one angle a right angle.
A square is both a rectangle and a rhombus.
Tests for parallelogram: Opposite angles are equal OR Opposite sides are equal OR One pair
of opposite sides are equal and parallel OR The diagonals bisect each other
Tests for rhombus: All sides are equal OR The diagonals bisect each other at right angles OR
The diagonals bisect each vertex angle
Tests for rectangle: All angles are equal [so they are 90 degrees] OR The diagonals are equal
and bisect each other
Tests for square: Must be a rhombus and also a rectangle
Area of Plane Figures
Square: (side length)2
Rectangle: (length) x (breath)
Parallelogram: (base) x (perpendicular height)
Triangle: x (base) x (perpendicular height)
Rhombus: x (product of the diagonals)
Trapezium: (average of parallel sides) x (perpendicular height)
Note: some figures belong to other more general figures. For example, a rhombus belongs to
the parallelogram family, and so you can use the formula for parallelogram.
Final Note: try to draw a picture on paper if you dont understand my wording.

3. Probability
Some Trivial Things
Cards: a pack contains 52 cards organized into four suits which are: clubs spades
diamonds hearts; picture cards are Jack, Queen and King only; odd-number cards often
include Ace (which can be regarded as number 1) although its value is higher than King; a
hand of Jack and Queen means the person gets a Jack and a Queen.
Word: any combination of letters, for example, asdfg and english are both words
Letters: there are 26 of them, 5 of which are vowels
Number [e.g. 856]: its first digit cant be zero [the number cant be 0856, for example]
Some Terms
Equally likely possible outcomes: consider the following. The chances of getting a head or
a tail when you throw a coin are essentially equal, but the chances of a person named
Jack being a male or a female arent equal.
Event: the condition we want, e.g. the event of getting a tail, the event of getting less than 5
when a die is thrown
Sample space: a set containing all of the possible outcomes

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Stages: something has more than one stage if: (i) there are multiple objects (e.g. two coins)
OR (ii) there is one object but its used twice (e.g. throwing a coin twice)
Independent events: to prevent confusion, lets call it independent stages, which is when the
outcome of one stage is not influenced by the outcome of the other stage(s)
Mutually exclusive events: if one event occurs, the other(s) cannot occur

P event

no of favourable outcomes
no of possible outcomes

[and so 0 P event 1 ]

Useful for checking answers: all probabilities add up to 1


Listing the Sample Space
Consider the statement When two coins are tosses together, there are three outcomes: two
heads, two tails, and one of each. Hence the probability of getting one of each is 1/3. It is
wrong! There are three distinct outcomes but four individual outcomes which are equally
likely: (1)two heads, (2)two tails, (3)head-tail (4)tail-head. Hence P(one of each) = 2/4 = 1/2.
Methods to Help Listing the Sample Space and Counting the Number of Favourable
Outcomes in Multi-Stage Trials
Tree diagram: useful when there are a lot of stages but with 2 or 3 outcomes on each stage.
Example: throwing coins.
Drawing each stage as separate axes: useful when there are only 2 stages but with many
outcomes on each stage; the first stage is drawn as the x-axis and the second as y-axis.
Example: throwing 2 dice. Label the x-axis 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and do the same with the yaxis. Then, draw dots If you want a double pair then your favourable outcomes are points
(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5) and (6,6).
Complementary Events: is written as E , and simply means when event E does not occur.
P E P E 1 , Sometimes its easier to find P E than P E , especially when the
question uses the words not, at least, at most and excluding.
Sample question: You are drawing a card, find the probability that its an even number, or a
picture card, or red. Solution: let E be the event of getting a black odd number card.
Meanings of AND and of OR
A and B = A B = both conditions must be met
A or B = A B = at least one condition is met (both can also be met) [hint: = Union]
Probability Involving Independent Stages
P A1 A2 An P A1 P A2 P An , P A1 A2 means that condition A1 is met on the
first stage and condition A2 is met on the second stage, A1 and A2 must be independent.
If the Stages are Not Really Independent
Sample question: A box contains five discs numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Two discs are drawn in
succession without replacement. What is the probability that both are even?
Solution: The probability that the first number is even is 2/5. After this disc is removed there
are only 4 discs in the box (and only one of them is even). So the probability that the second
number is also even is 1/4 [note: not 2/4]. P(both even) = 2/5 x 1/4.
Probability of Alternatives
P A or B P A P B P A and B where A is a condition or a set of condition .An
example of a set of condition would be that A represents A1 A2 A3 and B represents A3 A1 A2
.
If we have many sets of conditions which are mutually exclusive,
P A or B or C or D P A P B P C P D

Retelling the Event: might be necessary


Sample question: From a room of ten people, five will be chosen to sit on the balcony. What is
the probability that Sandra and Sally both sit on the balcony?
Solution: retell the method is choosing the seating as this: Choose where Sandra sits, then
choose where Sally sits. Sandra has five chances out of ten. Then if Sandra does sit on the
balcony, Sally will have four chances out of nine. P(both on balcony) = 5/10 x 4/9.
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Probability Tree Diagram


This is a tree diagram, but instead of writing all outcomes, we only write all distinct outcomes,
with the probability associated with each distinct outcome in each stage written near the
associated line.
Sample question: A bag contains six white marbles and four blue ones. Three are drawn in
succession. At each draw, if the marble is white, its replaced, but if its blue, its not replaced.
Draw the probability tree diagram and find the probability of getting all blue marbles. Solution:
if youve done it correctly, its 4/10 x 3/9 x 2/8 = 1/30 [multiply the probabilities on each
stage].

4. Real Functions of a Real Variable and Their Geometrical Representation


Relations and Functions
A relation (such as an equation in x and y) is a function if it passes the vertical line test when
graphed. That is, no vertical lines cut the curve at more than one point.
Even Function : f x f x
Odd Function : f x f x
Transformation of Known Graphs
To stretch the graph in a vertical direction by a factor of a, replace y by y/a. To stretch the
graph in a horizontal direction by a factor of a, replace x by x/a. For example, y 4 sin x is
y sin x stretched vertically by a factor of 4. Replacing x by x-a shifts the graph to the right
by a units (think of x-a being zero when x=a). Similarly replacing y by y-a shifts it a units up.
Replacing x by x reflects it in y-axis (just visualise it). Replacing y by y reflects in x-axis.
Locus and Algebraic Representation
Example #1: Point P(x,y) moves so that its distance from A(1,0) is two times its distance from
B(7,0). What is the Cartesian equation of the locus of P?
x 1 2 y 0 2 2 x 7 2 y 0 2 x 1 2 y 0 2 4 x 7 2 4 y 0 2
After expansion and simplification, locus is 3 x 2 54 x 3 y 2 195 0 .
Example #2: Find the centre and radius of the following circle: x 2 4 x y 2 6 y 12 .
Completing the square, x 2 4 x 4 y 2 6 y 9 12 4 9 x 2 2 y 3 2 25 .
Centre is (2, -3) and radius is 5.
Example #3: What is the locus whose equation is x 2 y 2 0 ? x 2 y 2 x y so its either
the line y x or y x .
Region and Inequality
To draw the region y x 1 , draw the line y x 1 and the region will be above the line.
Similarly y x 2 is above the parabolic curve, so is y x 2 . Now, x 1 2 y 1 2 25 is
outside the circle (and excludes the circle).

5. Trigonometric Ratios Review and Some Preliminary Results


Signs of the Trigonometric Functions
The positive trigonometric functions in the quadrants 1 4 can be represented by the phrase
All Stations To Central.
Reciprocal Identities
cos ec

1
sin

sec

Pythagorean Identities

1
cos

cot

1
tan

tan 2 1 sec 2
cot 2 1 cos ec 2
2
[Hint: memorise sin cos 1 , then dividing both sides by cos 2 would give the second
identity, while dividing by sin 2 would give the third identity]
sin 2 cos 2 1

Complementary Identities
cos 90 sin

cot 90 tan

cos ec 90 sec

Solving Homogenous Equations


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Sample question: Solve sin 2 x 3 sin x cos x 2 cos 2 x 0 . Hint: divide the expression by a
power of cos x to produce an equation in tan x.
This type of equation is called a homogenous equation in sin x and cos x which means that the
sum of the indices of sin x and cos x in each term is the same.
Some Formulae for Triangles
With A refering to the angle facing side a,
Sine Rule

diameter of the circumcirc le


a
b
c

of the triangle
sin A sin B sin C

Note: when finding angle, remember that it can also be in quadrant 2 (because sine is positive
in quadrant 2). Depending on the known things, both values for the angle may be okay. Check
if the angles can add up to 180 degrees. You may need to use the fact that longer side is
subtended by larger angle.
Area Formula
: area ABC 12 b c sin A
Cosine Rule
: c 2 a 2 b 2 2 a b cos C
Note: c doesnt need to be the longest side.
The above three results can be proven by considering three cases, when A is acute, rightangled and obtuse, and constructing altitude for each triangle in the three cases (remembering
that altitude is the perpendicular height). For A 90 , this divides the triangle into two
right-angled triangles. To prove the sine rule, apply the definition sine = opposite / hypotenuse
to the two right-angled triangles. To prove the area formula, apply area = x base x
perpendicular height to the undivided triangle. To prove the cosine rule, apply Pythagoras
theorem to the two right-angled triangles.
Bearings
True bearing: expressed in 3 digits and usually ends with a T; measured clockwise from North.
For example, 090T (90 degrees clockwise from North so its exactly East) and 267T.
Compass bearing: For example, S60W (60 from South to West, corresponding to 240T),
N10E (corresponding to 010T).
Wording: make sure you can visualise bearing of A from B (draw a line from B to A and
measure from Bs perspective) and bearing of B from A.
Sample question: A ship leaves port P and travels 150 nautical miles to port Q on a bearing of
110. It then travels 120 nautical miles to port R on a bearing of 200. (a) Draw a diagram to
represent this information and explain why PQR 90 [hint: you can use property of cointerior angles on parallel lines both pointing to north]. (b) Find, to the nearest minute, the
bearing of port R from port P [hint: this is QPR 110 ].
Angle of Elevation and Depression
Both are always measured from the horizontal. Elevation goes up and depression goes down.

6. Linear Functions and Lines

: PQ 2 x 2 x1 2 y 2 y1 2 [proof: Pythagoras theorem]


x x
y y
Midpoint Formula
: x 1 2 and y 1 2
2
2
rise y 2 y1

Gradient Formula
: m
(It doesnt matter which point is x 2 , y 2 as
run x 2 x1
y 2 y1
long as you dont do something like m
.)
x1 x 2
Parallel Lines
: gradients are equal
Perpendicular Lines
: product of gradients is -1
Angle of Inclination (anticlockwise from the x-axis) : gradient tan
Equations of Lines
Gradient-intercept form : y mx b , m will be the gradient and b will be the y-intercept
Distance Formula

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General form
: ax by c 0
Point-gradient form : y y1 m x x1 , with P x1 , y1 any known point on the line
Sample question: A line passes (1, 2) and (5, 7). Find the equation of the line.

72 5
. Then use y y1 m x x1 and P can be either (1, 2) or (5, 7).
5 1 4
x y
1 , with a the x-intercept and b the y-intercept
Two-intercept form :
a b

First find m: m

: p

Perpendicular Distance

ax1 by1 c
a2 b2

, from point P x1 , y1 , line ax by c 0

Distance between Parallel Lines


It is the length of a perpendicular transversal, and is given by the perpendicular distance
formula [take any point on one of the lines].
Lines Through the Intersection of Two Given Lines
All those lines can be expressed in the form a1 x b1 y c1 k a 2 x b2 y c 2 0 , where k is
any constant and the two given lines are a1 x b1 y c1 0 and a 2 x b2 y c 2 0 .
Sample question: Two lines, x y 1 0 and 3 x 7 y 0 intersect at P. Find the equation
of the line which goes through P and also passes (2, 5).
All lines which go through P can be expressed as x y 1 k 3x 7 y 0 . But this
particular line also goes through (2, 5), so putting (2, 5) into this equation,
2 5 1 k 3 2 7 5 0 . You can find the value of k then simplify the equation.

7. Series and Applications


Arithmetic Progressions (AP)
The nth term of an AP : Tn a n 1 d
Partial sums of APs

S n 12 n a l

S n 12 n 2a n 1 d

Geometric Progressions
The nth term of a GP : Tn a r n 1
a r n 1
a1 r n
Partial sums of GPs : S n
[ Sn
is the same thing as x c c x ]
r 1
1 r
a
a r n 1
Limiting sums of GPs (when 1 r 1 ) : S
(its just S n
with n )
1 r
r 1
Arithmetic and Geometric Means of Two Numbers
The arithmetic mean (AM) of a and b is the number x such that a, x, b forms an AP.
AM 12 a b
A geometric mean (GM) of a and b is a number x such that a, x, b forms a GP.
GM ab or ab (proof: condition for a GP is b x x a )
However, statements such as Insert three geometric means between 10 and 40 simply mean
Find three numbers between 10 and 40 so that the five numbers form a GP.
l

Sigma Notation :

T
nk

Tk Tk 1 Tk 2 ... Tl

Finding Tn given Sn : Sample question: Find Tn if S n n


For n 2 : Tn S n S n 1 n 2 n 1 2 2n 1 . We know that T1 S1 so
T1 1 . Lets try the formula Tn 2n 1 when n 1 anyway in case it works too:
T1 21 1 1 . Hence, Tn 2n 1 for n 1 .
Note on Solving Exponential Inequalities
2

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line(1) 1.05 n 1.5

line(2)

log 1.05 1.05 n log 1.05 1.5

line(3)

n log1.05 1.5

line(4)

ln 1.5
ln 1.05

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line(1) - (2): no change of the inequality sign when
we log both sides only if the base of the exponential is
greater than 1, e.g. 1.05]
line(2) - (3): log and exp with the same base cancel
each other
line(3) - (4): change of base rule

Recurring Decimal and GP


Example: 2.64 5 2.6454545 2.6 0.045 0.00045 . The thing in brackets is a GP
5
as a fraction.
with a = 0.045 and r = 0.01. We can find its limiting sum to express 2.64
Simple Interest and AP
Simple interest is when we get interest based on our principal [the money initially put in].
Interest = P R n , P = principal R = interest rate in decimals [1% = 0.01] n = units of time
An P P R n , An = the total amount in the bank after n units of time
Obviously, An forms an AP with the first term P PR and common difference PR
Note: for simple interest and all other financial problems, n must be in the same unit as the
interest rate; you can always convert the rate, e.g. 12% pa is 1% per month; but there is another
thing governing the unit of n, namely the compounding period.
Compound Interest and GP
Compound interest is we get interest based on the total money we have in the bank at the end
of the compounding period. If your money is compounded monthly, n must be expressed in
month. If this period is not stated, its the same as in the given interest rate.
n
An P 1 R , which is a GP with first term P 1 R and ratio 1 R
Depreciation and GP
n
Depreciation is similar to compound interest. An P1 R , P is the initial worth of the item
and An is how much the item is worth after n units of time.
Investing Money by Regular Instalments (such as in Superannuation)
Each individual instalment earns compound interest for a different length of time. Find what
each instalment grows to as it accrues compound interest. These final amounts turn out to form
a GP, which we can then sum. An that sum and we use this result to answer what are asked.
You need to show the process.
Because of the large numbers involved, we usually use the pronumeral M to represent the
instalment.
Sample question: You are investing $10 000 on 1 st July each year, beginning in 2000. The
money earns compound interest at 8% pa. (a) How much will the fund amount to by 30 th June
2020 (b) Find the year in which the fund first exceeds $700 000 on 30 th June (c) What annual
instalment would have produced $1 000 000 by 2020. Answer:
The first instalment is invested for n years, amounting to M 1.08 n
The second instalment is invested for n 1 years, amounting to M 1.08 n 1
The final (nth) instalment is invested for 1 year, amounting to M 1.08
Writing from the final to the fist instalments, An 1.08M 1.08 2 M 1.08 n M , which is a
a r n 1
n
GP with n terms. Using the S n
formula, An 13.5M 1.08 1 and we can just
r 1
substitute values to answer parts (a), (b) and (c).
Paying Off a Loan by Regular Instalments
Compound interest (or in this context its more appropriately called reducible interest since the
dollar amount of interest reduces over time) is charged on the balance still owing at the time of
payment (of the instalment). That is, if the interest is 1% then An An 1 1 0.01 M , An is
the amount still owing and M is the instalment. It can be shown that this is equivalent to the

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principal getting interest and the individual instalments also getting interest. Again we develop
a formula for An , and you need to show the process.
Sample question: You took a huge loan of $200 000 on 1 January 2002. Interest is charged at
12% pa, compounded monthly. You decided to pay off the load in monthly instalments of
$2200 [actually, if its compounded monthly then you automatically need to pay monthly, and
vice versa]. (a) Find the amount owing at the end of n months (b) find how long it takes to
repay (i) the full loan (ii) half the loan (c) why would instalments of $1900 per month never
repay the loan. Answer:
Firstly, the interest is 1% per month.
The first instalment is invested for n 1 months [why not n? because you pay 1 month after
you took the loan], amounting to M 1.01n 1
The final (nth) instalment is invested for no time at all, amounting to M
The initial loan amounts to P 1.01n
An P 1.01n M 1.01M 1.01n 1 M P 1.01n 100 M 1.01n 1
For (b)(ii) put An 12 200000 . Just for quick comparison purposes, (b)(i) is around 20 years
and (b)(ii) is 15 years [it takes longer to pay the first half].
n
For (d), substituting M 1900 gives An 190000 1.01 10000 which is always
increasing. In fact, M 2000 is required just to pay the interest.

8. The Tangent to a Curve and the Derivative of a Function


The derivative represents the instantaneous rate of change of something with respect to another
thing. For example, dy

dx

shows how y is changing as x changes.

The Derivative as a Limit of Gradient of Chord


f x h f x
dy
y
f ' x lim
lim
and
h o
dx x 0 x
h
Note that it is actually a two-sided limit and needs a continuity around that point.
Also, suppose that f(x) and g(x) are both continuous. Then f(x) + g(x), f(x) - g(x) and f(x)g(x)
will all be continuous.
If
If
If
If
If

f x x n , then f ' x n x n 1
f x K , then f ' x 0
f x K g x , then f ' x K g ' x
f x g x h x , then f ' x g ' x h' x
y u v, then y ' u ' v u v '

Rule 1

Rule 2
Rule 3
Product Rule

:
:
:

Quotient Rule

: If y

Chain Rule

u ' v u v'
u
, then y '
(if you forget which one to
v
v2
differentiate first, just do a quick test with something like y x 2 / x )
dy dy du

(also called function of a function rule)


dx du dx

The chain rule can be used for algebraic and non-algebraic functions (learnt later).
Sample question #1: Differentiate
Let u 3x 4 x .

y 3x 4 x

with respect to x.

dy 3 12
3
u 12 x 3 1 12 x 3 1 3x 4 x .
dx 2
2

Sample question #2: Differentiate y ln sin x with respect to x.


Let u sin x .

dy 1
cos x
cos x
cot x .
dx u
sin x

Trivial Notes on Notations


Sample question: Find the derivative of x 2 when x 1
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Correct answers:
d 2
d 2
dx2
x 2

x 2 x OR
2 x and at x 1,
dx
dx
dx

dy
Let y x 2 , then

dx

2 x and at x 1, dy

dx

Let y x 2 , then y ' 2 x and at x 1, y ' 2


Let f x x 2 , then f ' x 2 x and f ' 1 2
Technically incorrect answers:

dy

Let y x 2 , then dy

dx

2 x [must let

y x 2 first] and

dx

at x 1, dy

dx

2 x 2 [of course 2 x 2 ; must write at x 1 ]

Also, the question should really say find the derivative of x 2 when x 1 with respect to x.
d dy
d2y

, d is squared and
Notation of Second Derivative: f ' ' x OR y ' ' OR
(think of
2
dx dx
dx
dx is too)

9. The Quadratic Polynomial and the Parabola


The axis of symmetry and the vertex are always midway between the x-intercepts.
The quadratics whose zeroes (x-intercepts) are and form a family with equation
y a x x .
Axis of Symmetry

: x

Zeroes

: x

Vertex

b
(think of quadratic formula with zero discriminant)
2a

b
,
2a

b 2 4ac

b

,

2a
4a

Theory of the Discriminant


If > 0, there are two distinct real zeroes.
If = 0, there are two equal real zeroes (or one real double zero).
If < 0, there are two distinct unreal zeroes.
Definite and Indefinite Quadratics
A quadratic is definite is it has no real zeroes,
being positive definite if it is always positive,
and negative definite if it is always negative.
A quadratic is indefinite if it has at least one zero.
Sum of Roots (Zeroes) :

b
a

Product of Roots (Zeroes) :

c
a

Quadratic Identity
F(x) is identical to G(x) when they give the same value for all values of x. If two quadratics
intersect at more than two points then they are identical.
Sample question #1: Express 2 x 2 3 x 6 in the form a x 1 2 b x 1 c .
We set up an identity, 2 x 2 3x 6 a x 1 2 b x 1 c .
We can expand the RHS and equate coefficients. RHS is ax 2 2a b x a b c so a 2 ,
2a b 3 and a b c 6 .
Or, we can use substitution. When x 1 LHS = 5 and RHS = c, and so on.
Sample question #2: Given that a, b and c are three distinct constants, prove that
x a x b x b x c x b 2 x a c . Instead of expanding it is suffice to show that
LHS = RHS when x = a, x = b and x = c.
Parabola
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A parabola is the locus of a point which moves so that its distance to a fixed point (the focus) is
equal its perpendicular distance to a fixed line (the directrix) not passing through the focus. A
locus of P is the set of points, all denoted by P, which fit the given conditions. In a sense P is
movable.
The axis of parabola is the line through focus and vertex. The latus rectum is the line parallel to
the directrix, passing the focus. Note that all parabolas are similar (i.e. have the same shape,
only enlarged or shrunk).
Standard Notations
Parabolas with vertex at the origin: x 2 4ay , x 2 4ay , y 2 4ax, y 2 4ay , where a is
the focal length. The first concaves up, the second concaves down, the third concaves right and
the fourth concaves left. As with other functions, parabolas can be translated by doing this kind
of thing: x h 2 4a y k has vertex at (h, k) and concaves up.

10. Geometrical Applications of Differentiation


Geometrically, the derivative represents the gradient of the tangent to a curve at a point. This is
often called the gradient of the curve.
A normal is the line through that point perpendicular to the tangent.
There are three types of stationary points: maxima, minima and horizontal points of inflexion.
Maxima and minima are also called turning points.
There are global (absolute) and local (relative) maximum and minimum. Any local maximum
or minimum is called an extremum.
A function can only change from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa) at the critical points.
Critical points ate points where the derivative is zero or undefined.
Application of the Second Derivative
If f ' ' x 0 , the graph of f(x) is concave up at that point.
If f ' ' x 0 , the graph of f(x) is concave down at that point.
If f ' ' x 0 and there is a change in f ' ' x around that point, it is a point of inflexion.
Sketching Curves (if one column applies, the others apply too)
Function f(x)
Derivative f(x)
Second
Derivative
f(x)
Stationary point* f(x) = 0
N/A
Increasing**
f(x) > 0
N/A
Decreasing**
f(x) < 0
N/A
Concave up
f(x) is increasing
f(x) > 0
Concave down
f(x) is decreasing
f(x) < 0
Point of inflexion f(x) has a turning f(x) = 0***
point
* When its a horizontal point of inflexion, the graph of f(x) will only touch the x-axis (be
tangential to x-axis). When it is a turning point, it will cut the x-axis.
** At a horizontal point of inflexion, we can still call the curve increasing or decreasing.
*** f(x) = 0 doesnt automatically mean columns 1 and 2 apply. But if column 2 applies then
column 1 applies.
Volume and Surface Area of Solids (for Maximum and Minimum Problems and for Rates of
Change later on)
For a sphere :

For a cylinder :

V r

V r h

4
3

A 4 r 2

A 2 r 2 2 r h

For a cone :
V 13 r 2 h
A r2 rl
(l

r 2 h2 )

For a pyramid :
V 13 base height
A sum of faces

11. Integration
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Primitive and Integral


Integration is the opposite process of differentiation.
Primitive of a derivative is the original function. Primitive of the original function is the
indefinite integral of that function.
Definite integral represents the area under the curve, allowing for negative areas.
Methods to Approximate Area under the Curve
With w being the width of the strip ( w
Trapezoidal Rule : A

xn x0
),
n

1
w f x0 2 f x1 2 f x 2 ... 2 f x n 1 f x n
2

Pattern inside the {} is 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1.


This rule gives exact value when the curve is a straight line.
1
w f x 0 4 f x1 2 f x 2 4 f x3 ... 4 f x n 1 f x n
3
Simpsons Rule :
should be used only when n is even
A

Pattern inside the {} is 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 1.


This rule gives exact value when the curve is a quadratic or a cubic.
Integration
Rule 1

: If f x x n , f x dx F x

Rule 2

Rule 3

Rule 4

f x dx F b F a
f x dx f x dx

x n 1
C
n 1

a
b

ax b
n
ax b dx a n 1 C
du
: f u dx f u du C , u f x
n 1

Reverse Chain Rule

dx

(in words: when you have a function u of x and its derivative, you just need to integrate with
respect to u and pretend that the derivative was not there)

u 2 C .
2
Sample question #1: Find I 2 x x 1 dx . We have u x 2 1 , f u u . I
2

Sample

question

#2:

Find

1
I 2
2 x dx .
x 1

We

have

u x2 1,

f u

1
.
u

1
I du ln u C ln x 2 1 C .
u

Whenever you see unfamiliar integrand, the first thing you should do is check if it contains a
function and its derivative.
Area under the Curve
You need to pay attention to where the curve is below the x-axis. Sometimes symmetry is also
useful to avoid unnecessary process.
Sample question: Find the area under the curve of y x 3 from x 1 to x 1 . We see that
1

the curve looks sort of identical to the left and right of the y-axis. Area = 20 x 3 dx .
Volume of Solid of Revolution

Revolution about the x-axis

: V a y 2 dx

Revolution about the y-axis

: V a x 2 dy

2
2
Revolution about another curve : V a g x h x dx
b

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d(something) As a Kind of Variable


We can treat d(something) as an ordinary variable, as it essentially represents the difference of
two extremely close something values. Examples:

y x 2 , find

dx

dx

dy 2 x hence
dy (i.e. how x is changing with respect to y). Answer:
dx

2 x , by flipping the fractions. Alternatively we could also break y x into two


functions, x y , and find the dx dy for each of them, but it takes longer to do.

dy

The Chain Rule,

dy dy du

, uses this idea (dus are cancelled out).


dx du dx

The term dx in 2 x dx is also a variable (and thats why you need to write it). 2x is the
height of the curve and dx is the width of the strip, hence definite integral represents the area
under the curve.

12. Logarithmic and Exponential Functions


Laws for Indices
a 0 1, a 0
a

a
n

a x y a x a y

a x y

1
aq
Logarithms
Laws for Logarithms

a q

x n

ab x

ax
y
a

axn

ax bx

ax
bx

: y log a x means x a y

log a 1 0 (because 1 a 0 )

log a xy log a x log a y

log a a 1 (because a a )

log a

log a a 12 (because a a 2 )
Change of Base Law

: log b x

x
y

log a x log a y

log a x n n log a x
log a x
[log of the number then log of the base]
log a b

Cancelling Out
log a a x x and a log a x x [the base must be the same though]
The Logarithmic Function
In this course, log e x, log x and ln x mean the same thing.
log x
d
log e x 1 ==> to differentiate other bases, convert them first, eg log 2 x
log 2
dx
x

The function y log x is the only logarithmic function whose gradient at the x-intercept is
exactly 1.
log x
k
The function x k dominates log x , k 0 : lim k 0 and lim x log x 0 . This is useful
x x
x 0
in curve sketching. For example, sketch y x ln x .

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Sample question: Show that

LHS
log

1
5

x2

10

10

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x
2

10

10

dx 5 ln x

dx 5 ln x 2 100 C . If you happen to do it by

10

10 C ,

you

can

use

the

log

law

2
x 2 100
x
log x log y so 5 ln x
C 5 ln x 2 100 K .
10 C 5 ln
10
y
10

x dx log

Note: technically

x . Consider the case of A

1
dx , certainly an area
x

exists.
The Exponential Function
d x
x
e ex
==> other bases:
then using chain rule,
a x e log a e x log a ,
dx
d x
a log a e x log a a x log a . Similar process for integration.
dx
The function y e x is the only exponential function whose gradient is equal to its height above

the x-axis.

x k e x 0 and
The function e x dominates x k , k 0 : xlim

lim x k e x 0 . Again this is


x

useful for curve sketching such as to sketch y x 2 e x .

13. The Trigonometric Function


Radian Measure and the Unit Circle
1 radian is defined as the ratio of two lengths in a circle: the arc subtended by the angle over
the radius of the circle. It follows that 180 c , c denotes radians but is often omitted.
Circle Problems in Radians
2
2
Arc length = r , Area of sector = 12 r , Area of segment 12 r sin . You may prefer
the following formula:

arc length
sec tor area
angle

2 or 360
circumfere nce
area of circle

instead. To find area of

segment, just remember it is area of sector minus area of the triangle (use
Period and Amplitude of Graphs, in Radians

y a sin bx, y a cos bx, y a sec bx and y a cos ecbx

two functions have amplitude a.

y a tan bx and y a cot bx

each have period

1
2

bc sin A ).

each have period

2
. The first
b

Limits as x Becomes Extremely Small


From graphs or from triangle and circle arrangement, we can show that:
sin x x tan x, for x acute

Dividing through by sin x and using cos x 1 for extremely small x, we can show that
tan x
1
x
sin 2 x
sin 2 x
sin 2 x 2
sin 2 x 2
lim
lim
.
Sample question: Find lim
. lim
x 0
x

0
2
x

0
2
x

0
3
3
3
3
2
3
lim
x 0

sin x
1 and
x

lim
x 0

Differentiation and Integration


d
sin x cos x,
dx

d
cos x sin x
dx

and

d
tan x sec 2 x
dx

Note: calculus formulae involving trig functions will assume that everything is in radians.
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Solving Trigonometric Equations


When solving trigonometric equations, dont get rid of a factor. Sample question: Solve
2 sin cos sin 2 for 0 2 . Rearranging, 2 sin cos sin 2 0 . Dont divide by
sin since its a factor. Instead, factorise into sin 2 cos sin 0 . Now its either
sin 0 or 2 cos sin 0 2 cot 1 0 (you can divide by sin now).

To be safe you can always check for boundary solutions, such as x 0, and .
2

14. Applications of Calculus to the Physical World


dP
kP and so P P0 e k t
dt
dP
kP
Proof: differentiate P P0 e k t and you can rewrite the result as
dt
P represents the quantity at a particular instant ; P0 is the initial quantity (at t = 0) ; k is the

Natural (or exponential) Growth and Decay:

population growth constant ; in natural decay k is a negative number


Sample question: The amount A in grams of carbon-14 isotope in a dead tree trunk after t years
changes at a rate given by

dA
kA .
dt

(a) Show that A A0 e kt is a possible expression for A. ANS:

dA
k A0 e kt kA .
dt

(b) The amount of isotope is halved every 5750 years. Find the value of k. ANS: put this
condition into A A0 e kt : 0.5 A0 A0 e k 5750 e 5750 k 0.5 5750k ln 0.5 . Now you
can use calculator or express in exact value. The log law n log x log x n gives a nicer
expression: 5750k ln 2 .
(c) It is found today that A 0.15 A0 . How long ago did the tree die (answer to the nearest
year)? ANS: use A A0 e kt . If you used calculator in (b), use the full value shown on screen.
Motion
change in displacement x 2 x1

Average velocity =
= gradient of the chord
change in time
t 2 t1
Average speed =

dis tan ce travelled


average velocity
time taken

Displacement counts direction, while distance always adds and has no direction. For example,
a person takes 2 steps forwards and then 5 steps backwards. Displacement is 3 forwards or
+3 backwards, while distance is 7.
Positive or negative? It doesnt matter which direction (forwards or backwards) that we take as
being positive. But keep that consistent throughout your answer.
Instantaneous velocity v is the velocity at a particular time (not the average over time).
Instantaneous speed is v . By differentiating x, we can find v.
v

dx
x = gradient of curve (i.e. gradient of its tangent)
dt

By differentiating v, we can find acceleration. Acceleration = v x


Note: the derivative of s (where s is something anything) with respect to time can be written
as s . The second derivative is s , and so on.
Stationary means: zero velocity (can have non-zero acceleration)
We can also integrate v and x to find the displacement and velocity functions respectively.
There is the constant of integration, so we need an initial or boundary value.
Sample question #1: A car started from rest with a constant acceleration for the first 10 seconds
until it reached a velocity of 25 m/s. For the next 20 seconds the car maintained a constant
velocity of 25 m/s. At this point in time the brakes were applied. The car slowed down at a
constant rate so that 5 seconds later it had a velocity of 5 m/s. (i) Let the cars speed be v m/s.
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Draw a graph of v as a function of time t, measured in seconds. (ii) Let s metres be the distance
travelled by the car from where it had stopped. On a separate set of axes, draw a graph of s as a
function of time and find the distance travelled.
Sample question #2: The positions of two particles A and B are given by x A 12 t 1 and
x B ln t 1 . (i) Find v A and v B in terms of t. Graph them on the same set of axes and
explain why there is only one occasion when the particles have equal velocity. (ii) By
examining the stationary point of the curve of D x A x B against t, show that the two
particles wont meet.
Rate of Change
In the General Notes on Calculus section, it was explained that the derivative of y with respect
to x represents the rate at which y is changing as x increases. The term rate of change
specifically refers to the rate of change as time progresses, and this is the derivative with
respect to time. We have seen a concept of rate of change in the motion topic above, where we
can differentiate or integrate a given expression to find some other function.
Sample question: A cylindrical tank had 200 litres of water in it. More water was pumped into
the tank for twenty minutes until it was full. The rate of flow of the water R, in litres per
minute, into the tank was given by R 80 4t . (a) Write down a formula for the volume V of
water in the tank after t minutes where t 20 . (b) What is the capacity of the tank when it is
full? (c) How long did it take for the tank to be half full?
Solutions: (a) R is dV

2
dt so you can integrate it. V 80t 2t 200 . (b) Put t = 20 into the

equation you obtained from (a). V = 1000 litres. (c) Put V = 500. Using the quadratic formula, t
= 4.2 minutes (reject t = 35.8 since t 20 ).

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