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Abstract
A large number of stand-alone power systems that are based on fossil fuel or renewable energy
(RE) based, are installed all over Europe. Such systems, often comprising photovoltaics (PV) and/or
diesel generators provide power to communities or technical installations, which do not have access
to the local or national electricity grid. The replacement of conventional technologies such as diesel
generators and/or batteries with hydrogen technologies, including fuel cells in an existing PV-diesel
stand-alone power system providing electricity to a remote community was simulated and optimised,
using the hybrid optimisation model for electric renewables (HOMER) simulation tool. A technoeconomic analysis of the existing hybrid stand-alone power system and the optimised hydrogenbased system was also conducted. The results of the analyses showed that the replacement of fossil
fuel based gensets with hydrogen technologies is technically feasible, but still not economically viable,
unless signicant reductions in the cost of hydrogen technologies are made in the future.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hydrogen; Electrolyser; Fuel cells; Stand-alone power systems; Simulation; Photovoltaics
1. Introduction
Numerous stand-alone power systems (SAPS) have been installed around Europe. These
systems provide power to technical installations and communities in areas that do not have
access to the regional or national power grid. An increasing number of SAPS include
Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2106603327; fax: +30 2106603301.
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renewable energy (RE) technologies (solar or wind power), often in combination with
diesel generators and/or batteries for back-up power, but the majority of larger SAPS are
still based on fossil fuel power production. Replacing diesel generators and batteries by
fuel cells (FC) running on locally produced hydrogen would diminish fossil fuel
dependence, reduce environmental impact and potentially reduce operation and
maintenance costs. The SAPS market is believed to be a market niche where fuel cell
technology can be competitive in the short term, due to the high operation and
maintenance costs [1,2].
The storage of renewable energy (mostly solar energy) in the form of electrolytically
produced hydrogen in stationary stand-alone power systems and the re-electrication of
hydrogen in fuel cells has been investigated in many demonstration systems [37] and is
relevant to non grid-connected communities and remote areas. Various researchers have
investigated such systems, as described in the following paragraphs.
Besides the development of energy technology components, the study of systems and the
optimisation of their operation have also received some limited attention [8,9] and is
certainly an area requiring further attention.
Agbossou et al. [10] described a renewable energy SAPS system, comprising a small wind
turbine and photovoltaic (PV) panels, which supply excess energy to an electrolyser
producing hydrogen that is stored in order to be used in fuel cells. Development and
experimental testing of the best methods for design optimisation and control strategies, as
well as the integration of the fuel cell was examined during this study. Such a system was
proposed for remote communication stations.
Kelouwani et al. [11] developed a dynamic model in order to simulate power systems,
which are fed by renewable energy sources (mostly wind and solar energy), with batteries
and gaseous hydrogen as energy reservoirs, and electrolysers and fuel cells as converters of
energy between electricity and hydrogen. In this model, power interfaces (boost and buck
converters) are modelled for both their transient and steady state behaviours.
Wallmark and Alvfors [12] have studied the technical design and performed an
economic evaluation of a stand-alone proton exchange membrane (PEM) FC system,
which is installed to avoid replacing or upgrading an ageing, distant power grid connection
that only supplies a few buildings. The results of the study showed that the fuel cell system
installation is not economically viable for the present conditions; the importance of sizing
the system components is also stressed.
Stand-alone hydrogen energy systems with different renewable energy sources, namely
solar, hydraulic and wind energy were analysed by Santarelli et al. [13], in view of their
design and operation. The analysis showed that the preferred solution is case specic,
depending on meteorological resources and load prole. For the selected site (a remote
community in North Italy) it was concluded that a micro-hydro plant combined with an
electrolyser, a hydrogen storage tank and a PEM fuel cell was the optimum choice.
Khan and Iqbal [14] prepared a pre-feasibility study for stand-alone hybrid energy
systems with hydrogen as an energy carrier for applications in Newfoundland, Canada.
Different renewable and non-renewable energy solutions and various energy storage
methods were considered using hybrid optimisation model for electric renewables
(HOMER) as a simulation and optimisation tool. According to the results, at
present costs a wind-diesel-battery system was the most favourable solution, but a fuel
cell cost reduction to 15% of its current value would make a wind-fuel cell system a
superior choice.
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Actual load prole and meteorological data from the operation of the PV-diesel system
in Kythnos were used in this study. In Fig. 1 the load prole of the system for a typical day
of July is shown. The electrical load has a seasonal variation with June, July and August as
peak months and no load in the winter months. The typical daily load prole from the
same month shows a relatively high nighttime base load. The annual average of the
electrical load is 50 kWh day1 and the annual daily peak is 8.28 kW. Solar radiation data
from Kythnos, namely clearness index and daily radiation are given in Fig. 2. Hourly solar
radiation measurements for a period of 1 year (8760 points) were imported into HOMER
in order to calculate monthly average values of clearness index and daily radiation. As it
can be seen, the solar radiation is high, especially between May and August. For this
location, the average annual clearness index is 0.601 and the average daily radiation is
4.87 kWh m2. The same resources and load data were also used in optimisation process
and techno-economic analysis of the PV-hydrogen system.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Time (hr)
Fig. 1. Electrical load of Kythnos power system for a typical peak month day.
1.0
Daily Radiation
Clearness Index
0.8
0.6
4
0.4
2
0.2
Clearness Index
Solar Resource
8
0.0
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Fig. 2. Average daily solar radiation and clearness index of Kythnos for a 1-year period.
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relatively small generator (8 kW) is installed therefore a capital cost of 500 h kW1 was
used in the calculations. In stand-alone power systems a diesel fuel tank should also be
introduced to the system. The cost of a diesel tank with a capacity of 3 m3 was
approximately 3300 h. Therefore, the total capital cost of the diesel system was ca. 7300 h.
3.1.3. Batteries
Batteries are considered as a major cost factor in small-scale stand-alone power systems.
A battery bank of commercially available units with a capacity of 1000 Ah each was
installed. The total capacity of batteries installed was 420 kWh and the estimated lifetime
was 5 years. The total capital cost of the battery bank was 42,000 h [18].
3.1.4. Power converter
An ACDC power converter unit has been installed in the PV-diesel system of Kythnos.
Power conditioning capital cost is around 600800 h kW1 [14,18]. A cost of 670 h kW1 was
chosen for Kythnos case. A 10 kW converter was integrated to the system and its total capital
cost was 6700 h. A lifetime of 16 years was assumed and a converter efciency of 95%.
3.1.5. PV-diesel system simulation
The already existing system was then simulated in order to evaluate its operational
characteristics, namely annual electrical energy production, annual electrical loads served,
excess electricity, renewable energy fraction, capacity shortage, unmet load etc. Some
environmental impact parameters of the system (carbon emissions, annual diesel
consumption) were also calculated. A load-following control strategy was followed in
the simulation. Under this strategy, whenever a power generator is needed it produces only
enough power to meet the demand. Load following strategy tends to be optimal in systems
with a surplus of RE compared to the load, which is the case for the PV-diesel system. In
addition, the simultaneous operation of multiple generators in the system was allowed, as
well as the integration of generators with capacities less than peak load.
Moreover, a cost analysis of the power system and a sensitivity analysis of the effect of
diesel price on the cost of energy produced by the PV-diesel system were also conducted.
Three discrete values (0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 h L1) were used in the sensitivity analysis. At
present the average diesel price in Greece is 0.42 h L1 and for a very remote location,
especially on an island, this could increase up to 0.8 h L1 [19]. An annual interest rate of
6% and a project lifetime of 16 years were used in the economic calculations.
The results of the simulation showed that the PV-diesel system had a total annual
electrical energy production of 24,147 kWh, the renewable energy fraction of which was
0.65 (i.e. 15,591 kWh were produced by the PV array). All results related to the electricity
production and load served by the system are summarised in Table 1. As it can be derived
from Table 1, a large amount of electricity, approximately 20% (mainly produced by PV)
is dumped, therefore RE penetration is low during the peak months and the diesel
generator is operated frequently. The latter is attributed to the high nighttime load, which
enables the operation of diesel because PV energy stored in batteries is not adequate to
serve the load overnight. To increase RES penetration excess energy can be stored in the
form of compressed hydrogen and drive a PEM fuel cell as described under paragraph 3.2.
The monthly average production of electricity from Photovoltaics and the diesel genset
for the existing system is demonstrated in Fig. 4. The diesel generator serves the electrical
load mainly during the summer months and according to the simulation results, it operates
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Table 1
Electrical production and demand for the PV-diesel system
Annual electricity production
PV-array
Diesel generator
Renewable fraction
Total production
18,247 kWh
Other
Excess electricity
Capacity shortage
CO2 emissions
4717 kWh
76.4 kWh
8764 kg year1
PV
Diesel generator
Power (kW)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Jan
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1858 h year1 and has a fuel consumption of around 3300 L year1, which is in good
agreement with experience from the real system.
Fig. 5 shows the operational characteristics of the PV-diesel system (namely AC primary
load served, power produced by PV panels, and power produced by diesel generator) for a
typical day of month July. According to this gure, during daytime (from 9:00 to 17:00)
when solar radiation is highthe PV panels serve the best part of AC load and the diesel
generator operates at its minimum load ratio (30%) producing only 2.4 kW. Moreover, a
signicant amount of excess electricity is produced during the same period of the day. On
the contrary, during nighttime the diesel generator mainly serves the electrical demand.
The results of the economic analysis performed with HOMER were of great interest. As
can be seen in Table 2, where total annualised costs for each component of the PV-diesel
system are given, the battery bank is the main cost factor of such a hybrid power system,
followed by the diesel generator and PV panels. This is attributed to the fact that the
lifetime of batteries is only 5 years, and the system lifetime is 16 years. Therefore the
battery bank needs to be replaced several times during the project, resulting in a highannualised cost. O&M and diesel fuel costs are also signicant (3616 h year1) for this
system.
As shown in Fig. 6, where the results of sensitivity analysis on diesel fuel price
are presented, the cost of diesel affects the total cost of electrical energy produced by a
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9
8
AC load
Power (kW)
7
6
PV power
5
4
Diesel
generator
Excess
electricity
2
1
0
1
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
Time (hr)
Fig. 5. PV-diesel system characteristics for a typical day of month July.
Table 2
Distribution of annualised costs for the main components of the PV-diesel system
Component
PV array
Diesel
generator
Battery
Converter
Total
Annualised
replacement
(h year1)
Annual O&M
(h year1)
Annual fuel
(h year1)
5878
720
1080
903
0
528
0
2662
4798
4814
4156
663
11,417
5852
0
5675
420
6
954
0
0
2662
10,428
669
20,708
Annualised
capital
(h year1)
Total
annualised
(h year1)
stand-alone hybrid system, but the impact is not very signicant due to the fact that energy
components installed in this system have high capital costs, therefore O&M and fuel cost is
only a small percentage of the total cost of energy produced. The cost of energy for the
PV-diesel system is estimated at around 1.135 h kWh1, for a diesel price of 0.8 h L1.
The operational characteristics derived from simulations performed with HOMER as
well as the techno-economic analysis of the PV-diesel system were used as a basis for
comparison to the respective results of the hydrogen-based power system in order to
evaluate its feasibility and economic viability.
3.2. PV-hydrogen power system
Hydrogen production from photovoltaics received much attention in the late 1980s and
early to mid 1990s. Another general observation is that stand-alone operation or partly
stand-alone operation has become more of an issue over the last ten years and a signicant
number of PV-hydrogen demonstration projects have been realized [37].
Diesel generators and/or batteries can be replaced by integrating to the system an
electrolysis unit driven by excess electricity produced from RES. In our case, excess
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1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Diesel price ( / L)
Fig. 6. Cost of energy produced by the PV-diesel system as a function of diesel price.
electricity (almost 20%, as mentioned in 3.1.) produced by the PV array, mostly during
wintertime (when there is no demand of electricity), can be used to electrolytically produce
hydrogen gas, which can be stored in conventional tanks under pressure, at 30 bar. It must
be mentioned that advanced electrolysers are capable of delivering hydrogen at 30 bar
without using a hydrogen compressor, which improves system overall efciency. Stored
hydrogen can then be re-electried in PEM fuel cells, providing electricity to the system at
periods of high electrical demand.
The experience from the operation of PV-hydrogen stand-alone power systems showed
that the alkaline electrolyser technology is mature enough for solar and wind applications.
However, the need for more long-term testing of deterioration of hydrogen yield when
applying intermittent energy was emphasised. The most frequent reason for plant
shutdowns in similar RES and hydrogen installations was failure of electrolyser auxiliary
components; therefore the need for more R&D work on the eld of electrolysers power
electronics was stressed.
Another general concern was the complexity and parasitic energy losses of the hydrogen
energy systems due to the need for gas control. Hence, controllers, compressors, converters
and gas cleaning equipment increased the complexity compared to conventional standalone power systems and also reduced the overall energy efciency [1].
The dimensioning of the system components such as PV arrays, diesel generators,
batteries etc. in a hybrid power system is a more general issue of design [2]. Appropriate
software tools and optimisation processes are used in order to determine the most reliable
solution to the problem of system dimensioning.
3.2.1. PV-hydrogen system optimisation
One of the most difcult problems in the design of stand-alone power systems is the
optimisation of different energy components sizes, with regards to the cost of energy and
overall system performance. The HOMER simulation tool was used to optimise the sizes
of different hardware components in the PV-hydrogen system, taking into account the
technical characteristics of system operation and minimising total net present cost of the
system. The economic assumptions were an important input to the optimisation. These
were identied from a search through available literature and direct contacts with
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Table 3
Cost model assumptions used in the techno-economic optimisation
Component
description
PV
Electrolyser
H2 storage unit
FC
Battery
a
Capacity in
kW
Nm3 h1
Nm3
kW
kWh
O&M
% of capital cost
0
0
0
0
0
6750
8150
38
3000
100
0.0
2.0
0.5
2.5
1.0
hydrogen and renewable energy manufacturers performed during a previous study [1,2].
The cost models used in the optimisation and the sensitivity analysis of the hydrogen
stand-alone power system are given in Table 3.
Different sizes for the PV array, batteries, fuel cells, electrolyser, and hydrogen tank
were selected in order to dene optimum combination of equipment dimensions. PVhydrogen system components are described in more detail in the following sections.
3.2.1.1. Photovoltaics. In the optimisation process, PV capital, replacement and O&M
costs, as well as component lifetime described under 3.1.1 were used. Previous experience
on modelling of RES-hydrogen stand-alone power systems has shown that the replacement
of diesel generator results in a need for a larger RE source in order to produce adequate
quantities of hydrogen for the fuel cell [1,2]. After some preliminary runs with HOMER it
was decided that the most suitable PV sizes to be considered were 8.8, 15.9 and 19 kW.
3.2.1.2. Batteries. Batteries considered for the PV-hydrogen system were of the same
type with the ones used in the PV-diesel system. Sizes of batteries considered in the
optimisation were: 420, 210 (50% reduction compared to the conventional system) and
0 kWh (no batteries).
3.2.1.3. Fuel cells. The cost of fuel cells varies with type of technology, size, auxiliaries
installed etc. PEM type fuel cells cost range between 3000 and 6000 h kW1, but it is
expected that it will be reduced in the near future [1]. The European Commission (EC)
long-term (2020) cost target for fuel cells in stationary applications is 300 h kW1. The
capital cost of PEM fuel cells used in the optimisation were 3000 h kW1. Fuel cells lifetime
used in the calculations was 15,000 operating hours. Two different PEM fuel cells sizes
(8 and 10 kW) were considered in the calculations performed with HOMER.
3.2.1.4. Electrolyser. Even though alkaline electrolysis is considered a well-established
technology since the 1940s, the cost of electrolysers is still high, due to the lack of massproduction. For larger units, capable of producing 100120 normal (N) m3 h1 the cost per m3
of hydrogen produced reduces and approaches 7300 kh per Nm3 h1 of hydrogen, which is
still high [1,2]. The cost of electrolysis integrated to the proposed PV-hydrogen cost was
8150 h per Nm3 h1 H2. According to water electrolyser manufacturers, mass-production
of electrolysis units is expected to result in at least a 50% cost reduction in the long term
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[1]. The introduction of two different electrolyser sizes was investigated with HOMER:
3.2 Nm3 h1 H2 (16 kWe) and 4.2 Nm3 h1 H2 (21 kWe). The lifetime of these units was
considered as equal to 20 years.
3.2.1.5. Hydrogen tank. Hydrogen produced at 30 bar from the electrolyser will be stored
in conventional hydrogen storage tanks, the average cost of which is 38 h Nm3 of
hydrogen stored [1]. It is predicted a 40% cost reduction at 22.8 h Nm3 of hydrogen
stored. Three hydrogen storage tanks options were investigated in the optimisation
process, namely 3000 Nm3 (264 kg), 3400 Nm3 (300 kg) and 5110 Nm3 (450 kg) and the
lifetime was also considered 20 years.
3.2.1.6. PV-hydrogen system optimisation results. According to the results of the
optimisation process for the hydrogen stand-alone power system, which is schematically
shown in Fig. 7, the optimal system comprises a 15.9 kW PV panel, an 8 kW PEM-type fuel
cell, an electrolysis unit of 16 kW, capable of producing ca. 3.2 Nm3 h1 of hydrogen and a
hydrogen storage tank with a capacity of 5110 Nm3 (320 kg) of compressed H2 at 30 bar.
The battery bank is removed. Load following control strategy is optimal in this case, too.
Therefore, the PV array needs to be over dimensioned in relation to the one used in the
PV-diesel system (from 8.8 to 15.9 kW), in order to be able to fully replace the diesel
generator. In addition the battery bank was removed, according to HOMER optimisation
results. Nevertheless in real systems a small battery is always needed in order to take over
the load and serve auxiliaries during fuel cells start-up. According to the optimisation
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results a DC conguration was economically favourable, and the PV-hydrogen system had
a total annual electrical energy production of 39,347 kWh, 72% of which was produced by
the PV array. HOMER results related to the electricity production and load served by the
optimal hydrogen-based system are given in Table 4.
As it is concluded from Table 4, the optimal hydrogen based system is operating 100%
on renewable energy; diesel fuel and carbon emissions are eliminated (0 kg year1).
Dumped electricity is signicantly reduced (from 20% to 13%) compared to the original
PV-diesel system. The analysis of the proposed PV-hydrogen system showed that the fuel
cell operated 2449 h year1 and consumed approximately 670 kg H2 year1. Its estimated
lifetime was 6.12 years and its average electrical output was 4.56 kW. In Table 5, a
comparison of the component sizes between the already existing PV-diesel and the
proposed hydrogen-based system is presented.
Figs. 8(a) and (b) present the operational characteristics of the PV-hydrogen system (as
calculated with HOMER) namely: electrical demand, power produced from PV, power
produced from fuel cells, electrical power consumption of the electrolysis unit, and excess
electricity for a typical day of month July (when houses served by the system are
inhabited).
Fig. 8(a) shows that the primary electrical load in the daytime is served almost
completely by PV panels, and the fuel cell driven by stored hydrogen gas takes over the
Table 4
Electrical production and demand for the PV-hydrogen System
Annual electricity production
PV-array
Fuel cell
Renewable fraction
Total production
18,248 kWh
16,009 kWh
34,258 kWhO&M
Other
Excess electricity
Capacity shortage
Carbon emissions
Table 5
Component sizes of the PV-diesel and the PV-hydrogen system
Component
PV-diesel system
PV-hydrogen system
Photovoltaics
Electrolyzer
H2 storage tank
Diesel generator
Fuel cells
Batteries
8.8 kW
15.9 kW
3.2 Nm3 h1 H2
450 kg
8 kW
8 kW
280 kWh
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14
12
Power (kW)
10
DC load
8
PV
Fuel Cell
6
4
2
0
1
(a)
11 13 15
Time (hr)
17
19
21
23
14
12
Power (kW)
10
8
PV
Electrolyser
consumption
Excess
electricity
2
0
1
(b)
11
16
Time (hr)
21
Fig. 8. (a) Electrical demand and power produced by PV and fuel cells in the hydrogen-based system for a typical
day of month July. (b) Electrolysis unit consumption, power produced by PV and excess electricity in the
hydrogen-based system for a typical day of month July.
electrical load either during nighttime, or in case of cloudiness when there is not adequate
PV power production. The noiseless operation of fuel cells during the night is another
signicant advantage of the proposed system. As described before, excess electricity
produced by PV panels during daytime drives the electrolysis unit and is stored in the form
of hydrogen gas, which supplies PEM fuel cells upon demand. As one can see in Fig. 8(b),
excess electricity produced during summer time is minimised, thus hydrogen is mainly
produced during winter when the settlements are not inhabited and there is not electrical
demand.
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Current (20032005)
Lifetime (years)
O&M (% of
inv. costs)
Cost
Electrolyser
Fuel cell
H2 storage
Alkaline
PEM-type
Compressed gas
20
10
20
2.0
2.5
0.5
Electrolyser
Fuel cell
H2storage
Alkaline
PEM-type
Compressed gas
Long-term (2020)
20
20
20
1.0
1.0
0.5
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Table 7
Distribution of annualised costs for the main components of the PV-hydrogen system, at current costs of
hydrogen technologies
Component
Annualised
capital
(h year1)
Annualised
replacement
(h year1)
Annual O&M
(h year1)
Annual fuel
(h year1)
Total annualised
(h year1)
PV array
Fuel cell
Electrolyser
Hydrogen tank
Total
9357
2092
1123
16,193
28,766
973
2727
0
0
1755
0
7
258
639
903
0
0
0
0
0
8385
4827
1381
16,832
31,424
1.60
1.55
1.50
1.45
1.40
1.35
1.30
0.9
1.25
1.20
1.15
0.8
1.10
0.7
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
lower than the current cost of energy produced by the PV-diesel system (which is
1.135 h kWh1) and the proposed hydrogen based system becomes economically
favourable. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the capital costs of hydrogen storage
devices and PEM fuel cells signicantly affect the nal cost of energy produced by a
hydrogen stand-alone power system. The cost of energy produced by the PV-hydrogen
system as a function of hydrogen storage tank costs and PEM fuel cells costs (for a xed
cost of electrolyser at 50% of its current cost) is given in Fig. 9.
The results of the sensitivity analysis showed that the PV-hydrogen power system will be
economically viable in the long-term (2020), when the above mentioned reductions in cost
of hydrogen technologies (hydrogen storage tanks, electrolysers and PEM fuel cells) will
take place. In the analysis it was assumed that the diesel fuel price and the PV capital costs
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will remain constant. Moreover external costs were not introduced. Taking into account a
further increase on the fossil fuels price, a reduction on the PV capital costs and
introducing external costs (emission taxes etc.) as well, we can safely conclude that such a
RES-hydrogen stand-alone power system will become economically viable even earlier
than 2020.
4. Conclusions
The replacement of conventional technologies, namely diesel generators and/or batteries
by hydrogen technologies including fuel cells in RE based stand-alone power systems is
technologically feasible, reduces emissions, noise and fossil fuel dependence and increases
RE penetration. Dumped excess energy is also reduced in such power systems. The
optimisation results of the envisaged hydrogen based system showed that the replacement
of diesel generator sets and battery bank in such a system can be accomplished by over
dimensioning the RE technology (PV array in the presented case). On the other hand, the
techno-economic analysis of the hydrogen-based system revealed that this system will be
economically favourable compared to the PV-diesel system as long as a 50% reduction on
the cost of electrolysers, a 40% reduction on the cost of hydrogen tanks are made and the
EC target of 300 h kW1 for fuel cells in stationary applications is achieved. This is in
agreement to the predictions of the European roadmap for Hydrogen (prepared by the
high level group (HLG) for hydrogen and fuel cells) that one of the rst commercial
applications of stationary fuel cells will be niche markets, in which non interconnected
remote applications are included [20].
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