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VORWORT ······························································································1
1 ZUR ALLGEMEINEN THEORIE DER GESELLSCHAFT ································· 14
1.1 DIE LOGIK DER VERGESELLSCHAFTUNG ···················································· 14
1.1.1 Vorbemerkung··········································································· 14
1.1.2 Syntax und Semantik des Sozialen ··················································· 17
1.1.3 Der Fehler der erkenntnistheoretischen Robinsonaden ···························· 20
1.1.4 Verdoppelte Vielheiten: Handlungen und Bedürfnisse ···························· 23
1.1.5 Der Ort (das Worin) der Gesellschaft ················································ 25
1.1.6 Die Theorie der Relation und die Metaphysik der Kategorien ···················· 29
1.1.7 Logik, Mathematik und Naturwissenschaft als sozialer Prozess·················· 36
1.1.8 Die Priorität der Relation vor den Relaten ··········································· 40
1.1.9 Zirkuläre Beziehungen und menschliche Freiheit ·································· 44
1.2 DIE CARTESIANISCHE DENKFORM UND IHR MANGEL ······································ 50
1.2.1 Descartes´ Denkmodell································································· 50
1.2.2 Die ptolemäische Spur im cartesianischen Denken································· 56
1.2.3 Der ethische Mangel der cartesianischen Denkform ······························· 60
1.2.4 Zwei- oder dreiwertige Logik? Günthers Kritik an Descartes····················· 73
1.3 ZUR KRITIK SOZIALWISSENSCHAFTLICHER METHODEN ··································· 79
1.3.1 Vorbemerkung··········································································· 79
1.3.2 John Stuart Mill ········································································· 81
1.3.3 Menger, Pareto, Eucken und Ammon ················································ 85
1.3.4 Methode heißt, Fehler machen: Milton Friedman ·································· 92
1.3.5 Die Zerlegung der „ethischen Welt“ in Subsysteme································ 96
1.3.6 Menschen ohne „Hier“: Alfred Schütz ··············································101
1.3.7 Keynes, Hayek und die zirkuläre Logik der Modelle ·····························106
1.3.8 Kritische Theorie und die Totalität des Verblendungszusammenhangs ········118
1.3.9 Habermas´ Theorie des kommunikativen Handels ································123
1.3.10 Bemerkungen zur Dialektik ·························································131
1.3.11 Die Logik der Ganzheit: Adam Müller und Othmar Spann ·····················147
1.3.12 Die Moral der Wertfreiheit ··························································161
2 BEDEUTUNG ALS SOZIALER PROZESS ··················································171
2.1 IDENTITÄTSBILDUNG UND VERGESELLSCHAFTUNG ·······································171
2.1.1 Die Bedeutung der Bedeutung························································171
2.1.2 Sprache und Geld ······································································174
2.1.3 Der Mangel triadischer Strukturen···················································185
2.1.4 Das Modell der sozialen Grundstruktur ·············································193
2.1.5 Der „Satz der Identität“ und die soziale Grundstruktur ···························196
2.1.6 Handeln und Bedeutung·······························································200
2.1.7 Arbeitsteilung und die Identität des Wissens ·······································204
2.1.8 Abstraktion, Identität und Herrschaft················································211
2.2 ASPEKTE DER SOZIALEN GRUNDSTRUKTUR ················································216
2.2.1 Formale Eigenschaften der sozialen Grundstruktur ·······························216
2.2.2 Befehl, Rolle, Handlungsprogramm ·················································221
2.2.3 Verhaltensbeobachtung································································226
2.2.4 Transsituative Bedeutung, Zeichen und abstrakte Geltung ·······················234
2.2.5 Identität und Differenz von Kategoriensystemen: Saussure und Simmel·······239
2.3 ZUR THEORIE DES SPIELS ····································································248
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2.3.1 Der Begriff des Spiels und der Spiel-Raum ········································248

2.3.2 Spielstruktur und die Dynamik des Spielens ·······································253
2.3.3 Spiele ohne Regeln·····································································255
2.3.4 Das Spiel mit der Natur ·······························································258
2.4 VERGESELLSCHAFTUNG DURCH DAS SPRECHEN ···········································263
2.4.1 Handeln und gemeinsames Wissen ··················································263
2.4.2 Situationsdefinition ····································································265
2.4.3 Gesprächsabbruch······································································266
2.4.4 Das Schweigen und die Offenheit ···················································267
2.4.5 Das Meinen ·············································································269
2.4.6 Der Geltungsanspruch und die Bestreitbarkeit ·····································272
2.4.7 Die Interpretation illokutionärer Akte ···············································274
2.4.8 Saussures Interpretation des Dialogs ················································277
2.4.9 Platonischer Dialog und aristotelischer Widerspruch ·····························281
2.4.10 Ego-Prozess und innerer Dialog ····················································284
2.4.11 Kommunikation und die „soziale Konstruktion der Welt“······················290
3 TAUSCH UND GELD ············································································296
3.1 DER EINFACHE TAUSCH ······································································296
3.1.1 Voraussetzungen und Grundbegriffe ················································296
3.1.2 Das Grundmodell der Tauschstruktur ···············································303
3.1.3 Güter, Produkte und Informationen··················································306
3.1.4 Gewaltfreiheit des Tauschs ···························································310
3.1.5 Eigentumsrecht, Macht und Gewalt ·················································314
3.1.6 Tausch als Eigentums- oder Besitzwechsel·········································322
3.1.7 Die leere Präferenz·····································································325
3.1.8 Die Tauschrelation und die Illusion des Tausch„werts“ ··························327
3.2 DIE ZIRKULÄRE STRUKTUR DES GELDES ···················································334
3.2.1 Zur Kategorialanalyse des Geldes ···················································334
3.2.2 Populationen von Tauschstrukturen ·················································343
3.2.3 Das Geld im Kaufakt ··································································345
3.2.4 Geldvermögen und Geld„wert“ ······················································355
3.2.5 Anmerkungen zu den „Funktionen“ des Geldes ···································361
3.2.5.1 Zum Begriff der „Funktion“ ····················································361
3.2.5.2 Geld als „Tauschmittel“ ·························································362
3.2.5.3 Geld als „Medium“ ······························································363
3.2.5.4 Geld als „technisches Hilfsmittel“ ·············································367
3.2.5.5 Geld als „Zahlungsmittel“ ······················································368
3.2.5.6 Geld als „Recheneinheit“ ·······················································368
3.2.5.7 Geld als „Zeichen“ ·······························································369
3.2.5.8 Geld als „Maß der Werte“ ······················································372
3.2.5.9 Geld als Schranke ································································374
3.2.5.10 Geld als „Wertaufbewahrungsmittel“········································376
3.2.6 Exkurs: Zur Lehre vom Wert ·························································378
3.2.7 Das Gelten des Geldes·································································385
3.2.8 Das „Geldmaterial“ und die Zahlungsversprechen ································390
3.2.8.1 Zur Geltung von Geldmaterialien ··············································390
3.2.8.2 Zahlungsversprechen, „Geldmenge“ und Preise ·····························394
4 ZUR KRITIK UND GESCHICHTE DER TAUSCH- UND GELDTHEORIEN ·········398
4.1 ÜBERBLICK ····················································································398
4.2 PLATON, ARISTOTELES UND DIE SCHOLASTIK ·············································402
4.2.1 Zur Hermeneutik tradierter Texte ····················································402
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4.2.2 Platon ····················································································408

4.2.3 Aristoteles ···············································································412
4.2.3.1 Staat, Haushalt und Sklaverei ··················································412
4.2.3.2 Tausch und Geld ·································································419
4.2.3.3 Der Zins und der Missbrauch des Geldes ·····································427
4.2.3.4 Offene Fragen der antiken Theorie ············································436
4.2.4 Die scholastische Tausch- und Geldtheorie·········································441
4.2.4.1 Vorbemerkungen ·································································441
4.2.4.2 Avicenna und Averroes ·························································442
4.2.4.3 Wert und Preis in der scholastischen Lehre···································446
4.2.4.4 Die scholastische Geldlehre und das Münzrecht·····························452
4.2.4.5 Nicolas von Oresme ·····························································455
4.3 DIE WERT- UND GELDLEHRE DER KLASSIKER ·············································460
4.3.1 Vorläufer ················································································460
4.3.1.1 Die Grundfragen ·································································460
4.3.1.2 Nikolaus Kopernikus ····························································463
4.3.1.3 William Petty, John Locke und John Law ····································466
4.3.1.4 Die Fragestellungen am Übergang zur klassischen Ökonomik ············475
4.3.2 Adam Smith·············································································482
4.3.2.1 Smith´ cartesianischer Blick ····················································482
4.3.2.2 Arbeitsteilung und natürliche Tauschneigung································490
4.3.2.3 Egoismus und Sympathie als Menschennatur ································494
4.3.2.4 Die Bewegungen der Wirtschaftsmaschine···································496
4.3.2.5 Tausch, Wert und Preis··························································498
4.3.3 David Ricardo ··········································································502
4.3.3.1 Der Modelltheoretiker: Ricardos Methode ···································502
4.3.3.2 Wert und Geldwert·······························································503
4.3.3.3 Gold und Papiergeld ·····························································506
4.3.3.4 Arbeit – der Widerspruch im absoluten Wertmaß ···························508
4.3.3.5 Der konkurrierende Wertbegriff ···············································513
4.4 KARL MARX UND DER MARXISMUS ························································517
4.4.1 Vorbemerkung··········································································517
4.4.2 Gesetz, Wesen und Oberfläche·······················································518
4.4.3 Wert als Reflexion der Tauschsubjekte ·············································521
4.4.4 Gebrauchswert und Wertform: Die durchgestrichenen Subjekte ················523
4.4.5 Die Wiederkehr der Subjekte ·························································528
4.4.6 Tauschwerte und die „unmögliche Gleichung“ ····································532
4.4.7 Marx´ Substanzmetaphysik und die falsche Kritik an Aristoteles ···············536
4.4.8 Der Arbeitswert und der Begriff der Arbeit ········································543
4.4.9 Der Fehler in der Geldableitung······················································551
4.4.10 Der Zirkel im Marxschen Gesellschaftsbegriff ···································558
4.4.11 Der „Fetischcharakter der Waren“ ·················································564
4.4.12 Robinson Crusoe und der Kommunismus ·········································570
4.4.13 Gesellschaftliche Synthesis: Die Theorie Alfred Sohn-Rethels ················586
4.5 DIE HISTORISCH-ETHISCHE SCHULE·························································602
4.5.1 Einleitung ···············································································602
4.5.2 Adolph Wagner·········································································602
4.5.3 Wilhelm Roscher·······································································606
4.5.4 Carl Knies ···············································································609
4.5.5 Albert Schäffle ·········································································613
4.5.5.1 Ethik als Evolutionstheorie ·····················································613
4.5.5.2 Die „Bedeutung“ der Güter ·····················································616
4.5.5.3 Schäffles schwankende Wertlehre ·············································617
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4.5.6 Gustav Schmoller ······································································621

4.5.7 Exkurs: Die Genese der Lehre vom wirtschaftlichen Gut ························626
4.5.7.1 Zum Güterbegriff ································································626
4.5.7.2 Der doppelte Wertbegriff der Klassiker ·······································628
4.5.7.3 Julius von Soden ·································································630
4.5.7.4 Karl-Heinrich Rau ·······························································631
4.5.7.5 Friedrich B. W. Hermann und Wilhelm Roscher ····························633
4.5.7.6 Hans von Mangoldt ······························································635
4.5.7.7 Der moralische Unterton in der Güterlehre (Böhm-Bawerk)···············636
4.6 DIE SCHULE DER SUBJEKTIVEN WERTLEHRE ··············································640
4.6.1 Vorbemerkung··········································································640
4.6.2 Hermann Heinrich Gossen ····························································641
4.6.2.1 Der „Vorläufer“ ··································································641
4.6.2.2 Der Theologe des Marktes ······················································642
4.6.2.3 Summierter Lebensgenuss ······················································644
4.6.2.4 Gesetze des Genießens ··························································645
4.6.2.5 Die heimliche Horizont: Geld ··················································647
4.6.2.6 Bearbeitung der Außenwelt·····················································649
4.6.2.7 Die Ableitung des Geldes ·······················································652
4.6.2.8 Die Wiederkehr der Wirklichkeit ··············································654
4.6.3 Carl Menger·············································································657
4.6.3.1 Vorbemerkung····································································657
4.6.3.2 Mengers subjektive Wertlehre··················································658
4.6.3.3 Die Analyse der Tauschstruktur bei Menger ·································660
4.6.3.4 Die Geldrechnung als ungedachter Horizont ·································664
4.6.3.5 Mengers Geldtheorie und ihr Fehler···········································665
4.6.3.6 Mengers Fehler in der Nachfolge ··············································669
4.6.3.7 Die verschwundene Freiheit ····················································670
4.6.4 Joseph A. Schumpeter ·································································673
4.6.4.1 Die bewunderte Mathematik····················································673
4.6.4.2 Alles Handeln ist ein Tauschen ················································675
4.6.4.3 Erfundene Wertfunktionen······················································679
4.6.4.4 Die Ableitung des Geldes ·······················································681
4.6.5 Ludwig von Mises ·····································································684
4.6.5.1 Zur Ethik eines Fundamentalisten des Marktes ······························684
4.6.5.2 „Katallaktik“ als apriorische Vernunft ········································688
4.6.5.3 Das metaphysische Ego des Wirtschaftens ···································693
4.6.5.4 Der Tausch als Vergesellschaftungsprinzip ··································697
4.6.5.5 Die aus dem Markt entwachsene Ratio········································702
4.6.5.6 Der Tauschwert des Geldes bei Wieser ·······································706
4.6.5.7 Das „Regressions-Theorem“ ···················································709
4.7 ZUR MATHEMATISCHEN ÖKONOMIK ························································716
4.7.1 Mathematik und Ökonomie···························································716
4.7.1.1 Mathematik und ihre Anwendung ·············································719
4.7.1.2 Zur Metrisierung subjektiver Urteile ··········································720
4.7.1.3 Maße ···············································································722
4.7.1.4 Der verführerische Schein quantitativer Phänomene ························725
4.7.1.5 Die schrittweise Mathematisierung der Ökonomik ··························727
4.7.2 Vorläufer in der Psychologie ·························································730
4.7.2.1 Vorbemerkung····································································730
4.7.2.2 Herbarts Mathematik des Psyche ··············································731
4.7.2.3 Behaviorismus ····································································733
4.7.3 Jevons, Walras und Edgeworth·······················································735
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4.7.3.1 Vorbemerkung····································································735
4.7.3.2 Die Lehre vom Grenznutzen····················································736
4.7.3.3 Die Objektivierung subjektiver Urteile········································738
4.7.3.4 Das Maß des Nutzens····························································739
4.7.3.5 Die Mechanik des Austauschs bei Jevons und Walras ······················742
4.7.3.6 Das Geld als heimlicher Horizont des numéraire ····························744
4.7.3.7 Der indeterminierte Tausch bei Edgeworth···································746
4.7.3.8 Der Einbruch des Außerökonomischen ·······································749
4.7.3.9 Spieltheorie des Tauschens ·····················································751
4.7.4 Die Theorie des Haushalts und der Grenznutzen des Geldes·····················754
4.7.4.1 Das Grundmodell der Haushaltstheorie ·······································754
4.7.4.2 Der Grenznutzen des Geldes····················································756
4.7.4.3 Die Verwechslung von Gütern und Produkten ·······························759
4.7.4.4 Zirkuläre Erklärung und Immunisierung······································761
4.7.5 Fiktionen im Güterraum·······························································765
4.7.5.1 Vorbemerkung····································································765
4.7.5.2 Die Fiktionen in der Edgeworth-Box··········································767
4.7.5.3 Leben und Sterben im Güterraum··············································771
4.7.5.4 Eigentumsrechte und Produktion im Güterraum ·····························775
4.7.5.5 Die Wiederkehr des Kategorienfehlers bei den Neoricardianern ··········782
4.7.6 Das unmögliche Geld in der Gleichgewichtstheorie ······························786
4.7.7 Effizienzmärkte, Eigentumsrechte und Transaktionskosten······················796
4.8 WERTKRITIKER ················································································806
4.8.1 Vorbemerkung··········································································806
4.8.2 Robert Liefmann ·······································································807
4.8.2.1 Vorbemerkungen ·································································807
4.8.2.2 Die Kritik des Wertbegriffs ·····················································808
4.8.2.3 Die Rolle des Geldes ····························································810
4.8.2.4 Die Sorge um den Geldbesitz und die Marktzutrittsschranke ··············811
4.8.2.5 Das Geld als seelische Struktur ················································814
4.8.2.6 Wirtschaften heißt Rechnen ····················································817
4.8.3 Gustav Cassel···········································································819
4.8.3.1 Die positivistische Wertkritik ··················································819
4.8.3.2 Cassels gescheiterte Ableitung des Geldes ···································821
4.8.3.3 Subjektive und objektive Preiserklärung: Cassel versus Böhm-Bawerk··825
4.8.4 Friedrich v. Gottl-Ottlilienfeld ·······················································831
4.8.4.1 Der Umstrittene ··································································831
4.8.4.2 Kritik der Standpunktwissenschaft ············································832
4.8.4.3 Der Wert als ungedachte Kategorie, als „Wort“ ·····························835
4.8.4.4 Die wirtschaftliche Dimension ·················································837
4.8.4.5 Kritik der Mengerschen Geldtheorie ··········································839
4.8.4.6 Grundlagenforschung····························································842
4.8.4.7 Gottls Denkfehler und die Rückkehr zur Weltanschauung ·················845
5 GELDSUBJEKT UND GELDGIER ····························································848
5.1 DIE ORDNUNG DER BEDÜRFNISSE···························································851
5.1.1 Bedürfnis als Mangel ··································································851
5.1.2 Die vereinzelte Handlung ·····························································854
5.1.3 Technik und Natur ·····································································857
5.1.4 Die Produktion der Bedürfnisse ······················································861
5.1.5 Die Moral als soziale Ordnung der Leidenschaften ·······························867
5.2 DAS GELD ALS DENKFORM ··································································871
5.2.1 Die Vergesellschaftung durch das Geld ·············································871
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5.2.2 Die Verschuldung aller Dinge: Das Geld der Philosophie························873

5.2.3 Zur Psychologie des Geldsubjekts ···················································882
5.2.4 Leidenschaften und „Interesse“ ······················································887
5.3 DIE HERRSCHAFT DER GELDGIER ···························································893
5.3.1 Begriff und Psycho-Logik der Geldgier·············································893
5.3.2 Kaufmannsseele, Kapital und Gewinn ··············································902
5.3.3 Kontrolle der Produktion: Buchführung und Naturwissenschaft ················910
5.3.4 Mathematik als Selbstreflexion des Geldsubjekts ·································918
5.3.5 Kredit und Zins ·········································································926
5.3.6 Wucherverbot: Der Kampf der Moral mit der Geldgier ··························934
5.4 THEORIEN ÜBER DAS GELDSUBJEKT ························································947
5.4.1 Vorbemerkung··········································································947
5.4.2 Homo Oeconomicus ···································································948
5.4.3 Der „Geist des Kapitalismus“: Marx, Weber und Sombart·······················953
5.4.4 Soziologie des Geldes: Georg Simmel ··············································974
6 THEORIE UND KRITIK DES ZINSES························································984
6.1 ZUR LÖSUNG DES ZINSRÄTSELS ·····························································984
6.1.1 Vorbemerkung··········································································984
6.1.2 Die vier Modalitäten der Kontrolle durch das Geld ·······························987
6.1.3 Zins: Die Macht der Geldgier ························································999
6.1.4 Gewinn und Konkurrenz ···························································· 1002
6.1.5 Die Profitabilität der medial erlogenen Wirklichkeit···························· 1006
6.2 KRITIK DER ZINSTHEORIEN I: SYSTEMATISCHE FRAGEN ······························· 1012
6.2.1 Der Zins in der sozialen Grundstruktur ··········································· 1012
6.2.2 Der mechanische Schein der Verzinsung ········································· 1016
6.2.3 Zins und Zeit: Robinsonaden in der Zinstheorie ································· 1020
6.2.4 Inflation und „Real“-Zins ··························································· 1026
6.2.5 Heterogene Zinssätze und die Quelle des Zinses ································ 1033
6.2.6 Sinkende Zinssätze und die Wiederkehr der Moral······························ 1044
6.3 KRITIK DER ZINSTHEORIEN II: ZUR GESCHICHTE DER ZINSTHEORIEN ················ 1054
6.3.1 Vorbemerkung········································································ 1054
6.3.2 Benthams Verteidigung des Wuchers ············································· 1055
6.3.3 Exploitationstheorie (I): Arbeit und Eigentum ··································· 1064
6.3.4 Exploitationstheorie (II): „Extramehrwert“ und Innovation···················· 1072
6.3.5 Kreislauftheorien des Zinses························································ 1078
6.3.6 Monetäre Zinstheorie: Keynes und Schumpeter ································· 1086
6.3.7 Silvio Gesell – die Zinskritik des Kaufmanns ···································· 1102
7 KRITIK DER ZUKUNFT ······································································ 1115
LITERATUR ······················································································· 1139
DETAILVERZEICHNIS·········································································· 1188