CONTENTS

EDUP3033
THE CONCEPT OF
TEACHING AND LEARNING

Definition of teaching and learning

Principles of learning
Types of learning

Dr. Mary Wong Siew Lian

Jabatan PIPK
IPG KBL

EIGHT PHASES OF LEARNING

(Gagn, 1985) (gahn-yay)

DEFINITION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Slavin (2005)
Learning brings about a change in an individual
as a result of the individuals experiences
Hill (2002)
Learning takes place when experiences brings
about a change that is quite permanent in the
knowledge and behavior of a person
Unisec, Lockhart & Walters (1990)
Learning results in change that is quite
permanent and the change is a result of a
persons experiences

SENSORY
INPUT

PHASE

SENSORY
MEMORY

LONGTERM
MEMORY

DECAY

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5-20 sec
RESPONSE

DESCRIPTION
Attention is essential for getting information into the
working memory and keeping it active there; The
learner MUST focus attention on the learning activity

2. EXPECTANCY The learner develops an expectancy that something

desirable will happen as a result of the proposed
learning process; this results in motivation to learn

ENCODING

RETRIEVAL

3-5 sec

1. ATTENTION

REHEARSAL

SHORT
-TERM
MEMORY/
WORKING
MEMORY

In order for effective learning to take place,

the learner must go through ALL eight phases
A serious breakdown at any one phase or a
cumulative breakdown over several phases
can bring learning to a halt

Information Processing

ATTENTION
/ PATTERN
RECOGNITION

According to Gagn, there are eight phases in

learning: attention, expectancy, retrieval,
selective perception, encoding, responding,
feedback and cueing retrieval

3. RETRIEVAL

The learner retrieves from long-term memory the

structures that will be helpful in learning new
information or solving problems that have been
encountered

4. SELECTIVE
The learner focuses attention on the essential
PERCEPTION features of the instructional presentation; the
teacher can help learners direct their attention
appropriately through certain strategies e. g. asking
them what they are thinking about

5. ENCODING

Entry of Information into Long-Term Storage - the

learner encodes the information - that is, transfers
the information into long-term memory by relating it
to information that is already stored there

8. CUEING
RETRIEVAL

6. RESPONDING The learner retrieves and actively uses the

information that has been stored in long-term
memory; by this, the learner demonstrates through
active performance that learning has taken place
7. FEEDBACK

The learner practices recalling or applying the

information after it has been initially learned in
order to enhance retention of the information or to
transfer the learning beyond its original context to a
new application

In light of the above phases of learning,

what are the implications on teaching?

The learner determines the degree to which the

performance during the previous phase was
satisfactory; when the feedback indicates
acceptable performance, this usually serves as
reinforcement to the learner; negative reinforcement
will interfere with motivation to learn

Implications of Gagns theory

Gagns learning process has implications for
the teaching process
All types of learning, regardless of whether it
is intellectual, verbal, psychomotor skills or
attitude have the same learning process
Gagn, Wager, Golas and Keller (2005)
underlined nine teaching steps related to this
learning process

LEVEL

DESCRIPTION

4. Presenting
the Stimulus
(Selective
Perception)

Present the new information to the group in an

effective manner; Organize your information in a
logical and easy-to-understand manner; Try to use a
variety of different media and styles (such as visual
cues, verbal instruction, and active learning) to suit
people with different learning styles

5. Providing
Learning
Guidance
(Semantic
Encoding)

To help your students learn and retain the

information, provide alternative approaches that
illustrate the Information that you're trying to convey
by Including examples, case studies, graphics,
storytelling, or analogies

6. Eliciting
Ensure that students can demonstrate their
Performance knowledge of what you've taught them; The way that
(Responding) they show this depends on what they're learning

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LEVEL
1. Gaining
Attention
(Reception)

DESCRIPTION
Start the learning experience by gaining the
attention of your students; this change in stimulus
alerts them that learning will soon take place; you
can raise the volume of your voice, gesture, show a
short video on the topic of instruction, etc

2. Informing
Learners of
the Objective
(Expectancy)

Ensure that your students know what they need to

learn, and that they understand why they're about to
learn this new information by informing them about
the objectives of the lesson

3. Stimulating
Recall
(Retrieval)

When your students learn something new, match the

new information with related information or topics
they've learned in the past; Review any previous
learning, make connections between what they are
learning, and their previous learning

LEVEL

DESCRIPTION

7. Providing
Feedback
(Reinforcement)

After your students demonstrates their knowledge,

provide feedback and reinforce any points as
necessary; Your feedback and tips point out their
mistakes so that they can correct them

8. Assessing
Performance
(Retrieval)

Your students should be able to complete a test, or

other measurement tool, to show that they've learned

9. Enhancing
Retention &
Transfer
(Generalization)

Your students show that they've retained information

by transferring their new knowledge or skill to
situations that are different from the ones you've
trained them on

the material or skill effectively

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING: EWELLS MODEL

Frequent
Feedback

Ewells Model (1997) (8 principles of learning)

The model was put forward based on evidence
from neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and
studies on development
The eight principles include:
active involvement, patterns and connections,
informal learning, direct experience,
compelling situation, enjoyable setting,
reflection, and frequent feedback

Active Involvement
Students do not receive information passively,
but rather, they should be actively involved in
knowledge construction
Ewell (1997): The learner is not a receptacle of
knowledge, but rather creates his/her own
learning activity actively and uniquely
Bruner (1961): Students who are actively
involved in the learning process will have
better recall
Mayer (2004): Students should be actively
involved physically and cognitively, e.g. in
discussions, cooperative learning, projects

Informal Learning
Learning need not necessarily take place in a
formal setting such as a classroom
Every student learns all the time, both with us
and despite us (Ewell, 1997)

Active
Involvement

Reflection

Enjoyable
Setting

Students at
the center
of their own
learning

Compelling
Situation

Patterns &
Connections

Informal
Learning

Direct
Experience

Patterns and connections

Refers to changes in cognitive structure as a
result of connections, adaptations, organization
and use of prior knowledge to understand new
information
Ewell (1997): Involves actively creating linkages
among concepts, skill elements, people, and
experiences
Woolfolk (2004): Students relate what they learn
to prior knowledge and also think about how it
can be used in future
Students also use patterns they already know in
new situations

Direct Experience
Cognitive science also tells us that the
brains activity is in direct proportion to its
engagement with actively stimulating
environments

Learning can take place:

- anywhere
- at any time
- with or without the teacher
- individually or with friends
- regardless of what learning activities

Learning by doing is important for learning to

be effective

The teacher must be aware of this and employ

a variety of approaches, strategies, methods
and techniques to produce learning

Give students the opportunity to manipulate

objects, visit a certain place, interview, role
play, and experiment where relevant

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The teacher must provide opportunities for

students to have first hand experience
whenever possible

Compelling Situation
Optimum learning takes place when a person
faces specific problems they want to solve
Students are more motivated to learn when
faced with something that is challenging and
arouses their interest
Transfer of learning also occurs when students
are given interesting new situations
The teacher can create such situations:
- fix high standards of achievement
- give more responsibilities
- use contextual learning
- create an environment and schedule that is
intensive e.g. competition

Reflections
Killion & Todnem (1991): This involves
analyzing actions, results or outcomes by
focusing on the process of achieving it
Knapp (1993): Reflection is when the student
thinks about the learning experience in order
to give meaning to learning, learn from the
experience and form new understanding
Through reflections, students are able to selfevaluate and control learning:
- what has taken place
- what has been learned
- what is still not clear, and
- what to do next

The teacher should be sincere in giving

feedback
It should be given immediately after a piece of
work has been completed
Various forms of feedback:
- oral (great job, good, well done, good effort)
- written (- same as above -)
- physical (smile, nodding the head, thumbs up)
Continual feedback (process feedback) is
more effective than feedback given at the
completion of a task (outcome feedback)

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Enjoyable Setting
Effective learning results when learning takes
place in enjoyable settings
Caine & Caine (1997): Students emotions can
affect information processing
Humor, music, and fun activities such as
games produce relaxed alertness and this
causes learning to be more effective
The teachers leadership style also affects
the emotional environment in the classroom

Frequent Feedback
One important aspect in improving students
performance
Guskey (2001): Feedback should be diagnostic,
prescriptive, and suited to the students level
of learning
Feedback can influence the affective processes
and motivation of students apart from causing
change in information processing
Prioritize positive feedback; negative feedback
should be less frequent

FIVE KINDS OF LEARNED CAPABILITIES

Gagn (1985): Learning is a change in
human disposition or capability, which
persists over a period of time and which is
not simply ascribed to processes of growth
Gagn (1985): There are five kinds of learned
capabilities and different internal and external
conditions are required for acquiring them:
- intellectual skills
- cognitive strategies
- verbal information
- attitudes
- motor skills

Five Kinds of Learned Capabilities

Intellectual
Skills
Cognitive
Strategies

Includes 1) Discrimination, 2) Concrete

concept, 3) Rule using, and 4) Problem solving
is an internal process by which the learner
controls his/her own ways of thinking and
learning
Verbal
Includes 1) Labels and Facts and 2) Bodies of
Information Knowledge
Attitude
Is an internal state which affects an
individual's choice of action toward some
object, person, or event
Motor Skills Refers to bodily movements involving
muscular activity

There are 8 categories of intellectual skills:

Signal Learning

The individual learns to make a general,

diffuse response to a signal; Such was
the classical conditioned response of
Pavlov

(S-R) StimulusResponse
Learning

The learner acquires a precise response

to a discriminated stimulus

Chaining

A chain of two or more stimulusresponse connections is acquired

Verbal
Association

The learning of chains that are verbal

KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE

GENERAL
KNOWLEDGE

For planning,
problem solving,
that can be used
across disciplines

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Intellectual skills
Refers to procedural knowledge or the steps
concerning how to do something
Each individual learns to interact with the
environment through symbols
Children use verbal language to understand
the environment symbolically
Types of symbols initially reading, writing,
using numbers
In more advanced learning complex symbols
are used differentiating, combining,
classifying, grouping

Discrimination The individual learns to make different

Learning
identifying responses to many different
stimuli that may resemble each other in
physical appearance
Concept
The learner acquires a capability of
Learning
making a common response to a class of
stimuli
Rule Learning

A rule is a chain of two or more concepts

Problem
Solving

A kind of learning that requires the

internal events usually called thinking

THREE KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE

DECLARATIVE

PROCEDURAL

VERBAL
INFORMATION,
FACTS

TO DO WITH
KNOWING HOW
OF DOING
SOMETHING

CONDITIONAL

SPECIFIC
KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge that is
domain specific,
e.g. math, science,
history

TO DO WITH
KNOWING WHEN
AND WHY
TO APPLY
DECLARATIVE
AND
PROCEDURAL
KNOWLEDGE

Verbal Information
Verbal skill the ability to state facts or events
orally or in written form
There must be intellectual skill before a person
has verbal skills
Verbal information is declarative knowledge
The teacher should teach students to group
information together into chunks and encode
information learned meaningfully

Cognitive Strategies
This is a skill where students are able to
control internal processes such as :
- paying attention
- study
- recall
- think about something
- do self-test
- summarize information in concept/mind
maps
Known as executive control process as it
refers to information processing

Psychomotor Skills

Attitude

Refers to the ability to do something that

requires use of muscles

Gagn (1985): Attitude refers to an internal

state that affects an individuals choice of
action regarding an object, person or event

Includes gross and fine motor skills

The emphasis here is the effect of attitude on

actions

Students are considered able to master motor

skills if they are able carry out movements in
the correct order with correct timing, e. g. run
and throw a javelin, sing and play the piano at
the same time

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In order to instill desired attitude, the teacher

should link success with a certain attitude or
a much admired model
Attitude can be learned, acquired through
successful experiences, and taking respected
or experienced individuals as role models