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NUMERICAL APPROXIMATIONS

One of the biggest problems when it comes to do math, is to

determine how accurate and precise and is the data we deliver,
because nothing is 100% accurate the only way to deal with this
problem is to determine how erroneous that our formulation. To
this end, several techniques have been developed based on the
type of error that a determination.

Significant Figures: the concept of significant figures or

significant digits has been developed to formally appoints the
reliability of a numerical value. The scores of a number are those
that can be used reliably even usually identify a number of
significant figures is a simple procedure in some cases result in
some confusion.

Accuracy and precision: the errors in the calculations and

measurements can be characterized by their accuracy and
precision, accuracy refers to how close the measured or calculated
value of the true value. Accuracy refers to how close they are
from each other measured or calculated value.
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Definition of Errors

 Absolute error: defined as the difference between the actual

value and the calculated value.

 Absolute relative error: defined as the ratio of absolute

error and the actual value.

 Percentage Error: is defined as the percent relative error

 Approximate Error: defined as the difference between two

subsequent calculations
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 Approximate relative error: is defined as the ratio of the

approximate error and calculation n +1

One of the challenges faced by numerical methods is to

determine the error estimates in the absence of knowledge of
true values. For example, some numerical methods iterative
methods used to calculate the results. In such methods an
approximation considering the anterior approach. This process is
performed repeatedly or iteratively. To calculate in succession,
hoping to get better approximations. In such cases, the error is
often calculated as the equation was. The importance of this
error is that the absolute error should be a default value as
follows:

Where it is called tolerance, which is preset is simply a measure

of acceptable error under which work, there is also a way of
defining the acceptable error as a function of correct significant
figures predicted by iteration or calculation:

Where n represents the minimum number of significant figures

that will be correctly to predict by the formula.

Main causes of error on computers

There are three main types of errors when making mathematical

manipulations on a computer. These occur due to the difficulty
of storing figures after the appropriate language translation.
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 The range of amounts that can be represented is limited, try

to save a number too large in terms presents a problem
because sometimes storage space is limited and therefore
the number cannot be causing the overflow error (due to
binary representation of numbers in the computer)

 There are only a finite number of quantities that can be

represented within a range; the degree of precision is
limited. It is clear that irrational numbers cannot be
represented accurately. Called quantization error and the
approximation is done by two methods.

 The interval between the numbers increases as the

numbers grow in magnitude means that the quantization
errors are proportional to the magnitude of the number to
be represented. Minimum range is defined as:

For court cases and rounding, respectively.

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ROOTS OF EQUATIONS

The root of an equation is defined as the point (x) in which the

function f (x) is zero. To find the points were available formulas
or algebraic manipulations, but there were some equations that
could not be solved analytically. Problem was overcome when
starting the use of computational tools to find an estimate of
these roots.

 analytical solution

This equality is satisfied if

 numerical solution

It is an impossible equation to solve analytically, but use

different algorithms to find a numerical estimate of this.

NUMERICAL APPROACH FOR ROOTS

Numerical approximation is called the estimation of a number

that is not accurate but serves as this. In this way fails to resolve
the problem of analytical irresolution.
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CLOSED METHODS

It is based on the fact that a function changes sign in the vicinity

of a root, aspirations take two starting points that have that be on
either side of which is presumably the root of the equation,
reducing the interval until you get a reasonable approximation.

Graphical method: it consists in plotting the function and sees

where it cuts the axis of the abscissa.
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Advantage

- Is a method that gives the range where the root.

- Provides an outline of the behavior of the function which
helps to detect errors in other methods.

Disadvantages

- It is an imprecise method that relies on the observation of

the graph.

Note: If the function evaluated at the upper limit and lower limit
has the same sign there are no roots or a pair of them and if
different is an odd number of them, namely:

No roots or is an even number of them

There are an odd number of roots.

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An example is presented the figure where it is easily seen that the

interval at which is the root

Bisection: Based on the subdivision of the interval where is the

root in various subintervals so that the average interval satisfy a
margin of error for the root.

Xr where represents the root for that iteration. While Xsu and Xin
the upper and lower limits respectively

Xin xr xsu

The chart above illustrates the method. To define which of the

subintervals is the root using the following criteria

1. then the root is in this subinterval and

is now doing for the next iteration

2. then the root is in the other subinterval

and so for the next iteration.
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3. then that is the root.

Xin xsu

For this method the error of approximation depends on the

number of iterations, as follows:

Where is the initial interval, n the number of iterations.

Viewed another way, if you know the error must then be
determined the number of iterations.

Advantage

- Do not diverge, this is always tends to the root.

Disadvantages

- You need to know in advance an estimated range for the

roots.
- When there are roots tangent to x-axis does not work
because the function does not change sign.
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- It does not consider the limits which is closer to the root.

False position: it rests on the assumption that the lowest

absolute value of the function within the limits of the range is
closer to the root (which is not always true), thus joining the
points with a straight line and where short axis was taken on as
the deadline for a new iteration.

The formula for these iterations is:

Advantage

- The process tends more quickly to the root as the previous

method.
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Disadvantage

- There are functions that do not meet the condition that the
lower absolute value of f (x) at the ends of the range is the
closest to the root as shown in the figure below.

You can modify the method so that after a certain number of

iterations multiply the value of f (x) are not being moved by a
number between zero and one.

Search by increments: the choice is based on a small increase the

range and travel through the increase to determine where the
function changes sign
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Disadvantages

- The determination of the increase is a problem because if is

very large you can skip if roots and very little will be long
and inefficient.

OPEN METHODS

This iteration method uses only one value of x or two but with
the freedom that they should not therefore enclose the following
methods is called open.

Disadvantages

- Sometimes the root diverges

Advantage

- When it does converge generally much more efficient than

closed methods.

Simple iteration method fixed point: this method takes the role
and manipulated so that it is of the form from this gives a
starting value and begins to iterate for equality.

Condition:

For this method to converge that must be met:

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Newton-Raphson method: Use the tangent of the position at a

point to approximate the root this is best illustrated graphically.

The formula for the approximation is:

Where the error of the iteration i +1 is:

Disadvantage

- The multiple roots are tangent to the x-axis so that f '(x)

becomes zero at point iteration therefore cannot be done.
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- When there are turning points near the root of the

approach diverges from the root.

Secant method: it is a helper method to the Newton-Raphson

and just changes the derivative of a difference.

The formula for this method is:

To become more efficient this method the derivative is redefined:

Where δ is greater than zero and less than one.