Formaldehyde Bibliography

Compiled by:
Frank R. Demer, CIH, CSP, Health Safety Officer, Risk Management Services,
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
&
Rebecca E. Fisher, PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Basic Medical Sciences,
University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ
June 2011
Table of Contents:
I.
Cancer Risks
II.
Effects on Fetal and Female Reproductive Health
III.
Effects on Male Reproductive Health
IV.
Signs and Symptoms of Exposures
V.
Exposure Levels
VI.
Exposure Controls
VII.
General Ventilation
VIII.
Local Exhaust
IX.
Formaldehyde Alternatives
(Note: References may appear under multiple headings)

I. Cancer Risks:
Bachand AM, Mundt KA, Mundt DJ, Montgomery RR: Epidemiological studies of formaldehyde
exposure and risk of leukemia and nasopharyngeal cancer: A meta-analysis. Crit Rev Tox
40(2):85-100 (2010).
Beane Freeman LE, Blair A, Lubin JH, Stewart PA, Hayes RB, Hoover RN, Hauptmann M: Mortality
from lymphohematopoietic malignancies among workers in formaldehyde industries: The National
Cancer Institute cohort. J Natl Cancer Inst 101 (10):751-761 (2009).
Blair A. Stewart P, Hoover RN: Mortality from lung cancer among workers employed in
formaldehyde industries. Am J Ind Med 17(6):683699 (1990).
Bosetti C, McLaughlin JK, Tarone RE, Pira E, La Vecchia C: Formaldehyde and cancer risk: a
quantitative review of cohort studies through 2006. Ann Oncol 19(1):29-43 (2008).
Cole P, Adami HO, Trichopoulos D, Mandel J: Formaldehyde and lymphohematopoietic cancers: A
review of two recent studies. Reg. Tox. & Pharm. 58:161-166 (2010).
Collins JJ, Esmen NA, Hall TA: A review and meta-analysis of formaldehyde exposure and pancreatic
cancer. Am J Ind Med 39(3):336-345 (2001).
Collins JJ, Lineker GA: A review and meta-analysis of formaldehyde exposure and leukemia. Regul Toxicol
Pharmacol 40 (2):81-91 (2004).

Conolly RB, Kimbell JS, Janszen D, Schlosser PM, Kalisak D, Preston J, Miller FJ: Human respiratory tract
cancer risks of inhaled formaldehyde: dose-response predictions derived from biologically-motivated
computational modeling of a combined rodent and human dataset. Toxicol Sci 82(1):279-96 (2004).
Duhayon S, Hoet P, Van Maele-Fabry G, Lison D: Carcinogenic potential of formaldehyde in occupational
settings: a critical assessment and possible impact on occupational exposure levels. Int Arch Occup
Environ Health: 81(6):695-710 (2008).
Hauptmann M, Lubin JH, Stewart PA, Hayes RB, Blair A: Mortality from solid cancers among workers in
formaldehyde industries. Am J Epidemiol 159:11171130 (2004).
Hauptmann M, Lubin JH, Stewart PA, Hayes RB, Blair A: Mortality from lymphohematopoietic
malignancies among workers in formaldehyde industries. J Natl Cancer Inst 95:1615-23 (2003).
Hauptmann M, Stewart PA, Lubin JH, Beanne Freeman LE, Hornung RW, Herrick RF, Hoover RN,
Fraumeni JF, Blair A, Hayes RB: Mortality from lymphohematopoietic malignancies and brain cancer
among embalmers exposed to formaldehyde: J Natl Cancer Inst 101(24):1696-1708 (2009).
Hayes RB, Blair A, Stewart PA, Herrick RF, Mahar H: Mortality of U.S embalmers and funeral directors.
Am J Ind Med 18:641-652 (1990).
Holmstrom M, Lund VJ: Malignant melanomas of the nasal cavity after occupational exposure to
formaldehyde. Br J Ind Med 48:9-11 (1991).
Jorgen H. Olsen JH, Jensen SP, Hink M, Faurbo K, Breum NO, Jensen OM: Occupational formaldehyde
exposure and increased nasal cancer risk in man. Int J Can 34 (5): 639-644 (1984).
Kerns WD, Pavkov KL, Donofrio DJ, Gralla EJ, Swenberg JA: Carcinogenicity of formaldehyde in rats and
mice after long-term inhalation exposure. Cancer Res 43(9):43824392 (1983).
McLaughlin JK: Formaldehyde and cancer: a critical review. International Archives of Occupational and
Environmental Health 66(5): 295-301 (1994).
Monticello TM, Miller FJ, Morgan KT: Regional increases in rat nasal epithelial cell proliferation following
acute and subchronic inhalation of formaldehyde. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 111(3):409421 (1991).
Neelam V, Chandrama A: Cytogenci evaluation of medical student exposed to formaldehyde vapor in the
gross anatomy dissection laboratory. J. of Amer. College Health 44(4):177-184 (1996).
Starr TB: Quantitative cancer risk estimation for formaldehyde. Risk Anal 10(1):8591 (1990).
Starr TB, Buck RD: The importance of delivered dose in estimating low-dose cancer risk from inhalation
exposure to formaldehyde. Fundam Appl Toxicol 4(5):740753 (1984).
Tarone RE, McLaughlin JK. RE: Re: Mortality from solid cancers among workers in formaldehyde
industries Am. J. Epidemiol 161(11):1089-1090 (2005).
Walrath J, Fraumeni JF: Cancer and other causes of death among embalmers. Cancer Res 44:4638-4631
(1984).

World Health Organization: International Agency for Research on Cancer Monographs on the
Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol. 88, Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol.
Lyon, France: IARC (2006).
II. Effects on Fetal and Female Reproductive Health:
Barry JL, Tome D: Formaldehyde content of milk in goats fed formaldehyde-treated soybean oil-meal.
Food Addit Contam 8:633-40 (1991).
Collins JJ, Ness R, Tyl RW, Krivanek N, Esmen NA, Hall TA: A review of adverse pregnancy outcomes and
formaldehyde exposure in human and animal studies. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 34:17-34 (2001).
Gofmekler VA: Effect on embryonic development of benzene and formaldehyde in
inhalation experiments. Hyg Sanit 33:327-32 (1968).
Gofmekler VA, Bonashevskaya TI: Experimental studies of teratogenic properties of formaldehyde, based
on pathological investigations. Hyg Sanit 34:266-8 (1968).
Hemminki K, Mutanen P, Saloniemi I, Niemi ML Vainio H: Spontaneous abortions in hospital staff
engaged in sterilizing instruments with chemical agents. Br Med J 285:1461-3 (1982).
Hurni H and Ohder H: Reproduction study with formaldehyde and dexamethylenetetramine in beagle
dogs. Food Cosmet Toxicol 11:459-62 (1973).
John EM, Savitz DA, Shy CM: Spontaneous abortions among cosmetologists. Epidemiology 5:147-155
(1994).
Katakura Y, Kishi R, Okui T, Ikeda T, Miyake H: Distribution of radioactivity from 14C-formaldehyde in
pregnant mice and their fetuses. Br J Ind Med 50:176-82 (1993).
Ma TH, Harris MM: Review of the genotoxicity of formaldehyde. Mutat Res 196:37-59 (1988).
Marks TA, Worthy WC, Staples RE: Influence of formaldehyde and Sonacide (potentiated acid
glutaraldehyde) on embryos and fetal development in mice. Teratology 22:51-8 (1980).
Martin WJ: A teratology study of inhaled formaldehyde in the rat. Reprod Toxicol 4:237-9 (1990).
Organization of Teratology Information Specialists: http://www.otispregnancy.org/
A non-profit organization made up of individual services throughout North America. Dedicated to
providing evidence-based, clinical information to patients and health care professionals about exposures
during pregnancy and lactation.
Overman DO: Testing for percutaneous embryotoxicity of laboratory reagents in the hamster. Teratology
23:56A (1981).
Saillenfait AM, Bonner P, de Ceaurriz J: The effects of maternally inhaled formaldehyde on embryonal
and fetal development in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 27:545-548 (1989).
Saurel-Cubizolles MJ, Hays M, Estryn-Behar M: Work in operating rooms and pregnancy outcome among
nurses. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 66:235-241 (1994).

Shumilina AV: Menstrual and child-bearing functions of female-workers occupationally exposed to the
effects of formaldehyde. (Russian) Gig Trud Prof Zabol 19:18-21 (1975).
Taskinen H, Kyyrnen P, Hemminki K, Hoikkala M, Lajunen K, Lindbohm ML: Laboratory work and
pregnancy outcome. J Occup Med 36(3):311-319 (1994).
Taskinen HK, Kyyrnen P, Sallmaen M, Virtanen SV, Liukkonen TA, Huida O, Lindbohm ML, Anttila A:
Reduced fertility among female wood workers exposed to formaldehyde. Am J Ind Med 36:206-12
(1999).

III. Effects on Male Reproductive Health:

Fontignie-Houbrechts N: Genetic effects of formaldehyde in the mouse. Mutat Res 88:109-114 (1981).
Golalipour MJ, Azarhoush R, Ghafari S, Gharravi AM, Fazeli SA, Davarian A: Formaldehyde exposure
induces histopathological and morphometric changes in the rat testis. Folia Morphol (Warsz)
66(3):167-71 (2007).
Majumder PK, Kumar VL: Inhibitory effects of formaldehyde on the reproductive system of male rats.
Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 39:80-2 (1995).
Odeigah PG: Sperm head abnormalities and dominant lethal effects of formaldehyde in albino rats.
Mutat Res 389:141-8 (1997).
Zhou D, Zhang J, Wang H, Xue Y: Effect of formaldehyde exposure on structure and function of
epididymis in adult rats: a histological and biochemical study. Tox Env Chem 93(1):134-144 (2011).

IV. Signs and Symptoms of Exposure:

Akbar-Khanzadeh F, Mlynek JS: Changes in respiratory function after one and three hours of exposure to
formaldehyde in non-smoking subjects. Occup. and Env. Med 54:296-300 (1997).
Akbar-Khanzadeh F, Vaquerano MU, Adbar-Khanzadeh M, Bisesi S: Formaldehyde exposure, acute
pulmonary response, and exposure control options in a gross anatomy laboratory. Amer. J. of Ind. Med.
26:61-75 (1994).
American Conference of Industrial Hygienists: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and
Biological Exposure Indicies. 7th Edition, Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH (2001).
Boiano JM: Health Hazard Evaluation Report No. HETA-084-098-1497. Univ. of Pennsylvania Medical
Education Building. NIOSH (1984).
Chia SE, Ong CN, Foo SC, Lee HP: Medical students exposure to formaldehyde in a gross anatomy
dissection laboratory. J. Am. Coll. Health 41(3):115-119 (1992).
Fleisher JM: Medical students exposure to formaldehyde in gross anatomy laboratories, NY State J.
Med. 87:385-388 (1987).

Harada W, Ohmori S, Minamoto K, Ueda A: Subjective symptoms of medical students exposed to

formaldehyde during a gross anatomy dissection course. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 20(2 suppl.
2):23-25 (2007).
Kellner R, Thullner I, Funk D, Hallek B, Franke U, Radtke R, Neumann HD, Overmann T: Formaldehyde
exposures in pathologies and anatomies. Gefahrstoffe Reinhaltung Der Luft 63(7-8)299-308 (2003).
Khaliq F, Tripathi P: Acute effects of formalin on pulmonary functions in gross anatomy laboratory.
Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol . 53(1):93-96 (2009).
Kimihide O, Yoshiharu M, Masatoshi K, Hideki F, Hideki A, Emiko T, et.al.: Study of formaldehyde
concentration during gross anatomy laboratory in Chiba University. Japanese J. of Clin. Ecol.
14(2):112-118 (2005).
Kreibel D, Myers D, Cheng M, Woskie S, Cocanour B: Short-term effects of formaldehyde on peak
expiratory flow and irritant symptoms. Archives of Environ.Health 56(1):11-18 (2001).
Kriebel D, Sama SR, Cocanour B: Reversible pulmonary responses for formaldehyde a study of clinical
anatomy students. Amer. Rev. of Resp. Disease 148(6):1509-1515 (1993).
Kunugita N, Arashidani K, Yamato H, Tanaka I, Nakashima T, Kikuta A: Evaluation of formaldehyde
exposure during a gross anatomy dissection course. JUOEH 26(3):337-348 (2004).
Kurose T, Kodera H, Aoyama H, Kawamata S: Formaldehyde concentration in the air and in cadavers at
the gross anatomy laboratory in Hiroshima University. Hiroshima J. Med. Sci. 53(3-4):33-37 (2004).
Lakchayapakorn K, Watchalayarn P: Formaldehyde exposure of medical students and instructor and
clinical symptoms during gross anatomy laboratory in Thammasat University. J. Med. Assoc. Thai
93(7):92-98 (2010).
Mirabelli, M.C., Holt, S.M., Cope, J.M. Anatomy laboratory instruction and occupational exposure to
formaldehyde. Occup Environ Med 68:375-378 (2011).
Ohmichi K, Komiyama M, Matsuno Y, Sawabe Y, Miyaso H, Fukata H, et. al.: Relationship between
exposure to formaldehyde and immunoglobulin E (IgE) production during gross anatomy laboratory. J. of
Health Sci. 52(5):642-647 (2006).
Pabst R: Exposure to formaldehyde in anatomy: an occupational health hazard? The Anatomical Record
219:109-112 (1987).
Park SY, Kim CY, Kim JY, Sakong J: The health effects of formaldehyde during an anatomy dissection
course. Korean J. Occup. Environ. Med. 18(3):171-178 (2006).
Perkins JL, Kimbrough JD: Formaldehyde exposures in a gross anatomy laboratory. J. Occ. Med.
27(11):813-815 (1985).
Ryan T, Burroughts E, Taylor K, Kovein R: Video exposure assessments demonstrate excessive laboratory
formaldehyde exposures. App. Occup. and Env. Hygiene 18(6):450-457 (2003).

Shiraishi N: Levels of formaldehyde, phenol and ethanol in dissection room air and measures for
reduction. Japanese J. of Occup. Med. And Traumatology 54(1):1-9 (2006).
Skisak MS: Formaldehyde vapor exposures in anatomy laboratories. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
44(12):948-950 (1983).
Takahashi S, Tsuji K, Fujii K, Okazaki F, Takagawa T, Ohtsuka A, Iwatsuki K: Prospective study of clinical
symptoms and skin test reaction in medical student exposed to formaldehyde gas. J. Of Dermatology
34:283-289 (2007).
Takayanagi M, Sakai M, Ishikawa Y, Murakami K, Kimura A, Kakuta S, Sato F: Formaldehyde
concentrations in the breathing zone of medical students during gross anatomy laboratory in Toho
University. Kaibogaku Zasshi J. of Anat. 82(2):45-51 (2007).
Tanaka K, Nishiyama K, Yainuma H, Sasaki A, Maeda T, Kaneko SY, et. al.: Formaldehyde exposure levels
and exposure control measures during an anatomy dissecting course. Kaibogaku Zasshi J. of
Anat.78(2):43-51 (2003).
Uba G, Pachorek D, Berstein H, Garabrant DH, Balmes JR, Wright WE, et. al.: Prospective study of
respiratory effects of formaldehyde among healthy and asthmatic medical students. Am. J., Ind. Med.
15:91-101 (1989).
Wantke F, Focke M, Hemmer W, Bracun R, Wolf-Abdolvahab S, Gtz M, Jarisch R: Exposure to
formaldehyde and phenol during an anatomy dissecting course: Sensitizing potency of formaldehyde in
medical students. Allergy 55:84-87 (2000).

V. Exposure Levels:
American Conference of Industrial Hygienists: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and
Biological Exposure Indicies. 7th Edition, Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH (2001).
Kimihide O, Yoshiharu M, Masatoshi K, Hideki F, Hideki A, Emiko T, et.al.: Study of formaldehyde
concentration during gross anatomy laboratory in Chiba University. Japanese J. of Clin. Ecol.
14(2):112-118 (2005).
Kunugita N, Arashidani K, Yamato H, Tanaka I, Nakashima T, Kikuta A: Evaluation of formaldehyde
exposure during a gross anatomy dissection course. JUOEH 26(3):337-348 (2004).
Kurose T, Kodera H, Aoyama H, Kawamata S: Formaldehyde concentration in the air and in cadavers at
the gross anatomy laboratory in Hiroshima University. Hiroshima J. Med. Sci. 53(3-4)33-37 (2004).
Lakchayapakorn K, Watchalayarn P: Formaldehyde exposure of medical students and instructor and
clinical symptoms during gross anatomy laboratory in Thammasat University. J. Med. Assoc. Thai
93(7)92-98 (2010).
Mirabelli, M.C., Holt, S.M., Cope, J.M. Anatomy laboratory instruction and occupational exposure to
formaldehyde. Occup Environ Med 68:375-378 (2011).

Ohmichi K, Komiyama M, Matsuno Y, Takanashi Y, Miyamoto H, Kadota T, et. al.: Formaldehyde

exposure in a gross anatomy laboratory personal exposure level is higher than indoor concentration.
Environ. Sci. & Pollut. Res. 13(2):120-124 (2006).
Perkins JL, Kimbrough JD: Formaldehyde exposures in a gross anatomy laboratory. J. Occ. Med.
27(11):813-815 (1985).
Ryan T, Burroughts E, Taylor K, Kovein R: Video exposure assessments demonstrate excessive laboratory
formaldehyde exposures. App. Occup. and Env. Hygiene 18(6):450-457 (2003).
Shiraishi N: Levels of formaldehyde, phenol and ethanol in dissection room air and measures for
reduction. Japanese J. of Occup. Med. And Traumatology 54(1):1-9 (2006).
Takayanagi M, Fujita T, Mikuni T, Sakai M, Ishikawa Y, Murakami K, Kimura A, et. al.: Vertical distribution
of formaldehyde concentration and simulated temperature and wind velocity from computational fluid
dynamics during a gross anatomy laboratory. Kaiboguku Zasshi 83(1): 7-13 (2008).
Takayanagi M, Sakai M, Ishikawa Y, Murakami K, Kimura A, Kakuta S, Sato F: Formaldehyde
concentrations in the breathing zone of medical students during gross anatomy laboratory in Toho
University. Kaibogaku Zasshi J. of Anat. 82(2):45-51 (2007).
Vohra MS: Personal formaldehyde exposure levels in the gross anatomy dissecting room at college of
medicine King Saud university Riyadh. Int. J. Occ. Med. & Env. Health 24(1):108-113 (2011).

VI. Exposure Controls:

American Conference of Governmental Hygienists: Industrial Ventilation A Manual of Recommended
Practices, 25 Ed. Cincinnati, OH, ACGIH (2004).
Bradbury SA, Hoshino K: An improved embalming procedure for long-lasting preservation of the cadaver
for anatomical study. Acta Anat. 101:97-103 (1978).
Burkel WE, Mueller DA, Follo J, Wessels L: Formaldehyde neutralization in embalmed cadavers using
monoethanolamine. The 16th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Clinical Anatomists. Iowa
City, IA (1999).
Coleman R: Reducing the levels of formaldehyde exposure in gross anatomy laboratories. The Anat.
Record 243:531-533 (1995).
Coleman R, Kogan I: An improved low-formaldehyde embalming fluid to preserve cadavers for anatomy
teaching. J. Anat. 192:443-446 (1998).
Dixit D: Role of standardized embalming fluid in reducing the toxic effects of formaldehyde. Indian .J. of
Forensic Med. & Tox. 2(1): (2008).
Feigley CE, Kennedy RJ, Dwiggins GA.: Local exhaust ventilation of a dissection table. Appl. Ind.
4(12):309-312 (1989).

Frlich KW, Andersen, LM, Knutsen, A, Flood, PR: Phenoxyethanol as a nontoxic substitute for
formaldehyde in long-term preservation of human anatomical specimens for dissection and
demonstration purposes. The Anatomical Record 206:271-278 (1984).
Grafstein O, Tirosh Z, Shraiber LC, Bar-On M: Dissection tables with local exhaust ventilation in an
anatomy laboratory. 41st Annual Int. Conf. on Campus Safety Monograph 57:265-271 West Virginia
University & Campus Safety Association, Morgantown, VA (1994).
Hiipakka DW, Dyrdahl KS, Cardenas MG: Successful reduction of morticians exposure to formaldehyde
during embalming procedures. AIHAJ 62:689-696 (2001).
Kawamata S, Kodera H: Reduction of formaldehyde concentrations in the air and cadaveric tissues by
ammonium carbonate. Anatomical Sci. Inter. 79:152-157 (2004).
Keil CB, Abkar-Khanzadeh R, Konecny KA: Characterizing formaldehyde emissions rates in a gross
anatomy laboratory. Appl. Occ. & Env. Hyg. 16(10):967-972 (2001).
Kunugita N, Arashidani K, Yamato H, Tanaka I, Nakashima T, Kikuta A: Evaluation of formaldehyde
exposure during a gross anatomy dissection course. JUOEH 26 (3):337-348 (2004).
Latorre RM, Garcia-Sanz MP, Moreno M, Hernandez F, Gil R, Lopez O et. al.: How useful is plastination in
learning anatomy?. J. Vet. Med. Ed. 34(2):172-176 (2007). \
Martin WD, Nemitz JW, Hendley A, Fisk RM, Well JP: Three years of experience with a dissection table
ventilation system. Clin. Anat. 8:297-302 (1995).
Masaaki T, Mokoto S, Youichi I, Kunio M, Akihiko K, Sachiko K, et. al.: Attempt to reduce the
formaldehyde concentration by blowing cooled fresh air down in to the breathing zone of medical
students from an admission port on the ceiling during gross anatomy class. Kaibogaku Zasshi J. of Anat.
83(3):87-93 (2008).
Mirabelli, M.C., Holt, S.M., Cope, J.M. Anatomy laboratory instruction and occupational exposure to
formaldehyde. Occup Environ Med 68:375-378 (2011).
Nacher V, Llombart C, Corretero A, Navarro M, Ysern T, Calero S, et. al.: A new system to reduce
formaldehyde levels improves safety conditions during gross veterinary anatomy learning. JVME
34(2):168-171 (2007).
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): Hazard Control 26 Controlling
formaldehyde exposures during embalming , Publication No. 98-149 CDC Atlanta, GA (1998).
Ohmichi K, Komiyama M, Matsuno Y, Takanashi Y, Miyamoto H, Kadota T. et. al.: Formaldehyde
exposure in a gross anatomy laboratory personal exposure level is higher than indoor concentration.
Environ. Sci. & Pollut. Res. 13(2):120-124 (2006).
Ohmichi K, Matsuno Y, Hidenobu M, Yamamoto H, Toiuchi M, Shimane M, et. al.: Pilot study of a
dissection table for gross anatomy laboratory equipped with a photcatalytic device that decomposes
formaldehyde. J. Occup. Health 49:499-503 (2007).

Sleek G, House HW, Clark MW: Measurement of formaldehyde levels in a gross anatomy laboratory with
and without a formaldehyde neutralizing solution. Physical Therapy 2002:PO-RR-34-TH, Cincinnati, OH
(2002).
Takigawa R, Usami M, Yamasaki Y, Wang B, Sakano N, Horike T, et. al.: Reduction of indoor
formaldehyde concentrations and subjective symptoms in a gross anatomy laboratory. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 74:1027-1033 (2005).
Tharr, D: Effectiveness of Downdraft Ventilation in Morgues. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 11(1):5-8 (1996).
Theoret CL, Carmel EN, Bernier S: Why dissection videos should not replace cadaver prosections in the
gross veterinary anatomy curriculum: results from a comparative study. Assoc. of Am. Vet. Med. Colleges
34(2):151-156 (2007).
Whitehead MC, Sovoia MC: Evaluation of methods to reduce formaldehyde levels of cadavers in the
dissection laboratory. Clin. Anat. 21:75-81 (2008).
Wineski LE, English AW: Phenoxyethanol as a nontoxic preservative in the dissection laboratory. Acta
Anat 136:155-158 (1989).
Yamato H, Nakashima T, Kikuta A, Kunugita N, Arashidani K, Nagafuchi Y. et. al.: A novel local exhaust
ventilation system to reduce the levels of formaldehyde exposure during a gross anatomy dissection
course and its evaluation using real-time monitoring. J. Occup. Health 47:450-453 (2005).

VII. General Ventilation:

Keil CB, Abkar-Khanzadeh R, Konecny KA: Characterizing formaldehyde emissions rates in a gross
anatomy laboratory. Appl. Occ. & Env. Hyg. 16(10):967-972 (2001).

VIII. Local Exhaust:

American Conference of Governmental Hygienists: Industrial Ventilation A Manual of Recommended
Practices, 25 Ed. Cincinnati, OH, ACGIH (2004).
Coleman R: Reducing the levels of formaldehyde exposure in gross anatomy laboratories. The Anat.
Record 243:531-533 (1995).
Feigley CE, Kennedy RJ, Dwiggins GA: Local exhaust ventilation of a dissection table. Appl. Ind.
4(12):309-312 (1989).
Grafstein O, Tirosh Z, Shraiber LC, Bar-On M: Dissection tables with local exhaust ventilation in an
anatomy laboratory. 41st Annual Int. Conf. on Campus Safety Monograph 57:265-271 West Virginia
University & Campus Safety Association, Morgantown, VA (1994).
Hiipakka DW, Dyrdahl KS, Cardenas MG: Successful reduction of morticians exposure to formaldehyde
during embalming procedures. AIHAJ 62:689-696 (2001).
Kunugita N, Arashidani K, Yamato H, Tanaka I, Nakashima T, Kikuta A: Evaluation of formaldehyde
exposure during a gross anatomy dissection course. JUOEH 26 (3):337-348 (2004).

Nacher V, Llombart C, Corretero A, Navarro M, Ysern T, Calero S, et. al.: A new system to reduce
formaldehyde levels improves safety conditions during gross veterinary anatomy learning. JVME
34(2):168-171 (2007).
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): Hazard Control 26 Controlling
formaldehyde exposures during embalming, Publication No. 98-149 CDC, Atlanta, GA (1998).
Martin WD, Nemitz JW, Hendley A, Fisk RM, Well JP: Three years of experience with a dissection table
ventilation system. Clin. Anat. 8:297-302 (1995).
Ohmichi K, Matsuno Y, Hidenobu M, Yamamoto H, Toiuchi M, Shimane M, et. al.: Pilot study of a
dissection table for gross anatomy laboratory equipped with a photcatalytic device that decomposes
formaldehyde. J. Occup. Health 49:499-503 (2007).
Tharr D: Effectiveness of Downdraft Ventilation in Morgues. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 11(1):5-8 (1996).
Yamato H, Nakashima T, Kikuta A, Kunugita N, Arashidani K, Nagafuchi Y, et. al.: A novel local exhaust
ventilation system to reduce the levels of formaldehyde exposure during a gross anatomy dissection
course and its evaluation using real-time monitoring. J. Occup. Health 47:450-453 (2005).

IX. Formaldehyde Minimization/Alternatives/Neutralizers:

Anichkov NM, Danilova IQ, Vasilyev OD, Ryabinin IA, Kipenko AV: Application of polyguanidine solution
for fixation of biological and anatomical specimens. Morfologiia 137(1):58-61 (2001).
Bradbury SA, Hoshino K: An improved embalming procedure for long-lasting preservation of the cadaver
for anatomical study. Acta Anat. 101:97-103 (1978).
Burkel WE, Mueller DA, Follo J, Wessels L: Formaldehyde neutralization in embalmed cadavers using
monoethanolamine. The 16th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Clinical Anatomists. Iowa
City, IA (1999).
Coleman R, Kogan I: An improved low-formaldehyde embalming fluid to preserve cadavers for anatomy
teaching. J. Anat. 192:443-446 (1998).
Dixit D: Role of standardized embalming fluid in reducing the toxic effects of formaldehyde. Indian .J. of
Forensic Med. & Tox. 2(1): (2008).
Frlich KW, Andersen, LM, Knutsen, A, Flood, PR: Phenoxyethanol as a nontoxic substitute for
formaldehyde in long-term preservation of human anatomical specimens for dissection and
demonstration purposes. The Anatomical Record 206:271-278 (1984).
Groscurth P, Eggli P, Kapfhammer G, Rager G, Hornung JP, Fasel JDH: Gross anatomy in the surgical
curriculum in Switzerland: Improved cadaver preservation, anatomical models and course development.
The Anatomical Record 265:254-256 (2001).
Kalinski T, Zwnitzer R, Joncqyk-Weber T, Hofmann H, Bernarding J, Roessner A: Improvements in
education in pathology: Virtual 3D specimens. Pathology Research and Practice. 205:811-814 (2009).

Kawamata S, Kodera H: Reduction of formaldehyde concentrations in the air and cadaveric tissues by
ammonium carbonate. Anatomical Sci. Inter. 79:152-157 (2004).
Latorre RM, Garcia-Sanz MP, Moreno M, Hernandez F, Gil R, Lopez O, et. al.: How useful is plastination in
learning anatomy?. J. Vet. Med. Ed. 34(2):172-176 (2007).
Sleek G, House HW, Clark MW: Measurement of formaldehyde levels in a gross anatomy laboratory with
and without a formaldehyde neutralizing solution. Physical Therapy 2002:PO-RR-34-TH, Cincinnati, OH
(2002).
Theoret CL, Carmel EN, Bernier S: Why dissection videos should not replace cadaver prosections in the
gross veterinary anatomy curriculum: results from a comparative study. Assoc. of Am. Vet. Med. Colleges
34(2):151-156 (2007).
Whitehead MC, Sovoia MC: Evaluation of methods to reduce formaldehyde levels of cadavers in the
dissection laboratory. Clin. Anat. 21:75-81 (2008).
Wineski LE, English AW: Phenoxyethanol as a nontoxic preservative in the dissection laboratory. Acta
Anat 136:155-158 (1989).