5.7.

1.0

PUMPS
INTRODUCTION:

There are several different types of pumps used in the petroleum industry. Two of the more
common types are the positive displacement pump and the centrifugal pump.
Centrifugal pumps are used in the petroleum industry for applications where large volumes of
fluids must be moved. In the field, you will find centrifugal pumps performing such diverse
jobs as emptying storage tanks, pumping oil out of the ground, or reinjecting fluid into a well
for enhanced recovery. In gas plants, centrifugal pumps are used for moving process fluids,
providing emergency firewater, circulating cooling tower water, etc.
Centrifugal pumps have been widely accepted in the petroleum industry because of their
versatility, simple construction, and low initial cost. Operating costs are lower for centrifugal
pumps than other types because of minimal maintenance and ease of repair.
Pumps are made in a wide range of classes, types, and styles, such as reciprocating,
centrifugal, propeller, turbine vane, jet, gear, screw, cam, and diaphragm etc.
2.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS:
Pumps may be classified on the basis of the application they serve, the materials which they
are constructed, the liquid they handle, and even their orientation in space. All such
classifications, however, are limited in scope and tend to substantially overlap each other.
In order to handle the diverse products and conditions encountered, a variety of pumps are
used. These may be divided into two categories: Kinetic or Dynamic and Positive
displacement.

2.1

KINETIC or DYNAMIC

2.2

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT

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2.1
KINETIC or DYNAMIC:
Dynamic pumps impart kinetic energy to the fluid a portion of which converted to pressure
by reduction in velocity. It is convenient to subdivide these categories further into several
varieties of centrifugal and other special effect pumps
Figure 1 presents in outline form a summary of the significant classification and sub
classification within this category of Dynamic.

Fig. 1

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2.2

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT:

The Positive displacement pump increases pressure by direct mechanical action.

Kinetic (or Dynamic)
Figure 2 presents in outline form a summary of the significant classification and sub
classification with this category of Displacement

Fig. 2
3.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS-IN GENERAL:
Centrifugal pump in its simplest form consists of an outer casing in which inlet and outlet
passages are formed. It encloses a revolving impeller, rotor, and bearings. The impeller has
blades which are usually curved backward with reference to the direction of rotation. When
the pump is in operation the liquid is drawn in through the center or "eye" of the impeller, and
as the water is whirled around by the blades, it is thrown outward as the result of centrifugal
force and passes through the discharge outlet. (passage which converts most of the velocity
energy to additional pressure).
Now centrifugal pump has been developed to various classes of service and for high heads or
pressure.
The flow capacity of a centrifugal pump is more dependent on pressure in the downstream
system. At higher pressures, the flow rate drops off dramatically. If back pressure is
increased enough (shutoff head). flow will eventually drop to zero.
Because of this characteristic of centrifugal pumps, it is especially important to be able to
determine the operating pressure of the system - called system head - so we know where on
the pump performance curve the pump will operate.

65

The major parts of a centrifugal pump are the casing, impeller, shaft, coupling, bearings, and
seals.

66

The casing is the largest and most visible part of the pump. It can be constructed of cast iron,
steel, bronze, or other special material depending on type of service. The primary purpose of
the casing is to house and protect internal pump parts.
An impeller is the part of a centrifugal pump, which imparts energy to the fluid being
pumped. It is firmly attached to the shaft and rotates at the same speed as the shaft. Most
impellers are made of cast iron, but stainless steel, plastic, or other materials can be used for
corrosive fluids.
The coupling, which connects the driver to the pump, transmits power from the driver shaft
to the pump shaft. Couplings must be able to withstand sudden changes in pump load or
stoppage of the driver. They must be flexible enough to handle misalignment between the
shafts as well as changes in the speed of the driver.
The shaft is connected to a driver (e.g., electric motor, engine, or gas turbine) and turns the
impeller. The shaft is usually made of steel and rotates at the speed of the driver.
Bearings support the shaft and reduce the friction as the shaft rotates in the casing. They also
control the forward and backward movement (thrust) of the shaft, and control the side to side
(radial) movement of the shaft so that rotating parts will not rub against the pump casing.
Bearings may be contained in the pump casing on small process pumps or in special housings
on larger pumps.
Seals or packing are used to prevent or reduce fluid leakage around the shaft. Most
centrifugal pumps in the petroleum industry use mechanical seals. A mechanical seal has a
stationary ring secured in a seal gland, which is bolted to the casing, and a rotating ring
attached to the shaft. Packing is composed of a series of pliable rings tightly pressed around
the shaft in the stuffing box.
3.1

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP OPERATION:

The operation of a centrifugal pump is based on centrifugal force, which is the force that
tends to move an object away from the center of rotation.
When a centrifugal pump is started, the impeller begins to rotate. The impeller blades stir the
fluid, causing the fluid to rotate with the impeller. This circular motion generates force, which
moves the fluid away from the center of the impeller.
This outward motion has two effects:
(1) It moves the fluid to the outside edge of the impeller against the casing wall.
(2) It creates suction at the eye (center) of the impeller to draw more fluid into the pump.
The outside edge of the impeller travels faster than its center. Therefore, to keep up with the
impeller, the fluid must continue to gain velocity or speed as it moves outward. This
increases the kinetic energy (energy of motion) in the fluid
As fluid leaves the outside edge of the impeller, it enters an area of the casing called a volute.
The volute is designed in such a way that it is wider at the discharge nozzle than where the
fluid leaves the impeller. This increased area allows the fluid to slow down. As its velocity
decreases, the fluid gives up some of its kinetic energy. Because energy cannot simply
disappear, it is converted into pressure, which forces the fluid out the discharge nozzle and

67

piping. Thus, centrifugal pumps move fluids by increasing fluid pressure using centrifugal
force.

3.2
CLASSIFYING CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:
To classify a centrifugal pump, you simply list the design features of the pump. Sometimes
the type of impeller (open, semi-open, or closed) is included in the pump classification.
Examples might be: vertical, overhung, double suction, single-stage, radial-flow, volute pump
with an open impeller or horizontal, between bearings, single-suction, multi-stage, radial
flow, diffuser pump with closed impellers.
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3.3

EXTERNAL PARTS:

3.3.1 CASING:
The casing is the largest and most visible part of the centrifugal pump. In the petroleum
industry, casings on low pressure pumps (up to 150 psig) are usually made of cast iron while
steel is used for higher pressure pumps. The casing serves three purposes:
(1) It houses the internal parts, holding them in proper position and protecting them.
(2) It confines the fluid being pumped and directs its flow. And
(3) It forms the volute and connection points for suction and discharge piping.
Pump casings can be solid or split design. Solid construction casings have a removable cover
or face plate, which provides easy access to the impeller, but are referred to as solid
construction because the discharge casing is one piece.
Pump casings of split construction are described as:
(1) Axial split if the split is along the center line of the shaft and allows the upper half of the
casing to be removed, giving access to the pump shaft, impeller and bearings, or
(2) Radial split if the split is perpendicular to the center line of the shaft. The advantage of
radial split casing is that the casing can be made up in segments and bolted together to form
one pump. This reduces costly construction that would otherwise be required to manufacture
multi-stage centrifugal pumps
Also, on larger centrifugal pumps, the external section of the lower casing half may form a
small open well for catching fluid leakage. At the bottom of this well is a pipe, commonly
referred to as the slop drain, through which the leakage can be drained.
3.3.2 STUFFING BOX:
The stuffing box holds the packing gland, which is designed to regulate fluid leakage around
the shaft. Associated with the stuffing box is the gland follower. A gland follower is
basically a bushing, which has been designed to hold and compress the packing gland in the
stuffing box.
Gland followers are usually held in place with bolts. These bolts are also used to adjust the
position of the gland follower.
For high pressure pumps Mechanical seals replaced the existing gland packing.
3.3.3 BEARING HOUSING:
Bearing housings support and protect the shaft bearings on either end of the pump.
Flinger rings or shields are attached to the pump shaft next to the bearing housing and "fling"
fluid leakage from the packing gland away from the pump shaft. This prevents the fluid from
leaking into the bearings.
3.3.4 COUPLINGS:
On most centrifugal pumps, a coupling joins the shafts of the driver and pump.
Alignment of the driver and pump shafts is very important for good, smooth operation of the
pump.
Misalignment will cause the shafts and other pump parts to vibrate. Serious vibration can put
enough pressure on the shafts and coupling to break them. Also, vibration can cause bearings

69

to wear internal parts to rub impellers to become imbalance, etc. All of these conditions
require maintenance and result in equipment downtime.
3.4 INTERNAL COMPONENTS:
3.4.1 PUMP SHAFT:
The shaft, on which internal parts of a centrifugal pump are mounted, is constructed of a
single piece of metal machined to fit the pump perfectly. Because of the expense to replace
broken or worn shafts, pump shafts are normally made of stainless steel or other corrosive
resistant material.
Some pumps are equipped with shaft sleeves. These sleeves are metal cylinders, which fit
over the shaft to protect it from damage. It is easier and cheaper to replace these sleeves than
the shaft itself.

3.4.2 IMPELLER:
Impellers are circular devices with curved blades that stir the fluid in a centrifugal pump.
Impellers fit tightly on the shaft and are usually pressed on or off. Although there are several
ways an impeller can be held in place on the shaft, the most common method is with a key
and keyway.
An impeller is the most critical part of a centrifugal pump because its size, shape and speed
determine pump capacity.
There are three different types of impellers:
(1) Open impellers are blades mounted on a shaft with just enough backing or "shroud" to
maintain the rigidity of the blades, (2) Semi-open impellers have a shroud completely
covering one side of the blades, and (3) Closed impellers have shrouds covering both sides of
the blades with a central hole (eye) on either one or both sides to allow fluid to enter the
impeller. (4) Backward curved impeller will give more efficient flow than others.

70

71

Single suction impellers allow fluid to enter only one side of the impeller. A problem with
such an impeller is that an imbalancing thrust can be generated in the direction of suction.
This can be a serious problem in high volume or high discharge pressure pumps and is often
resolved with a double-suction impeller.

Double suction impellers allow fluid to enter both sides of the impeller, and the thrust
generated on one side of the impeller is countered by the thrust generated on the other side.
For many applications, a single-stage pump with one impeller is sufficient to raise pressure.
However, there are applications where it is necessary to raise discharge pressure higher than
is normally possible with a single impeller. Although higher pressures can be obtained by
increasing the rotation speed of the impeller or by using a larger impeller, design and material
limitations generally dictates that a third option be used, multi staging.
Multi-stage pumps have two or more single suction impellers mounted on a single shaft with
the discharge port of the first impeller directed to the suction port of the second, etc. As the
fluid moves from one stage to the next, fluid pressure is increased in steps.

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3.4.3 WEAR RINGS:

In centrifugal pumps there is a space between the impeller and casing so the impeller can
rotate without touching the surface of the casing. This space prevents wear to the impeller or
casing but allows fluid to leak back from the discharge to suction side of the pump.
Casing wear rings are installed in this space to control fluid leakage. However, some leakage
is important for lubrication and counteracting the thrust and radial forces, which build up
within the pump.
.

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If wear rings are fitted to the impeller, they are called impeller wear rings. It is not un-usual
for centrifugal pumps to be fitted with both casing and impeller wear rings.
3.4.4 VOLUTE:
The casing forms a chamber (volute) that is wider at the discharge nozzle than where the fluid
leaves the impeller. This increased area allows the fluid to slow down. As the fluid slows
down, some of the fluid's kinetic energy is converted to pressure.
In single-volute casings, the impeller and volute are offset from each other to provide room
for the increasing size of the volute. Internal fluid action in the volute tends to set up
unbalanced radial forces. To reduce this force, some centrifugal pumps use a double-volute
casing. The double-volute casing provides another guiding vane to split and balance these
internal radial forces
Also, the guiding vanes in double-volute casings strengthen the casing internally, reducing
some of the stress load on the casing walls. Guide vanes are used on multi-stage pumps to
balance the discharge head and guide the fluid to the suction side of the next stage.
In centrifugal pumps, an alternative to the volute is a diffuser. The chamber formed by a
diffuser does not increase in size as it does in a volute. Instead, there are a series of stationary
vanes arranged around the impeller. These stationary direct the fluid outward from the
impeller. Since the diffuser vanes are farther apart at their outermost point than at the edge of
the impeller, they create a series of widening chambers, which function the same as a volute
in converting kinetic energy to pressure.

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3.4.5 Packing And Mechanical Seals:

Packing fills the stuffing box to minimise the amount of leakage along the shaft by sealing
the clearance space between the shaft and casing. A throat brushing prevents the packing
from being forced into the eye of the impeller by the gland follower. Packing is a soft, pliable
material like cotton, asbestos, or flax, usually woven or braided into a continuous squareshaped strand. Packing is usually coated with graphite or Teflon for lubrication. Because the
packing is softer than the shaft, the shaft can rub against it without damage. The graphite or

75

Teflon coating provides some lubrication, but additional lubricant is needed to keep friction
to a minimum.

Some fluid leaking out of the stuffing box is normal and provides lubrication between the
shaft and packing. In some cases, packing is pressure lubricated by the use of lantern rings.
Lantern rings are perforated metal rings that surround the shaft between layers of packing in
the stuffing box. These rings allow additional fluid from the gland sealing line to be injected
into the stuffing box for lubrication of the packing.
A gland follower fits into the open end of the stuffing box and holds the packing and lantern
ring in place against the throat bushing. Adjusting pressure on the gland follower against the
other parts of the packing gland regulates the flow and leakage rate of the fluid lubricant.

Although a large number of centrifugal pumps uses braided packing in stuffing boxes,
mechanical seals have gained acceptance in the petroleum industry.
They: (1) require no leakage, which is very important when pumping hydrocarbons because
of the potential safety hazard,
(2) last much longer than packing, and (3) require less maintenance. These are real
advantages if the pump is in a hard to reach or inaccessible location.

76

There are many different types of mechanical seals available on the market; however, all
mechanical seals have similar basic components and operate similarly. A typical mechanical
seal consists of rotating parts attached to the shaft and stationary parts secured to the seal
plate, which is bolted directly to the casing. The highly polished sealing faces of the rotating
and stationary parts are held in contact by one or more springs.
3.4.6 Bearings:
Bearings support the shaft and reduce friction as the shaft rotates in the casing. As previously
discussed, bearings do two other important things: they control the forward and backward
movement (thrust) of the shaft, and they control the side to side (radial) movement of the
shaft.
Bearings, which control thrust of the shaft, are called thrust bearings, and those
which control radial movement of the shaft are called radial bearings.
Essentially, there are two kinds of bearings used in centrifugal pumps: Ball bearings and
Sleeve bearings.

77

Ball bearings are circular rings of smooth metal balls, which are free to roll as the shaft
rotates. Ball bearings are usually lubricated with either oil or grease. When oil is used,
slinger rings throw oil from the oil reservoir onto the bearings.
Sleeve bearings are stationary, smooth metal cylinders in which the shaft rotates. A thin film
of oil between the bearing surface and the shaft lubricates and cools the bearings. The oil is
brought to the sleeve bearings either by a ring oiler, which transfers oil from an oil reservoir
to the pump shaft or under pressure by a lube-oil pump.
Proper lubrication of bearings is extremely important. Without proper lubrication, bearings
will overheat, rust, or corrode, which will eventually cause the shaft to seize or stop. Proper
lubrication not only means regular lubrication but also using the correct lubricant in the
proper amount, e.g., a pump used for pumping water should have a grease that is water
repellent.
There are several different methods to ensure proper lubrication of bearings. Some of these
methods include: oil reservoirs, drip feed or ring type oilers, and various pressurized systems.

In horizontal pumps, the bearings are usually designated by their location as Inboard and
outboard
or Drive End and Non-Drive End bearing.
Inboard (drive end) bearings are located between the casing and the coupling.
The bearing nearest to the impeller is called Inboard and the farthest away is called Out board
bearing.
In a pump provided with bearings at both ends, the thrust bearing is usually placed at the
outboard end (non-driving end) and the radial bearing at the inboard end (driving end)
Pumps with overhung impellers have both bearings on the same side of the casing.
Heat generation is sometimes a problem in centrifugal pumps, particularly in large pumps or
in pumps moving high temperature fluids. Excessive heat is most damaging at bearing
locations and in packing glands.
In many applications, ambient air or fluid being pumped carries this heat away; however, in
some applications where additional cooling is needed; water jackets are commonly used.

78

Water jackets are channels located in the casing near bearing housings and packing glands.
Water or other coolants are pumped through these channels to absorb the heat. Then the water
or coolant is either piped to the sewer or pumped to a heat exchanger to be cooled before
recycling it back through the water jackets.
4.0
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP TYPES:
Centrifugal pumps are classified according to their design features. The design features
normally used include shaft position, bearing position, type of impeller, number of impellers,
volute design, and fluid flow.
4.1
VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL PUMPS:
Vertical and horizontal refer to the position of the shaft during normal operation of the pump.
In vertical pumps, the shaft is perpendicular to the ground with the driver usually positioned
above the pump. In horizontal pumps, the shaft is parallel to the ground with the driver
usually positioned beside the pump.
4.2
OVERHUNG AND BETWEEN BEARING PUMPS:
Overhung and between-bearings refer to the position of the impeller in reference to the
bearings. In overhung pumps, the bearings are located on one side of the impeller. In
between bearing pumps, the bearings are located on both sides of the impeller.
4.3
SINGLE AND DOUBLE SUCTION IMPELLER PUMPS:
Single- and double-suction refer to the number of suction eyes in the impeller. In singlesuction impellers, fluid enters the impeller through one side only. Double-suction impellers
have a suction eye on both sides of the impeller. Fluid enters the pump through a single
intake port but is then directed toward both sides of the impeller.
4.4
VOLUTE AND DIFFUSER PUMPS:
Volute and diffuser describe the area in the centrifugal pump casing where kinetic energy of
the fluid is converted into pressure. In volute pumps, the casing forms a chamber (volute)
which is wider at the discharge port than where fluid leaves the impeller.
In diffuser pumps, the volute is replaced by a diffuser with stationary vanes, which form a
series of widening chambers.

79

80

4.5
SINGLE AND MULTI STAGE PUMPS:
Single- and multi-stage refer to the number of impellers in a centrifugal pump. Single-stage
pumps have only one impeller while multi-stage pumps have two or more impellers in series
on the same shaft. As you recall, the purpose of multiple impellers is to produce higher
discharge pressures than is normally possible with a single impeller.
Single stage pump are usually of the horizontally split casing type. That is to say a joint is
made in the casing on the horizontal center line so that the top half may easily be removed for
the internal examination of the pump or for dismantling. These pumps are usually fitted with
a double entry impeller, the inlet passage of the casing dividing inorder to supply each side of
the impeller.
For multi-stage pumps a quite different design is generally used. In this the pump is built up
of a number of cylindrical bodies, each containing an impeller and guide passages, the bodies
being secured between two end covers. The impellers are all of single entry type and the
guide passages so arranged that the water discharged from one impeller is let to the eye of the
next one. Within certain limits set by mechanical consideration a pump may be built up of
any number of these stages in order to give the required duty.
4.6
RADIAL AND AXIAL FLOW PUMPS:
Radial- and axial-flow refer to the direction of fluid flow through the pump in relation to the
shaft. In radial-flow pumps, the impeller is designed to direct the fluid out from the shaft at a
90 angle.
Axial-flow pumps have impellers that move fluid along a path parallel to the shaft. Axialflow pumps are not true centrifugal pumps because they do not use centrifugal fore to add
energy to the fluid or a volute to convert speed of the fluid to pressure. However, axial-flow
or turbine-type pumps are commonly classified with centrifugal pumps because their parts
and maintenance requirements are similar.

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4.7
PUMP DRIVES:
Centrifugal and turbine pumps may be driven by electric motor, internal combustion engine,
steam engine, or turbine or in fact, any of the usual prime movers. Where, for reasons of
efficiency, the same speed is not desirable for both pump and driving unit, then speed
increase or reduction between the two may be obtained my pulleys or gears or hydraulic
couplings. In cases of direct drive it is usual to adopt some form of flexible coupling between
the pump and the driving unit.
4.8
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGALPUMPS:
When compared with a reciprocating pump, the centrifugal pump offers the following
advantages:
(i)
Higher speed resulting in lower size and cost.
(ii)
Continuous delivery free from pressure fluctuations/smooth operation..
(iii)
Having known characteristics a centrifugal pump can:
(iv)
Applicable to direct drive in almost every case.
(v)
Absence of vibration and simpler foundation.
(vi)
Small space requirements
(vii) Can be directly connected to any drive (steam/gas engine, turbine, or
electrical motor)
(viii) It is possible to close discharge valve without an increase in pressure so that
the pump is capable of operating under practically all conditions, without danger of
breakage
(ix)
Simple construction - one moving part, the rotor.
(x)
Low Maintenance.
(xi)
Wide range of sizes and operating characteristics.

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(xii)

Low NPSH requirements.

Disadvantages:
(i)
Pressure limitations.
(ii)
Viscosity limitations - effect on head, capacity and efficiency
(iii)
Unstable at low flow (near shutoff)
5.0

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:

Both centrifugal and positive displacement pumps are used widely throughout P.D.O
production locations. Both type's of pumps have there own special performance
characteristics, pump selection is dependent on the type of process required to be carried out
Centrifugal pump limitations
They are not self priming.
They are not compatible with highly viscous liquids.
They are not compatible with liquids containing a large amount of solids.
They may not be able to deliver the required head under certain conditions.
Positive displacement pumps are generally used for low volume or high pressure applications
such as oil transfer from tanks, water re-injection or chemical injection. Their ability to
deliver a measured volume of liquid and ease of handling of hot thick liquids, have made
them a practical choice for many oil field applications.
5.1
TYPES OF PUMP:
There are two types of positive displacement pumps
1. Reciprocating Pumps: which include the piston, plunger and diaphragm pumps.
2. Rotary Pumps: which include gear, lobe and screw pumps.
5.2
RECIPROCATING PUMP:
Reciprocating pumps have positive action and will deliver a certain volume of liquid against
a pressure determined by the system to which the pump is attached. Reciprocating pumps are
used for small quantity high pressure duties where their efficiency can exceed that of a
centrifugal pump.
In general the choice between centrifugal and reciprocating types is determined by physical
limitations of peripheral speeds, erosion, metal strengths, and the physical size of units from
the aspect of manufacture, transport to site and erection.
A reciprocating pump would give an even higher efficiency, but would be uneconomic on
cost of installation. For the highest pressure duties the reciprocating pump has a very much
stronger appeal, but even there the disadvantages of vibration, physical dimension and
uneven flow severely limits its applications.

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CYLINDER

PISTON

RECIPROCATING PUMP

Reciprocating pumps have a piston, plunger or diaphragm moving back and forth
(reciprocating) in a cylinder.
A Reciprocating pump works on the principle of reversing piston motion within a cylinder
drawing in fluid on the ingoing stroke and delivering it under pressure on the outgoing stroke.
To do this it requires one way valves (or equivalent piston-swept ports) on both the suction
and discharge side.
A variety of configurations is possible dependent on the mechanical system used to derive the
reciprocation piston motion, the number and arrangement of cylinders, the valving system,
etc. A distinction is also drawn between a reciprocating pump with a conventional
piston/control arrangement and one where the piston component is equal to the cylinder bore
over the whole of its length (known as a plunger or ram pump). Diaphragm pumps are also a
type of reciprocating pump normally regarded as being in a separate category.
The general characteristics of reciprocating piston pump are that it is true positive
displacement pump will delivery directly proportional to swept volume and speed of
reciprocation.
The head capacity (H-Q) characteristics are defined by vertical lines. In practice the H-Q
curves are contained within a rectangular envelop, the boundaries of which are established by
the maximum design working pressure and the maximum speed. The maximum design
working pressure is established by the strength of the pump components subjected to internal
pressure. Maximum speed is determined by such considerations as acceptable limits for piton
speed, satisfactory valve operation, and adequate time for the suction side of the pump to fill
completely with a charge of fluid.
Piston speed limitations may indirectly affect capacity. Thus for higher operating speeds it
may be desirable to reduce the stroke of the pump which may result in a lower capacity
machine. Suction considerations can also introduce a variable factor. With increasing fluid
viscosity, more time i.e. a lower speed may be necessary to ensure satisfactory filling without
"channeling" or flow breakdown.
5.2.1
(i)
(ii)

Advantages of reciprocating pump:

Within their field higher efficiencies than centrifugal pumps.
Applicable to variable pressures without adjustment of speed - a useful
factor where the head is uncertain.
(iii)
Self-priming and therefore able to handle a certain amount of air or other
vapour without failing to pump.
(iv)
Owing to their low operating speed and low velocities of fluids passing through them,
they are well adapted to handling viscous fluids.
Reciprocating pumps are, therefore, refined to duties where quantity is low and pressure high,
for example quantities up to 10 Its/s and pressures up to 2000 bar.

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5.2.2
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)

Disadvantage of Reciprocating pump:

Expensive compared with centrifugal, within range of centrifugal.
Many moving parts (High maintenance costs)
Choice of materials limited by rubbing contact and danger of seizure.
Large space requirements.
Comparatively low capacity.
Pulsating flow
High NPSH required compared with centrifugal.
Not suitable for dirt, or abrasive laden liquids.
Protection against overpressure and power overload required by most types
Difficult to seal against leakage than rotary shaft.
There is a danger of damaging the pump or drive if discharge valve should
close or if the pressure relief device should failed

Positive displacement pumps can be further designated into two types by their form of drive.
Power pumps: have a separate driver who may be in the form of an electric motor, internal
combustion engine or turbine
Direct acting pumps: do not have a separate driver and are often powered by steam,
compressed air or gas.
5.3
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT-OPERATING PRINCIPLES:
In a positive displacement pump, Fluid is drawn into a cylinder then a plunger is inserted, as
the plunger is pushed into the cylinder it displaces a volume of liquid equal to the volume of
the plunger.
A pump that displaces a constant volume of liquid is called a positive displacement pump.
The pump first traps a volume of liquid in a cylinder or casing, then a moving part displaces a
volume of liquid from the cylinder or casing. Liquid can be displaced by either rotary or
reciprocating motion.

DISPLACEMENT

The displacement of the rotary pump above is the volume of liquid trapped between the
rotating elements and the casing
Reciprocating pumps can be defined as pumps that operate using a back and forth straight
line motion. They can be driven either by a direct acting piston powered by air or steam or by
a prime mover, engine electric motor etc. One of the most familiar reciprocating pumps is the
piston pump. The main components of the pump are the cylinder, piston, piston rings, suction

85

valve, discharge valve, packing and pump casing. The piston moves back and forth in the
cylinder, each complete movement of the piston along the cylinder length is called a stroke.
Movement of the piston towards the drive end of the casing is called the backstroke
5.4

PISTON PUMP:
DISCHARGE VALVE
CYLINDER
PISTON
CASING

PACKING
SUCTION VALVE

To start the cycle the piston is positioned at the valve end of the cylinder, as the piston moves
down the cylinder away from the valves it creates a suction which opens the suction valve
and allows fluid to enter the cylinder.

(Backstroke)
5.4.1 SINGLE ACTING AND DOUBLE ACTING:
On the forward stroke the piston moves towards the valve end of the cylinder and compresses
the fluid inside. These causes the suction valve to close and the discharge valve to open,
allowing the pressurized liquid to leave the cylinder via the valve. At the end of the forward
stroke the piston is back to its original position in the cylinder and the cycle can commence
again.

86

Forward Stroke
A pump that only pumps fluid on one side of the piston is called single acting. These pumps
produce an uneven flow by discharging the fluid in spurts, to overcome this limitation double
acting pumps are frequently used. These pumps are designed to produce a delivery on both
the forward and backward stroke combining both suction and discharge operations.

DISCHARGE VALVES

PISTON

CYLINDER

SUCTION
VALVES

Double Acting Pump

87

5.4.2 DAMPENER ARRANGEMENTS:

It is not uncommon for properly timed pumps to produce an uneven pumping action. To
compensate for this a surge chamber or dampener is incorporated into the system on the
discharge side of the pump to smooth out the pumping delivery.

(Dampener Arrangement)
5.5

PLUNGER PUMPS:

A plunger pump operates on the same basis as a piston pump, with the exception of a few
small differences. In a piston pump the piston fits close to the walls of the cylinder with the
piston rings sealing the space between the piston and cylinder wall. The piston moves totally
within the cylinder. In a plunger pump, the diameter of the plunger is much smaller than the
diameter of the cylinder, and the plunger moves outside the cylinder as well as inside. Piston
pumps displace most of the fluid in the cylinder during the forward and backward strokes
however in a plunger pump the plunger only displaces a part of the fluid.

CYLINDER
PLUNGER

Since the plunger does not make a seal with the cylinder they require outside packing to seal
off the pumping chamber. Pistons or plungers are generally made of cast iron or cast steel, in

88

some cases porcelain may be used if the pump will be used for working with corrosive
liquids. Plunger pumps are generally used for high pressure service or for pumping liquids
that might cause a piston to stick or score a cylinder.
5.6
DIAPHRAGM PUMPS:
Another type of reciprocating pump is the diaphragm pump. The pump derives its name from
the flexible diaphragm used to displace the fluid. The diaphragm is usually made of a flexible
rubber like material, with a thin steel disc located in the center, which attaches to a
connecting rod. The metal disc evenly spreads the force from the connecting rod over the
diaphragm's surface area and prevents tears or holes from the motion of the connecting rod

CASING

CONNECTING
ROD

DIAPHRAGM

DISCHARGE
VALVE

SUCTION
VALVE

(Diaphragm Pump)
The diaphragm extends across the widest part of the pump cylinder, completely sealing one
half of the cylinder from the other. This makes diaphragm pumps ideal for handling corrosive
or abrasive fluids. The diaphragm is usually connected to a motor driven eccentric cam by
means of a connecting rod. As the wheel rotates, the connecting rod pushes and pulls on the
diaphragm, causing the diaphragm to bulge towards and then away from the suction and
discharge valves on successive strokes.
In operation, when the eccentric cam rotates and the connecting rod pulls the diaphragm
away from the suction and discharge valves, a suction is created in the lower half of the
casing. The suction opens the suction valve and draws fluid into the cylinder. As the eccentric
cam moves further round, the connecting rod moves down and pushes on the diaphragm. The
pressure exerted by the diaphragm on the fluid closes the suction valve and opens the
discharge valve, forcing the fluid out through the discharge pipe work.

89

DIAPHRAGM IS PULLED
OUT DRAWING IN
LIQUID

CONNECTING
ROD

CYLINDER
SUCTION
VALVE

DISCHARGE
VALVE

(Suction Stroke)

DIAPHRAGM

FLUID
DISCHARGE

(Discharge Stroke)
5.6.1 Advantages of Diaphragm pump:
Diaphragm pumps are subject to the same general limitations already cited for reciprocating
pumps except that:
(i)
Can be made quite compact.
(ii)
Can handle liquids containing large percentage of solids, abrasives, toxic or corrosive
materials.
5.6.2 Disadvantages of Diaphragm pump:
(i)
Can be used only for moderate to low head and low capacities.
(ii)
Diaphragm wears out.
6.
ROTORY PUMPS:
Rotary pumps are positive displacement machines but differ from reciprocating pumps in that
delivery is continuous and thus smoother. Although internal losses are normally somewhat
higher through slip (internal leak-back). Slip increases with increasing pressure, thus rotary
pumps are less suited to developing high pressures than reciprocating pumps. Compared with
centrifugal pumps they are much more restricted in practical sizes and thus deliveries. These

90

are restricted to Pump types employing an impeller or rotor form providing a ' suck' and
'squeeze' action.
Rotary pumps have gears, lobes or screw type rotors that rotate within a cylinder to move
fluids.
The General description of rotary pump is a machine with an impeller form providing
positive displacement of the fluid being handled with delivery directly proportional to
(rotational) speed and substantially independent of head.
These two performance characteristics distinguish them from centrifugal pump (and other
turbo machines). Their performance also differ from piston type (reciprocating) positive
displacement pumps in that delivery flow is continuous and thus smoother, although their
internal losses are generally higher. They are thus less suitable for generally higher pressure
since slippage intends to increase more rapidly with increasing pressure than with piston type
positive displacement pumps. Also practical sizes which can be realised are more limited,
especially compared with turbo machines.
In petroleum industry three-screw pump is used most commonly. It is simple, rugged, has no
valves or parts to foul, is relatively quite and produces pulsation-free liquid.

CYLINDER
GEARS

ROTARY PUMP
Rotary pumps are a particularly useful type since they are suitable for handling a wide variety
of fluids from the very lowest to the very highest viscosity (with suitable modification of
design where very high fluid viscosities are concerned).
As a general rule, however, they are suitable only for handling fluids free from solids
contaminants, which could jam in the small clearance spaces involved or produce high wear.

91

Their main application is for the handling of clean fluids from light oils upwards, although
many are equally suitable for water and some types are eminently suitable for handling gases.
Rotary pumps differ from reciprocating pumps in that they have rotating parts rather than
reciprocating (back and forth) moving parts to move fluids. There are many types of rotary
pumps such as external/internal gear pumps, lobe pumps and screw pumps. Rotary pumps are
best suited to low to medium pressure applications and because of their construction they
have a more even discharge pressure than reciprocating pumps and also require less
maintenance. Most hydraulic and lubrication systems use gear type rotary pumps, screw type
pumps are often used as transfer pumps because of their large capacity.
6.1
GEAR PUMP:
There are two types of gear pumps internal and external. External pumps are probably the
most common types of rotary pump used in the petroleum industry. The main parts of an
external gear pump consist of the casing, gears, suction and discharge ports. There are two
gears, one is driven by a motor or prime mover and is called the power or drive gear and the
other gear is driven by the power gear and called the idler or driven gear.
CASING
GEARS

DISCHARGE
PORT

SUCTION
PORT

(External Gear Pump)

The fluid is picked up by the teeth of both gears, and as the gears rotate the fluid is trapped in
the spaces between them and the wall of the pump casing. The fluid is then carried to the
discharge port and is prevented from running back to the suction side by teeth of the two
gears meshing together.

92

GEAR
TEETH

SUCTION

FLUID
DISCHARGE

(Gear Pump Operation)

The pump casing is usually constructed of cast iron or steel however stainless steel may
sometimes be used if the pump is to be used for corrosive liquids. The center section of the
pump casing is machined flat on both surfaces with the internal portion of the casing
machined out to resemble a figure eight. Inside this area two gear type impellers are located.
Both suction and discharge ports are located at the center point of the pump. Both end
sections of the pump casing are machined flat on the surface that contacts the center section.
They have drilled holes in which are fitted sleeve bushings or bearings and are doweled to the
center casing to ensure proper alignment. The outer ends of the pump are fitted with cover
plates to prevent fluid leakage.
END
SECTION

CENTRE
SECTION

DISCHARGE

SUCTION
END
SECTION

There are three types of gear impellers used in rotary gear pumps, spur, helical, and
herringbone. Although spur gears are generally widely used in rotary gear pumps because
they are cheaper to produce and cost less to maintain, helical and herringbone gears are also
used because they provide a smoother transfer of power which results in smoother fluid flow.
Herringbone and helical gears are also used in pumps, which operate at high speeds and large
volumes.

93

HELICAL
GEAR

SPUR
GEAR

HERRINGBONE
GEAR

Types of Gear Pattern

External gear pumps can be operated in either direction without any special modification to
the pump. By observing the rotation of the shafts, the suction side of the operating pump can
be determined. To do this you must remember that the fluid is being pumped around the
outside edges of the gear impellers and not between them.

NORMAL OPERATION

94

REVERSE OPERATION
In contrast to the external gear pump. the internal gear pump has one gear rotating within the
circumference of the second gear. The outer or external gear is larger than the internal gear
and depending on the pump design either the external or internal gear can be the driver.
DISCHARGE

EXTERNAL
GEAR

SUCTION
PORT

INTERNAL
GEAR

CRESCENT

CASING

Fluid is trapped between the teeth of these gears and is moved to the discharge section of the
pump. The seal formed by the two sets of the teeth meshing together forces the liquid out of
the discharge port and prevents it leaking back into the suction side of the pump. A crescent
commonly called a spacer, keeps the two gears separated, in some models the crescent is
movable allowing the pump to be operated in either direction. The suction and discharge
ports are usually elliptical or oval in shape to permit a smooth discharge of the liquid.

95

6.2
LOBE PUMP:
Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps. In that they move fluid from the suction side
to the discharge side of the pump in the spaces between the rotors and the casing. The term
lobes come from the rounded parts of the rotors, which permit them to remain in contact and
form a seal as they rotate. The shape and smoothness of the rotors prevent one rotor driving
the other therefore timing gears are used to synchronise and drive the lobes.

SUCTION
PORT
LOBES

CASING

DISCHARGE
PORT

Lobe Pump
6.3
SCREW PUMPS:
Another form of rotary type pump is the screw pump. This design of pump is used to pump
large amounts of fluid with ease, however they are expensive and subject to damage from
abrasive materials. Screw pumps can be regarded as a special case since single screw pumps
provide only a 'lifting' action unless running in a close-fitting elastomeric stator. Twin and
multiple rigid screw pumps, on the other hand, provide 'squeeze'. There are numerous
variations in rotary pump operating principles.
Rotary screw pumps can be divided into two categories:
1. Single Screw
2. Multiple Screw
Single screw pumps only have one rotor (screw) and are not commonly used for oil field
applications. Multiple screw pumps have a power rotor that is driven by a prime mover. This
is meshed with one or two more rotors called idler rotors. As the power rotor turns, fluid is
drawn into the suction side of the pump. Since the rotors are meshed together the fluid is
forced along the threads of the rotors until it finally exits through the discharge side of the
pump.

96

DISCHARGE
POWER
ROTOR

TIMING
GEARS

IDLER
ROTOR

SUCTION

Screw Pump Operation

6.4 ADVANTAGES OF ROTORY PUMPS:
(i)
In general these are the same as for reciprocating pumps
(ii)
Rotary pumps are relatively inexpensive and require small space
(iii)
They will operate over wide ranges of capacity, head, and viscosity
(iv)
Rotaries are self priming and are good vapor-handlers.
(v)
Many types can be run in either direction with equal performance, thus
simplifying piping or eliminating other pumps.
(vi)
Many types have very simple construction and contain no valves.
6.5
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

DISADVANTAGES OF ROTORY PUMP:

Close clearance and /or rubbing contacts restrict the choice of materials
for construction
Close clearance require that liquids being pumped have lubricating value and be
noncorrosive.
To be protected from overpressure by suitable relief valves
Rotaries have low volumetric efficiency at low speeds because the slip
approaches the displacement. This effect increases directly with the
pressure/viscosity ratio.

6.6
APPLICATIONS:
A few of the more common applications are listed below:
Chemical products, Oil burners, Lubrication nets, Paints and varnishes
Sugars, syrups and molasses, Soaps and cosmetics, Asphalt, creosote, dilute glycerine, Dyes,
inks, bleaches, Vegetable and mineral oils, alcohol, benzene, gasoline.

97

7.

AUXILLIARIES OF PUMP:

7.1
LUBRICATION:
The choice of the lubricant for pump bearings in centrifugal pumps is dictated by
applicational requirements by cost considerations and some time by the preference of a group
of purchasers committed to the major portion of the output of that line.
The bearing lubrication is done by (1). Oil fill-non pressure- lubrication. (2). Pressure
lubrication system.
Different methods of lubrication.
7.1.1 CIRCULATING SYSTEM:
Diagram left shows a closed system consisting of a pump, reservoir, filter and oil.
A cleaned lubricant is delivered to the gland packing through the lantern ring

7.1.2 FORCED FEED SYSTEM:

Pump connected to individual oil line
Oil collected into sump rather than being pumped back into system
Oil can be recovered and processed for recirculation
7.1.3 RING LUBRICATION:
Consists of a ring rotating around a shaft
As the shaft rotates the ring picks up oil from the reservoir
This is then carried to the shaft to lubricate the bearings

98

7.1.4 MIST LUBRICATION:

In this system, a disc attached to the shaft with its outer edge turning in the oil. In this way
the moving parts bathed in a mist of oil.
Most centrifugal pumps for refinery services are supplied with oil lubricated bearings. In the
marine field on the other hand the preference lies with grease lubricated bearings.
For every high pump operating speeds (5000 r/min and above) oil lubrication is found to be
the most satisfactory.
Ball bearings used in centrifugal pumps are usually grease lubricated although some services
use oil lubrication. For oil lubricated ball bearings a suitable oil level must be maintained in
the housing. This level should be at about the center of the lowest ball of a stationary
bearing. Oil rings are sometime used to supply oil to the bearings from the bearing housing
reservoir. Constant level oiler can also be used.
The pressure lubrication system consists of separate Oil pump main & standby suction
strainer, Reservoir with level gauge, Heater, Filters, Cooler, and Relief Valves, with Pressure
indicators, Pressure switches, and Thermometer..
7.2
VIBRATION MONITORS:
Excessive vibration may be a sign that pump or motor bearings are worn, that rotating parts
have become unbalanced, or that shafts are improperly aligned.
To measure the vibration level Vibration Monitors are installed in Drive-End and Non-DriveEnd bearings of the Multistage centrifugal pump of higher capacity. In case of Vibration
levels are high there are alarm and trip levels which will trip the pump and protect the pump
from further damage.
7.3
TEMPERATURE MONITORS:
Higher than normal temperature may be a sign of increased friction due to wear or other
mechanical pump problems like shaft imbalance, seal failure, impeller failure, bearing failure,
etc. Bearings are the prime load (axial and radial) sharing devices will get affected by the
mechanical problems and the operating temperature may be raise. The Drive-end and Nondrive-end bearings, are provided with temperature monitors in mostly multistage centrifugal
pump of higher capacity.
In addition some pump casings are provided with temperature monitors, which will trip the
compressor on high casing temperature.
7.4
HEAT SWITCHES:
In case of seal failure, there is a chance leak of hydrocarbon fluid from the pumps handling
such liquid, which is a fire hazard. In addition friction and seizure of the bearing/shaft may
produce heat, which is potential hazard for fire in that area. To give a warning signal and
shutdown the pump, heat switches are provided as a safeguarding measure.
7.5
PROTECTION CONTROL (MINIMUM FLOW CONTROL):
Although a constant-speed centrifugal pump will operate over a wide range of capacities, it
will encounter difficulty at low flow. In general, low flow problems are worse for large highenergy pump.
The sources of the pump's distress are fourfold - thermal, hydraulic, mechanical, and abrasive
wear.
Thermal: Inescapable energy conversion loss in the pump warms the liquid.

99

Hydraulic: When flow decreases for enough, the impeller encounters suction or discharge
recirculation, or perhaps both. Flashing, cavitation, and shock occur, often with vibration and
serious damage.
Mechanical: Both constant and fluctuating loads in the radial and axial direction increase as
pump capacity falls. Bearing damage, shaft and impeller breakage, and rubbing wear on
casing, impeller, and wear rings can occur.
Abrasive wear: Liquids containing a large amount of abrasive particles, such as sand or ash,
must flow continuously through the pump. If flow decreases, the particles can circulate
inside the pump passages and quickly erode the impeller, casing, and even wear rings and
shaft.
Many system of piping, valves and minimum flow controls are available to prevent damage
to centrifugal pump at low flow.
Many small low-energy, low-temperature, single stage pumps can withstand hydraulic effects
for long period of low flow or shutoff.
By Pass System: In many systems, the pump cannot stop, but must continue to deliver
fractional flow to the system. In these, a branch line on the discharge take enough flow to
assure the required minimum though the pump. The branch line ordinarily by pass the liquid
back upstream for enough to permit cooling before re-entry to the pump
Continuous by pass of minimum flow: This is a simple arrangement, with only a pipe and a
means of dissipating head to control by pass flow. There is on-off by pass of minimum flow
system, which causes a valve to open; in the by pass line, allowing flow to maintain the total
pump minimum flow required.
A flow sensor (primary metering element or metering orifice) supplies information to a
transmitter and control to signal the valve to open.
7.6
CASING TEMPERATURE:
A temperature sensor mounted on pump casing can signal for a shutdown of pump to protect
against large temperature rises. This will avoid pumps running on cavitation and insufficient
NPSH. (i.e. low suction pressure.)and thus avoid mechanical damage to the pump.
7.7
MECHANICAL FACE SEALS:
To prevent leakage of the pumped fluid, from the pump, the shaft must be sealed where it
extends through the pump casing.
There are two common ways to seal the shaft to prevent or minimize the leakage.
1. Packing
2. Mechanical seals.
Mechanical Face Seals, known generally as mechanical seals comprise rotating and stationary
element in 'rubbing ' contact to form a sealing face with a minimal leakage path. The contact
faces of the seal rings are in a plane perpendicular to the shaft and are manufactured to be
extremely flat and smooth.
In order for a mechanical seal to work a thin film of fluid must exist across the faces,
providing seal face lubricant.
A particular advantage of a face seal is that besides being capable of providing positive
sealing it places no wear on the shaft itself. All rubbing wear is concentrated on the sealing

100

faces which are normally self compensating for wear (e.g. by spring loading); and their
continual rubbing action maintains a lapped finish and very close fit in the absence of
abrasive contaminants.
When hazardous or toxic liquids are pumped, where a seal failure can not be tolerated, or
when required for fugitive emissions control, multiple seals are used.
Depending on the arrangement of the mating and seal rings it is called either Tandem seals
or double seals.
A double seal is an arrangement whereby two seals are mounted either face to face or back to
back.
A barrier fluid between the two seals is supplied from an external source at a pressure higher
than the inner seal chamber pressure. This arrangement is useful when the pumping liquid
contain solids, has poor lubricating or is otherwise difficult to seal.
A Tandem seal consists of two mechanical seals mounted in series. A buffer fluid is supplied
to the outer seal from an external source at a pressure lower than that found in the inner seal
chamber.
The inner seal works just as a simple seal does, normally providing the primary seal to
contain the pumpage.
The outer seal normally seals only the buffer fluid which, also lubricate and cools. However
in the event the inner seal fails, the outer seal automatically takes over and continues to
prevent the pump fluid from reaching the atmosphere.
Some cases instead of external cooling medium, the pump discharge fluid itself is used for
cooling the seal. If the liquid like (crude oil) which may contain some impurities and solids,
are separated in a cyclone separator and the thin liquid is used as cooling medium.
8.

STARTUP AND SHUTDOWN:

8.1.
PRE-OPERATIONAL CHECKS:
The following steps should be followed at initial start up and after the equipment
has been overhauled.
1. Ensure that the piping system is clean and thoroughly flushed to remove any foreign
matter, which may have accumulated during installation.
2. Ensure that suction strainer is installed.
3. Fill the bearing housing with the proper oil to the proper level.
4. Ensure that all hold down bolts of the pumps, motors and base frame are properly
tightened.
5. Ensure that pump and motor is properly aligned.
6. Ensure that suction and discharge flange bolts are properly tightened.
7. Ensure that proper gaskets are used.
8. Ensure that seal flush piping are properly installed and has not been changed.
9. Ensure that the pump is properly primed that is it has been filled with the liquid to be
pumped and all the air contained in the pump has been allowed to escape/vented.
10. Turn pump rotor by hand or with strap wrench to make sure it rotates smoothly.
11. Prior to coupling up pump and motor, start motor to check proper rotation. If the rotation
is not correct refer to motor manual for proper connection to change rotation.
12. Couple the pump and motor
13. Install the coupling guard.

101

14. Ensure that all instrumentation are properly calibrated and hooked up to the system.
15. Oil pump priming located above the reservoir oil level requires priming upon initial startup and after maintenance disassembly.
NOTE: THE UNIT MUST NOT BE OPERATED UNLESS COUPLING GUARD IS
INSTALLED AND COMPLETELY BOLTED IN PLACE. FAILURE TO OBSERVE
THIS WARNING COULD RESULT IN INJURY TO OPERATING PERSONNEL.
8.1
START UP AND LOADING:
In General all centrifugal pumps must be filled with water before starting, since all internal
running clearances depend upon water for lubrication. There are however exceptions to this
rule, for example pumps having very heavy shafts with a total deflection at all times less than
the radial clearance, or very large pumps under flooded conditions which are evacuated of
water by compressed air in order to reduce the starting load on the motor. In this latter case a
water supply is usually provided to the neck ring to prevent risk of seizure.
Centrifugal pumps may be started in four different ways:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Start-up against closed valve.

Start-up against closed non-return valve with the delivery valve open
Start-up with delivery valve open but no geodetic head.
Start-up delivery with valve open and pressure pipeline drained.

Depending on whether the pump starts with the delivery valve open or closed its starting
torque and hence its start-up time will also vary.
Start-up procedure of centrifugal pump will vary from one pump to another as per the
vendors and operational requirements.
General start up procedure of a Centrifugal pump is as follows.
1. Prime the pump, by opening the suction valve, closing the drains etc., to prepare the
pump for start up.
2. Open the valve in the cooling water supply to the bearings seals etc. where
applicable.
3. Prepare the driver for start up in accordance with the driver manufacture instruction.
4. Close the discharge valve if the valve is not closed and open the valve in the recirculation
line if the pump should not be operated against dead shutoff.
5. Ensure that the suction valve is fully open
6. Ensure that the pump is properly vented by observing leakage from casing vent and seal
piping vent if provided and pumps are not designed for self venting casing. Close the vent
when liquid is emitted.
7. Double check pump rotation by starting unit momentarily.
Note that the pump coasts to a gradual stop.
8. CAUTION: IF PUMP STOPS ABRUPTLY WHEN DRIVER IS SHUT DOWN,
INVESTIGATE FOR PUMP BINDING. TAKE NECESSARY REMEDIAL ACTION
BEFORE RESUMING OPERATION.
9. Start the driver and bring it up to speed quickly.
10. As soon as the pump is up to rated speed slowly open discharge valve. This will avoid
change in velocity and prevent surging in the suction line.
11. Perform the routine operating checks and observe leakage from the stuffing box, adjust
sealing liquid, bearing lube oil etc.

102

12. If the pump is to be started against a closed check valve with the discharge valve open,
the stemps are the same, except that the discharge valve is opened some time before the
motor is started.
8.2
OPERATING CHECKS:
Never operate the unit above the name plate conditions. Such operation could result in unit
failure. Consult instruction book for proper operation and maintenance of the pump and its
parts.
CAUTION:
Operation at low flows results in overheating the liquid causing Pump trips on High casing
Temperature. Mechanical damage may result from continuous operation at flow less than the
specified minimum continuous stable flow.
Immediately after starting up and frequently during running check the following.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Check suction and discharge pressure.

Check differential pressure across the suction strainer.
Check Mechanical Seal leakage.
Check oil level in bearing housing.
Check for any abnormal noise.
Check bearing temperature
Check for excessive vibration.

Note. Operation of the unit without proper lubrication can result in overheating of the
bearings, bearing failure, pump seizures and breakdown of the equipment.
8.3
PUMP SHUTDOWN PROCEDURE:
Just as in starting a pump, the stopping procedure depends upon the type and service of the
pump. Generally the steps followed a pump which can operate against a closed valve are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Open the valve in the circulation line.

Close the discharge valve.
Stop the driver.
Close the suction valve, open drain valves etc., as required by
particular installation or if the pump is to be opened up for inspection.
5. If the sealing water supply is not required while the pump is idle,
close the valve in the supply line.
Note: If the pump stops abruptly when driver is shutdown, investigate for pump binding.
Take necessary remedial action before restarting.
Pump handing over for maintenance has to be separately carried out as per written up
procedure according to the areas concerned.
9.0

PUMP PERFORMANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS:

9.1
FLUID CHARACTERISTICS / SELECTION OF PUMP:
MAJOR FLUID parameters affecting both the performance of pumps and the choice of
pumps are:

103

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Fluid density or specific gravity

Fluid viscosity
Vapour pressure
Specific heat and thermal conductivity
Type of fluid e.g. clean, contaminated, chemically active etc.
Flow / Pressure requirements

9.2
PUMP PERFORMANCE:
The Theoretical maximum suction lift obtainable by a pump is that corresponding to a pump
reducing the absolute pressure to zero at the pump inlet, or mechanically atmospheric
temperature divided by fluid density. In case of clean cold water this theoretical head is
10.33 meters (33.9 ft) where as for any liquid:
Theoretical maximum lift = 10.33/SG. meters or 33.9/SG. feet.
where SG is the specific gravity of the fluid.
The practical maximum suction lift available (MSLA) is also modified ie. reduced by:
(i)

Friction losses involved in the suction piping system and velocity head:
V /2g
(ii)
The effect of the vapour pressure of the fluid at the temperature at which it is
being pumped.
Dynamic losses are:
1. Entry losses in the suction pipe:
2. Frictional losses produced by flow through the pipe:
3. Losses at any fittings in the inlet system
4. Possible losses at the pump inlet.
These four figures are often combined, their sum being expressed as the effective loss of
head.
Similarly, the vapour pressure of the fluid represents an effective loss of ambient pressure.
Thus, maximum suction lift available (MSLA) from a pump under dynamic conditions (see
Figure 1) is given by:
MSLA = PA - hf hs - Pv + Pg - V'/2g
where:
hf = the sum of all dynamic friction losses
hs = static head, either negative if below the pump or positive if above
the pump
Pv = vapour pressure of fluid
pg gauge pressure on the surface of the liquid
(gauge pressure being the measured pressure above atmospheric)
PA = absolute atmospheric pressure

104

9.3
PUMP CHARACTERISTICS / GRAPH:
The interrelations of Capacity, Head, Power, Efficiency and NPSH. are called the pump
characteristics. These interrelations are best shown graphically and the resulting graph is
called the characteristic curves of the pump.
There are four different curves:
Head Vs Capacity Curve (H-Q)
Power Vs Capacity Curve (P-Q)
Efficiency Vs Capacity (n - Q)
NPSHR Vs Capacity Curve.
Definitions of the Terms.
Capacity (Q)
It is the Volume of the liquid per unit time delivered by the pump. It is expressed in different
unit as given below:
Gallons per minute (GPM)
Cubic Meter per hour (M3/hr)
Total head (H)
The total head of Centrifugal pump is the energy imparted to the liquid by the pump.
It is expressed in meter or feet.
Power (P)
It is the power delivered to the pump shaft and expressed in KW or Horse Power. It is also
called as (BHP)
Efficiency ()
It is the ratio of the energy delivered by the pump to the energy supplied to the pump shaft.
9.4
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD.(NPSH):
Net positive suction head is the total suction head determined at the suction nozzle and
corrected to datum, less vapour pressure of the liquid at pumping temperature, both in feet of
liquid. NPSH available is a characteristic of the pumping system, and varies with fluid flow
because of the fluid friction. NPSH required by a pump is a function of the pump design and
represents the minimum suction head necessary to force liquid into the pump, without
cavitation, at a given rate.
Actual suction performance is normally described in terms of net positive suction head
(NPSH), representing the difference between the theoretical figure and sum of the static
suction lift, suction friction head and vapour pressure.
Basically, this implies that under given operating conditions the absolute pressure at the pump
inlet must not be less than the vapour pressure of the liquid being pumped, otherwise it will
flash into vapour and suction head will break down or cause cavitation in the pump.
Expressed in terms of heads:
NPSH = atmospheric pressure - MSLA
This implies that under any given operating conditions involving actual atmospheric pressure
static lift and dynamic losses, the absolute pressure at the pump intake must be greater than

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the vapour pressure of the liquid being pumped, otherwise the fluid will flash into vapour and
the suction flow will break down causing the pump to cavitate.
In simple terms, the required NPSH of a pump is the 'allowance' necessary to cover head
losses within the pump. Part of these losses will be reduced by friction and viscous drag, part
by internal leakage (in the case of positive displacement pumps), and part by any dynamic
depression head generated within the pump e.g. with rotor dynamic pumps.
Given a required NPSH for a pump to operate at rated capacity, the allowable suction lift can
be determined by deducting suction friction head and vapour pressure from the theoretical
suction lift available (suitably corrected for atmospheric pressure or altitude and
temperature). If the sum to be deducted from the theoretical suction lift is the greater, then
the difference is the positive static head necessary to ensure satisfactory operation
9.4.1 NPSH Required
Vapour pressure is constant for a given liquid at a given temperature, the required NPSH is a
function of the pump design.
Where the suction supply is from a closed tank or sealed reservoir, tank pressure is
substituted for atmospheric temperature, and converted to equivalent head to be in constant
units.
NPSH, in fact represents the pressure head required or available to force a given flow rate of
specified fluid through the suction piping into the pump, but where it is given on pump
characteristic curves it is normally presented as a head figure and corrected to the center line
of the pump. Basically, therefore, the NPSH depends on the suction system, which may be
categorised under four headings:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Liquid level under atmospheric pressure

Liquid level exposed to pressure.
Liquid level under vapour pressure of fluid.
Liquid level exposed to a vacuum.

9.5.1 Vapour Pressure:

Saturated vapour pressure or maximum vapour pressure is the greatest pressure exerted by a
vapour at any temperature.
The pressure exerted by a vapour at any temperature is the greatest pressure, which the
vapour can normally exert at that temperature. This pressure is called the saturated pressure
or maximum vapour pressure or often simply the vapour pressure of the liquid at that
temperature.
The value of the saturated pressure only depends on the temperature and increases with rise
in temperature. This pressure is the only pressure at which liquid and vapour can exist
together in equilibrium for the particular temperature because at greater pressures the whole
of the substance is in the liquid state, which at all lower pressures the whole of the substance
is in the gaseous state as an unsaturated vapour.
As was mentioned before, in pumping a liquid the suction of the pump causes the liquid to be
forced into the suction line by the pressure which exists above the level of the liquid which in
the case of an open tank or a well is atmospheric pressure.
It is clear that in the case of e.g. hot water the saturated pressure above the liquid level in the
suction line might be so high that no liquid but only vapour or a mixture of liquid and vapour
is moved into the pump.

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As the saturation pressure of a liquid increases with temperature, the point is soon reached
where no lift will be possible when handling warm or hot fluids, and the pump will fail to
operate.
In order to ensure that the suction conditions for a pump are such that no evaporation occurs
in the pump inlet there must be sufficient suction pressure above the vapour pressure of the
liquid to push the liquid into the pump.
The surplus pressure without which a pump cannot operate properly is know as the NET
POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD.
NPSH = absolute pressure of a pump inlet minus vapour pressure of liquid expressed in
meters of liquid.
NPSHR = Net positive suction head required by the pump at suction flange. It is determined
by the vendor as per the design of the pump
NPSHA = Net positive suction head available at suction flange. The application engineer
determines it.
For successful operation of the pump it is always necessary that NPSHA shall be more than
NPSHR by the pump.
9.5.2 Cavitation:
Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor cavities or bubbles due to
dynamic action within the pump. The cavities may be bubbles, vapor-filled pockets, or a
combination of both.
These bubbles are formed at the pump inlet, where local pressure is reduced. If the pressure
falls below the vapour pressure of the liquid, bubbles form with the flow stream. If the
pressure increases further on in the pump, these bubbles collapse- generally at or near the
impeller. Considerable energy is released as the bubbles collapse. Shock waves and
impingement attack the impeller. Each time a bubble collapses, a small amount of materials
is removed from the impeller. And the process is continuous, so damage can occur quickly,
or over some periods of time. Cavitation is fairly easy to diagnose because it produces a
sound similar to what you would expect to hear if the pumped fluid were full of gravel.
When centrifugal pumps operate under insufficient NPSH, they start cavitation
Cavitation is indicated by a noisy operation of the pump. The degree of noise will vary with
each type of pump and with each impeller of the same pump. one way to prevent cavitation is
to keep the pressure of the pumped fluid as high as possible at the pump inlet. Anything that
reduces inlet pressure can lead to cavitation
Causes of cavitation include:
(i)
any obstruction in the inlet piping
(2)
leaks in the suction pipe
(3)
closed or partially closed valves in the suction piping
(4)
suction piping too small.
Reduction of cavitation:
The possibility of cavitation can be removed if the system is correctly designed. However as
this is often not the case, cavitation can be eliminated/reduced by:
(i)
Partially closing the discharge valve.
(ii)
Connecting a small bypass line from the discharge back to suction
Nozzle
(iii)
Increasing the wear ring clearance of the impeller so that more leakage
occurs back from the discharge side of the impeller to the suction eye.
(iv)
NPSH is the net positive suction head required to prevent cavitation.

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9.6
PRIMING:
Filling up the pump with liquid is called PRIMING A PUMP. As the centrifugal pump cannot
operate on air or gases the pump has to be filled with liquid before starting up. This is not a
problem when there is a static suction head. But in the case of Static Suction Lift provision
has to be made for filling up the pump when it is not yet in operation.
Centrifugal pumps are not self priming. On a suction lift they must be primed. Either special
self-priming unit may be used or auxiliary priming equipment may be installed.
Almost every commercially made vacuum-producing device can be used with systems in
which pumps are primed. by evacuation of air. Formerly water-jet, steam-jet or air jet
primers had wide application, but with the increase in the use of electricity as a power source,
motor driven vacuum pumps have become popular.
9.7
PUMP RUNNING IN PARALLEL / SERIES:
It is some time desirable, or necessary to use more than one pump with a given system, either
to provide the duty required or to provide security of operation when, for example, one pump
may act as standby to another in the event of failure of either unit.
In such case the pumps may be connected either in "series" or "parallel"
To increase the flow or to pump more, the pumps are needed to be connected in parallel.
Similarly, to increase the head (pressure) the pumps are need to be connected in series.
By arranging a number of centrifugal pumps in series so that the discharge of one is led to the
suction of the succeeding pump, the head developed may be multiplied to any desired extent.
With two identical pumps connected in series the head is theoretically twice that produced by
one of them, while the quantity remains the same as for a single pump. With the pumps
operating in parallel, however the opposite result is obtained, the quantity delivered by the
two pumps being equal to twice that delivered by one of them, while the pressure remains the
same as for a single pump.
Instead of connecting many single stage pumps in series, the multistage pumps are developed
for a higher pressure.

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