Unit 10 Parametric and Polar Equations - Classwork

Until now, we have been representing graphs by single equations involving variables x and y. We will now
study problems with which 3 variables are used to represent curves. Consider the path followed by an object
that is propelled into the air at an angle of 45o. If the initial velocity of the object is 48 feet per second, the
object follows the parabolic path given by

y ="

x2
+x
72

However, although you have the path of the object, you do not know when the object is at a given time. In order
to do this, we introduce a third variable t, called a parameter. By writing both x and y as a function of t, you
obtain the parametric equations:
x = 24t 2
and
y = "16t 2 + 24t 2
From this set of equations, we can determine that at the time t = 0, the object is at the point (0, 0). Similarly at
the time t = 1, the object is at the point 24 2,24 2 "15 .
!

Definition of a Plane Curve

! functions of t on an interval I, then the equations

If f and g are continuous
x = f ( t ) and y = g( t )
are called parametric equations and t is called the parameter. The set of points ( x, y)
obtained!as t varies over the interval I is called the graph of the parametric equations.
Taken together, the parametric equations and the graph are called a plane curve.
When sketching a curve by hand represented by parametric equations, you use increasing
values of t. Thus the curve will be traced out in a specific direction. This is called the
orientation of the curve. You use arrows to show the orientation.
Example 1) Sketch the curve described by the parametric equations:
t
x = t2 - 4
and
y=
"2#t #3
2
t

-2

-1

x
y

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Example 2) Sketch the curve described by the parametric equations:

x = 4t 2 - 4
and
y=t
"1 # t # 3 2
t

-1

-.5

.5

1.5

x
y

Note that both examples trace out the exact same graph. But the speed is different. Example 2s graph is traced
out more rapidly. Thus in applications, different parametric equations can be used to represent various speeds at
which objects travel along paths.
Note that the TI-84 calculator can graph in parametric mode. Go to MODE and switch to Parametric mode as
shown below. Your Y= button now gives you the screen below. The X,T,",n button now gives a T when
pressed. The equation in example 1 can now be generated. You set the T values by going to your WINDOW
and placing them in Tmin and Tmax.
!
Tstep controls the accuracy and speed of your graph. Large values of Tstep give speed but not little accuracy.
Small values of Tstep give a lot of accuracy at the cost of speed. Xmin, xmax, Ymin, Ymax work as before.
Note that the arrow showing orientation does not display when you graph a parametric on the calculator. If you
are asked to draw a parametric on an exam, you must include it.

Finding a rectangular equation that represents the graph of a set of parametric equations is called eliminating
the parameter. Here is a simple example of eliminating the parameter.
t
Example 3) Eliminate the parameter in x = t 2 - 4
and
y=
2
Solve for t in the second equations
Substitute in the second equations and simplify

Note that both equations give the same graph although they are not plotted in the same direction.

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Example 4) Eliminate the parameter in the following parametrics. In each problem, it will usually be easier to
solve for t in one equation than the other. Then graph, showing that the 2 equations graph the same
curve.
1
a) x = t " 3
b) x = 3t + 2
and
y=
and
y = t2 + t " 2
2t "1

c) x =

t
2

and

d) x =

y = sin( t + 1) "1

1
t +1

and

y=

t
t +1

t > -1

Example 5) Sketch the curve represented by

x = 3cos"

and

y = 3sin "

0 # " < 2$

Solve for cos" and sin " in both equations.

!
2

Use the fact that sin " + cos " = 1 to form an equation using only x and y.
!
!
This is a graph of an circle centered at (0, 0) with diameter endpoints at (3, 0), (-3, 0), (0, 3), and
(0, -3). Note that the circle is traced counterclockwise as ! goes from 0 to 2.
Example 6) Finding parametric equations for a given function is easier. Simply let t = x and then replace your y
with t. Find parametric equations for
a) y = x 2 " 2x + 3

b) y =

2x " 4
3x "1

Note that there are many ways of finding parametric equations for a given function. For the
problems above, let x = t + 2 and find the resulting parametric equations.
a.

b.

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Example 7) At any time t with 0 " t " 10 , the coordinates of P are given by the parametric equations:
x = t " 2sint and
y = 2" 2cost
Sketch this using your calculator.
Points corresponding to integer values of t are
shown. At t = 1, P has coordinates of (-.68,. 92); at
this instant, P is heading almost due north.
t=4
t=10
t=2
The full curve is not the graph of a function; some
x values have more than one y value.
t=8
t=5

The
picture shows the x- and y- axes but no t-axis.
t=1
The bullets on the graph appear at equal time
t=7
intervals but not at equal distances from each other
t=0
t=6
because P speeds up and slows down as it moves.
We will soon see how to calculate the speed of a
Example 8) Parametric curves may have loops, cusps,
vertical
tangents
and other peculiar features. Parametric
parametric
curve
at a point.
curves are not necessarily functions. Trying to graph the curves below in function mode would
necessitate very complex piecewise functions.
t=3

t=9

Graph a) x = 2cost + 2cos(4t )

b) x = sin(5t )

t=5

and

y = sin t + sin (4t )

and
y = sin(6t )

0 "t "5

0 " t " 2#

t=0

a.

b.

This is called a Lissajou curve.

Projectile Motion
If a projectile is launched at a height of h feet above the ground at an angle of "
(measured in degrees or radians) with the horizontal. If the initial velocity is v 0 feet per
second, the path of the projectile is modeled by the parametric equations:

x = v 0 t cos"

y = h + v 0 t sin " #16t 2

!
!

Example 9) For each problem, use the calculator to graph two parametric equations for a projectile fired at the
given angle at the given initial speed at ground level. Then use the calculators trace ability to
!
estimate the maximum
height of the object as well as its range.
a.

" = 30,v 0 = 90 ft sec

" = 30,v 0 = 120 ft sec

b.

" = 30,v 0 = 90 ft sec

" = 70,v 0 = 90 ft sec

Par. equation 1 __________________________

Par. equation 1 __________________________

Par. equation 2 __________________________!

Par .equation 2 __________________________

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Max height 1: _____ Range 1: _____

Max height 1: _____ Range 1: _____

Max height 2: _____ Range 2: _____

Max height 2: _____ Range 2: _____

Example 10) A baseball player is at bat and makes contact with the ball at a height of 3 ft. The ball leaves the
bat at 110 miles per hour towards the center field fence, 425 feet away which is 12 feet high. If
the ball leaves the bat at the following angles of elevation, determine whether or not the ball will
be a home run. Show your equations and explain your answers.
a. " = 17

b. " = 18

Polar Coordinates
We are used to the coordinate system where coordinates are x and y. The parametric equations we just saw use a
3rd variable t, but still graphs points in the form of ( x, y ) . Thus the system is called the rectangular system or
sometimes referred to the Cartesian coordinate system. This system is based on straight lines thus a rectangle.
The polar coordinate system is based on a circle.
To form the polar coordinate system, we!fix a point O called the pole or the origin. Each point P in the plane
can be assigned polar coordinates (r ,! ) as follows: r is the directed distance from O to P and ! is the directed
angled, counterclockwise from polar axis to segment OP . The diagram below shows three points on the polar
coordinate system. It is convenient to locate points with respect to a grid of concentric circles intersected by
radial lines through the pole. The line ! = 0 is called the polar axis.
!

!/2

(4,2!/3)

(3,!/6)
0

(4, -!/4) or (-4,3!/4)

3!/2

Depending on whether you want to measure angles as radians or degrees, the coordinate changes but still refers
# "&
to the same point. Thus the point % 3, ( is the same point as ( 3,30).
$ 6'
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Note that in the rectangular system, there is only one way to label a point. In the polar system, there are several
ways to label a point, actually an infinite number of ways.
Example1) For each polar point, label it in two other ways:
a. ( 4,60)

b. ("5,315)

# 5" &
d. %1, (
$ 6'

c.

$ #'
e. &"8, )
% 6(

(2,"90)

$ 3 5# '
f. &" ," )
% 2 3(

To convert to and from the polar system to the coordinate system, you must know the following relationships.

(r ,! ) or (x, y )
r
!

y
x
2
2
r = x + y2

x = r cos !

tan! =

y = r sin!

Example 2) Convert the following polar points to rectangular coordinates.

a. (6,90)

d. (5, )

b. ( 4,60)

c. (10,225)

#
"&
e. %2 3, (
$
6'

!
Example 3) Convert the following rectangular
points to polar coordinates.

a. (-5, -5)

b. (0, -2)

d. ("7,0)

e. (5,12)

10. Parametric and Polar Equations

# 5 5" &
f. % , (
$2 3 '

c. 1," 3

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f. (6,"3)

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The TI-84 calculator is capable of making these conversions although it is slightly

cumbersome. The commands are located in the ANGLE menus.

To convert the rectangular point 4,4 3 to polar form, you use

5 : R " Pr( and 6 : R " P# (. These commands ask for the value of r and the value
of " as two separate statements. The value of " will depend on whether you are in
degree or radian mode.
!

To convert the polar point 2 2,225

! to rectangular form, you use
7 : P " Rx( and 8 : P " Ry(. These commands ask for the values of x and the value of
y as two separate statements. Again, when you input " , be sure it matches the form
you specified in Mode radian or degree.
!

!
Example 4) Convert the following rectangular equations to polar equations. Confirm by calculator.
2
a) x 2 + y 2 = 25
b) ( x + 2) + y 2 = 4
c. y = 3

d. x = 3

e. xy = 1

f. 2x " 3y " 2 = 0

Example 5) Convert the following polar equations to rectangular equations. Confirm by calculator.
2#
a) r = 2
b) " =
c. r = 4 sec "
3

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d) r = "2csc #

e) r =

12
3sin " # 4 cos "

f) r =

3
1+ sin"

Example 6) Plot the points and sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 3cos" . (1 decimal place)

"
r
! !

30

60

90

120 150 180

210

240

270

300

330

360

!
!

You can graph polar equations on your calculators. You must switch to polar mode
using your MODE button as shown to your right. You can graph in either degree or
radian mode although you will gain more control with degree mode. However, there are
graphs that MUST be graphed in radian mode. Any polar equation using " not
involving trig functions must be in radian mode.
You enter the equation as usual, through the Y= button.
!
" is now generated through the X,T,",n button. You
have to control the values ", X and Y through the
WINDOW button. "step controls the speed and
accuracy of the graph. Large values of "step generate
!
curves quickly but
with
less accuracy while small values of "step give a lot of accuracy but graph slower. As
!
usual, you!have to ZSquare to have an accurate graph.
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Example 7) Plot the points and sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 3 + 2sin " . (1 decimal place)

"
r
! !

30

60

90

120 150 180

210

240

270

300

330

360

!
!

Classifying Polar Graphs

Just as was true with rectangular graphs, there are graphs in polar form that occur all the time and students
should be able to recognize them by their equations.

r = asin "

r=a

10. Parametric and Polar Equations

r = acos"

Circles a is the diameter

Sine curves are symmetric to the y-axis
!
Cosine curves are symmetric
to the x-axis
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r = a"
Spiral of Archimides
a controls the width
! must be in radian mode
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Limaons are in the form r = a bsin " (symmetric to y - axis) or r = a bcos" (symmetric to x - axis) .

a
<1
b
limaon with
inner loop

a
=1
b
Cardioid
(heart shaped)

a
<2
b
Dimpled limaon
1<

a
"2
b
Convex limaon
(one side is flattened)

!Rose curves are in the form

! r = asin n" or r = acos!n" . The maximum diameter
! of the petal is controlled by a.
If n is even, the rose curve will have 2n petals. If n is odd, the rose curve will have n petals. Interesting patters
can be formed if n is a decimal and the curve is viewed with " starting at 0 and going out to very large
numbers.
!

r = asin2"

r = acos 3"

r = acos 4"

r = asin5"

Lemniscates look like infinity signs and are in the form r 2 = a 2 sin2" which is symmetric to the origin and
r 2 = a 2 cos2" which is symmetric to the x-axis. If the coefficient of " is a number other than 1 or 2, you get a
!
!
!
!
deformed lemniscate.
!

r 2 = a 2 sin2"

!
10. Parametric and Polar Equations

r 2 = a 2 cos2"

r 2 = a 2 cos1.3"

!
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Example 8) Match the polar equations with their graphs below.

___1) r = 3 " cos#

___2) r = 2 " 2sin #

___3) r = 5cos 3"

___4) r = 2 + 2cos"

___5) r = 3 + 1.5sin "

___6) r = 3.5cos2"

___7) r = 5sin 3"

___8) r 2 = "16cos2#

___9) r = 2 " 3cos#

___10) r = 3cos 4"

___11) r = "4 cos #

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

k.

l.

j.
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___12) r = 3.5sin2"

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Unit 10 Parametric and Polar Equations - Homework

1. Consider the parametric equations x = t

and

y = 2t "1

a) Complete the table

t
x
y

! 2

b) Plot the points (x, y) in the table and sketch a graph of the parametric
equations. Indicate the orientation of the graph.
c) Find the rectangular equation by eliminating the parameter.
2. Consider the parametric equations x = 4cos2 "

and

y = 2sin"

a) Complete the table

t
x
y
!

"# 2

"# 4

" 4

"2

!
!
!
b) Plot the points (x, y) in the table and sketch a graph of the parametric
equations. Indicate the orientation of the graph.

c) Find the rectangular equation by eliminating the parameter.

3. In the following exercises, eliminate the parameter and confirm graphically that the rectangular equations
yield the same graph as the parametrics. Be sure you take domain and range of the parametric into account.
a. x = 4t " 1 and

c. x = 3 t and

y = 2t + 3

y = 3" t2

b. x = t + 3 and

y = t2

d. x = t 2 "1 and

y = t2 + t

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e. x = t " 2 and

y=

t
t"2

f. x = t " 3

g. x = sec2 " and

y = tan2 "
(hint: think trig identities)

h. x = cos"

i. x = e t

j. x = t 5

and

y = e"t

and

and

and

y = t +3

y = 4sin "

y = 5ln t

4. For each rectangular equation, find 2 sets of parametrics, the first by letting x = t and the second by setting x
equal to the given expression and finding the y-component.
a. y = 2x 2 " 3x " 2,

b. y =

x = t "1

2x " 5
,
x " x "2
2

x =t+2

5. Use your calculators to graph the curve represented by the parametric equations. Indicate the orientation of
the curve. Identify any points at which the curve is not smooth. Do not take these problems lightly. Your
task is to come up with an appropriate window to view them. Let your t run from 0 to 2, 4, 8, etc.
a. Cycloid: The curve traced by a point on the
circumference of a circle as it rolls on a straight line.
x = 2(" # sin " ) and
y = 2(1# cos" )

b. Prolate Cycloid: Same as a) except the point

goes below the line (railroad track)
x = 2" # 4sin " and y = 2 # 4cos"
Scale

Scale
[
[

10. Parametric and Polar Equations

,
,

[
[

]
]

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,
,

]
]

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c. Hypocycloid: x = 3cos3 " and y = 3sin 3 "

d. Curtate cycloid: x = 2" # sin " and y = 2 # cos "

Scale

Scale
[
[

,
,

[
[

]
]

y = 2sin2 "

e. Witch of Agnesi: x = 2cot" and

f. Folium: x =

Scale
[
[

,
,

,
,

]
]

3t
3t 2
and
y
=
1+ t 3
1+ t 3
Scale

[
[

]
]

,
,

]
]

6. A dart is thrown upward from 6 ft. high with an initial velocity of 18 feet/sec at an angle of elevation of 41.
a. Write a parametric equation that describes the position of the dart at time t.

x ( t ) = ___________________

y ( t ) = ___________________

b. Approximately how long will it take for the dart to hit the ground?

! the approximate maximum height of the dart.

c. Find

d. How long will it take for the dart to reach maximum height?
7. An arrow is shot from a platform 20 feet off the ground with an initial velocity of 150 feet/sec at an angle of
elevation of 23 .
a. Write a parametric equation that describes the position of the arrow at time t.

!
!

b. Find the approximate maximum height of the arrow.

c. Approximately how long will it take for the arrow to reach maximum height?
d. There is a wall 30 feet high 500 feet from the archer. Will the arrow hit it?
If so, how long will it take to hit it?

10. Parametric and Polar Equations

If not, when will the arrow hit the ground beyond the wall
and how far away will it land?

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8. A golfer hits a ball with an initial velocity of 90 mph at angle of elevation of 64o.
a. Write a parametric equation that describes the position of the ball at time t.

x ( t ) = ___________________

y ( t ) = ___________________

b. Approximately how long will it take for the ball to hit the ground?

!
c. Find the approximate maximum height of the ball.
d. The green is 150 yards away. Will the ball reach the green? Explain.
9. An NFL kicker at the 33-yard line attempts a field goal. The ball leaves his foot at 69 feet/sec at an angle of
elevation of 38.
a. Write a parametric equation that describes the position of the ball at time t.

x ( t ) = ___________________

y ( t ) = ___________________

b. How high does the ball get above the field?

!
c. The goal posts are 10 feet high and are 45 yards away from him. If the kick is straight, is the field goal
good? Explain.
10. Jack and Jill are standing 60 feet apart. At the same time, they each throw a softball from an initial height of
two feet towards each other. Jack throws the softball at an initial velocity of 45 ft/sec at an angle of
elevation of 44. Jill throws her ball with an initial velocity of 41 ft/sec with an angle of elevation of 37o.
a. Write 2 parametric equations that describes the position of the ball at time t. Remember they are
throwing the balls toward each other.
!
!
x1 ( t ) = ___________________

y1 ( t ) = ___________________

x 2 ( t ) = ___________________

y 2 ( t ) = ___________________

b. Find the heights of each ball.

c. About how far does each ball travel?

d. When does each ball hit the ground?

e. By trial and error, find the time when you think the balls are closest together?

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11. Convert the following polar points to rectangular coordinates.

# "&
$ 7# '
a. %6, (
b. &"1, )
$ 2'
%
4(

$ "# '
c. &"4, )
%
3(

d. ( 3,120)

e. (8,210)

f. (10,72)

!
!
12. Convert the following rectangular points to polar coordinates.
#1 " 3&
a. ("3,3)
b. % ,
(
$2 2 '

d. "5 2,"5 2

c. (0,"4 )

e. ("2,1)

f. ( 7,"24 )

13. For each of the following rectangular equations, change it to polar form and confirm on your calculator.
a. x 2 " y 2 = 4

b. xy = 12

c. 5x " y = 7

d.

e. y = x 3

f. x 2 + y 2 + 4x = 0

( x "1)

+ y =1

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14. For each of the following polar equations, change it to rectangular form and confirm on your calculator.
a. r = 4

b. tan2 " = 9

c. r = 8csc "

d. r = 8cos"

e. r =

5
2sin " # cos "

f. r =

1
1+ cos"

15. Plot the points and sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 2 " 2sin # . (1 decimal place)

"
r
! !

30

60

90

120 150 180

210

240

270

300

330

360

!
!

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16. Plot the points and sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 2 + 4 cos" . (1 decimal place)

"
r
! !

30

60

90

120 150 180

210

240

270

300

330

360

!
!

17. Plot the points and sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 5sin 3" . (1 decimal place)

"
r
! !

15

30

45

60

75

90

105 120 135 150 165 180

!
!

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18. Match the polar equations with their graphs below.

!
!

___1) r = 2.5 + 2.5sin " ___2) r = 3

___3) r = 3.5sin 3"

___4) r = 4.5sin2"

___5) r = 4.5cos2"

___7) r = "3sin #

___8) r = 2 " sin #

___9) r 2 = 16sin2"
___13) r = 3cos"

___6) r = 1.5 + 2cos"

!
!

___10) r = 4 cos5"
___14) r = 1+ 4 sin "

!
!

___11) r = 3.5cos 3"

___15) r = 4.5sin6"

!
!

___12) r = 2.5 " 2.5cos#

___16) r = .5"

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

k.

l.

o.

p.

m.
10. Parametric and Polar Equations

n.
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