Sand is a sand produced from crushing of granite stones in required grading to

be used for construction purposes as a replacement for river sand. Read More
aboutManufactured Sand.

The properties of Manufactured sand used for construction

are:
Higher Strength of concrete:
The manufactured sand has required gradation of fines, physical properties
such as shape, smooth surface textures and consistency which makes it the
best sand suitable for construction. These physical properties of sand
provides greater strength to the concrete by reducing segregation, bleeding,
honeycombing, voids and capillary. Thus required grade of sand for the given
purpose helps the concrete fill voids between coarse aggregates and makes
concrete more compact and dense, thus increasing the strength of concrete.

Durability of concrete:
Since manufactured sand (M-Sand) is processed from selected quality of
granite, it has the balanced physical and chemical properties for construction
of concrete structures. This property of M-Sand helps the concrete structures

withstand extreme environmental conditions and prevents the corrosion of

reinforcement steel by reducing permeability, moisture ingress, freeze-thaw
effect increasing the durability of concrete structures.
Workability of concrete:
Size, shape, texture play an important role in workability of concrete. With
more surface area of sand, the demand for cement and water increases to
bond the sand with coarse aggregates. The control over these physical
properties of manufacturing sand make the concrete require less amount of
water and provide higher workable concrete. The less use of water also helps
in increasing the strength of concrete, less effort for mixing and placement of
concrete, and thus increases productivity of construction activities at site.
Less Construction Defects:
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Construction
defects during placement and post-concreting such as segregation, bleeding,
honeycombing, voids and capillarity in concrete gets reduced by the use of
M-Sand as it has optimum initial and final setting time as well as excellent
fineness.
Economy:
As discussed above, since usage of M-Sand has increased durability, higher
strength, reduction in segregation, permeability, increased workability,
decreased post-concrete defects, it proves to be economical as a construction
material replacing river sand. It can also save transportation cost of river
sand in many cases.

Eco-Friendly:
Usage of manufactured sand prevents dredging of river beds to get river
sand which may lead to environmental disaster like ground water depletion,
water scarcity, threat to the safety ofbridges, dams etc. to make M-Sands
more eco-friendly than river sand.

HOW COARSE AGGREGATES AFFECT

MIX DESIGN?
Coarse Aggregate Properties affecting Mix Design Strength

Maximum size of coarse aggregate:

Maximum size of aggregate affects the workability and strength of concrete.
It also influences the water demand for getting a certain workability and fine
aggregate content required for achieving a cohesive mix.
For a given weight, higher the maximum size of aggregate, lower is the
surface area of coarse aggregates and vice versa. As maximum size of coarse
aggregate reduces, surface area of coarse aggregate increases. Higher the
surface area, greater is the water demand to coat the particles and
generate workability. Smaller maximum size of coarse aggregate will
require greater fine aggregate content to coat particles and maintain
cohesiveness of concrete mix. Hence 40 mm down coarse aggregate will
require much less water than 20 mm down aggregate. In other words for
the same workability, 40mm down aggregate will have lower
water/cement ratio, thus higher strength when compared to 20mm
down aggregate. Because of its lower water demand, advantage of
higher maximum size of coarse aggregate can be taken to lower the
cement consumption.
Maximum size of aggregate is often restricted
by clear cover and minimum distance between
the reinforcement bars. Maximum size of
coarse aggregate should be 5 mm less
than clear cover or minimum distance
between the reinforcement bars, so that the aggregates can pass

through the reinforcement in congested areas, to produce dense and

homogenous concrete.
It is advantageous to use greater maximum size of coarse aggregate for
concrete grades up to M 35 where mortar failure is predominant. Lower
water/cement ratio will mean higher strength of mortar (which is the weakest
link) and will result in higher strength of concrete. However, for concrete
grades above M40, bond failure becomes predominant. Higher maximum size
of aggregate, which will have lower area of contact with cement mortar
paste, will fail earlier because of bond failure. Hence for higher grades of
concrete (M40 and higher) it is advantageous to use lower maximum size of
aggregate to prevent bond failure.

Grading of coarse aggregate:

The coarse aggregate grading limits are given in IS 383 1970 table 2,
Clause 4.1 and 4.2 for single size aggregate as well as graded aggregate.
The grading of coarse aggregate is important to get cohesive & dense
concrete. The voids left by larger coarse aggregate particles are filled
by smaller coarse aggregate particles and so on. This way, the volume of
mortar (cement-sand-water paste) required to fill the final voids is minimum.
However, in some cases gap graded aggregate can be used where some
intermediate size is not used. Use of gap-graded aggregate may not have
adverse effect on strength. By proper grading of coarse aggregate, the
possibility of segregation is minimised, especially for higher workability.
Proper grading of coarse aggregates also improves thecompactability of
concrete.

Shape of coarse aggregate:

CoAse aggregates can have round, angular, or irregular shape. Rounded
aggregates because of lower surface area will have lowest water demand and
also have lowest mortar paste requirement. Hence they will result in most
economical mixes for concrete grades up to M35. However, for concrete
grades of M40 and above (as in case of max size of aggregate) the possibility
of bond failure will tilt the balance in favour of angular aggregate with more
surface area. Flaky and elongated coarse aggregate particles not only
increase the water demand but also increase the tendency of segregation.
Flakiness and elongation also reduce the flexural strength of concrete.

Specifications by Ministry of Surface Transport restrict the combined

flakiness and elongation to 30% by weight of coarse aggregates.

Strength of coarse aggregate:

Material strength of coarse aggregate is indicated by crushing strength of
rock, aggregate crushing value, aggregate impact value, aggregate abrasion
value. In Maharashtra the coarse aggregates are made of basalt rock, which
has strengths in excess of 100 N/mm2. Hence aggregates rarely fail in
strength. The IS limits for above tests are given below:
Aggregate Crushing value
Aggregate Impact value
Aggregate abrasion value

Aggregate Absorption:
Aggregate can absorb water up to 2 % by weight when in bone dry state,
however, in some cases the aggregate absorption can be as high as 5%.
Aggregate absorption is used for applying a correction factor for aggregates
in dry condition and determining water demand of concrete in saturated
surface dry condition.

MANUFACTURED SAND (M-SAND) IN

CONSTRUCTION
Manufactured sand is a substitute of river for construction purposes sand
produced from hard granite stone by crushing. The crushed sand is of cubical
shape with grounded edges, washed and graded to as a construction
material. The size of manufactured sand (M-Sand) is less than 4.75mm.

Why Manufactured Sand is Used?

Manufactured sand is an alternative for river sand. Due to fast growing
construction industry, the demand for sand has increased tremendously,
causing deficiency of suitable river sand in most part of the word. Due to the
depletion of good quality river sand for the use of construction, the use of
manufactured sand has been increased. Another reason for use of M-Sand is
its availability and transportationcost. Since this sand can be crushed from
hard granite rocks, it can be readily available at the nearby place, reducing
the cost of transportation from far-off river sand bed.
Thus, the cost of construction can be controlled by the use of manufactured
sand as an alternative material for construction. The other advantage of
using M-Sand is, it can be dust free, the sizes of m-sand can be controlled
easily so that it meets the required grading for the given construction.

Advantages of Manufactured Sand (M-Sand) are:

It is well graded in the required proportion.

It does not contain organic and soluble compound that affects the
setting time and properties of cement, thus the required strength
of concrete can be maintained.

It does not have the presence of impurities such as clay, dust and silt
coatings, increase water requirement as in the case of river sand which
impair bond between cement paste and aggregate. Thus, increased
quality and durability of concrete.

M-Sand is obtained from specific hard rock (granite) using the state-ofthe-art International technology, thus the required property of sand is
obtained.

M-Sand is cubical in shape and is manufactured using technology like

High Carbon steel hit rock and then ROCK ON ROCK process which is
synonymous to that of natural process undergoing in river sand
information.

Modern and imported machines are used to produce M-Sand to ensure

required grading zone for the sand.

HOW FINE AGGREGATES AFFECTS

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN?
Fine aggregates affecting concrete mix design strength
Gradation of fine aggregates

The gradation of sand is given by sieve analysis. The sieve analysis is

done by passing sand through a set of standard sieves and finding out
cumulative passing percentage through each sieve. The IS 383 1970
-Table 4, (clause 4) classifies fine aggregates in 4 zones starting from
zone I representing coarse sand, to zone IV representing the finest
sand. The limits of cumulative percentage passing for each sieve for
above zones are given in table 4 of IS 383 The fineness of sand found
by sieve analysis governs the proportion of sand in concrete. The
overall fineness of sand is given by factor called fineness modulus.
Fineness Modulus is given by division of the summation of cumulative
retained fractions for standard sieves up to 150-micron sieve size by
100. The fineness modulus of sand varies from 2.0 to 4.0;
higher the FM coarser is the sand.

Fineness modulus of sand

Fine 2.0 to 2.8

Medium 2.8 to 3.2

Coarse 3.2 and above

Specific gravity of fine

aggregates

This is the ratio of solid density of sand

particles to the density of water. Higher the specific gravity heavier is
the sand particles and higher is the density of concrete. Conversely a
lower specific gravity of sand will result in lower density of concrete.
Specific gravity of sand is found with help of pycnometer bottles. The
specific gravity of fine aggregates found in Pune region varies from 2.6
to 2.8.

Silt Content by weight

This is found by wet-sieving of sand and material passing 75 micron

sieve is classified as silt.This silt affects the workability of
concrete, results in higher water/cement ratio and lower
strength. The upper limit for 75-micron sieve in case of sand is 3% by
weight. This limit has however been extended to 15% in case of
crushed sand in IS 383 1970 Table 1.

FIELD TESTS ON CEMENT

Field tests on cements are carried to know the quality of cement supplied at
site. It gives some idea about cement quality based on colour, touch and feel
and other tests.

The following are the field tests on cement:

(a) The colour of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey colour with
a light greenish shade.

(b) The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are formed
by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Any bag of cement
containing such lumps should be rejected.
(c) The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between
fingers. If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
(d) If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should feel
cool and not warm.
(e) If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the particles
should float for some time before it sink.
(f) A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and
it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
(g) A block of cement 25 mm 25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is
immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and it
is loaded with a weight of about 34 kg. The block should not show signs of
failure.
(h) The briquettes of a lean mortar (1:6) are made. The size of briquette
may be about 75 mm 25 mm 12 mm. They are immersed in water for a
period of 3 days after drying. If cement is of sound quality such briquettes
will not be broken easily.

SUITABILITY OF VARIOUS TYPES OF

CEMENT
Suitability of various types of cement:
Selection of cement based on suitability for various concreting environment is
important for durability considerations of structures. Thus, making wise
choice of cement type for particular construction site, prevents structure
from deteriorating and saves much repair and rehabilitation cost later.
Following are the suitability of various cements for different environmental
conditions:

i) 33 grade OPC:
It is used for normal grade of concrete upto M-20, plastering, flooring,
grouting of cable ducts in PSC works etc. The fineness should be between
225 and 280.

ii) 43 grade OPC:

It is the most widely used general purpose cement. For concrete

grades upto M-30, precast elements.
For marine structures but C3A should be between 5 8%.

iii) 53 grade OPC:

For concrete grade higher than M-30, PSC works, bridge, roads, multistoried buildings etc.

For use in cold weather concreting.

For marine structures but C3A should be between 5 8%.

iv) Portland Slag Cement (PSC)

It is OPC + granulated slag cement. It gives low heat of hydration. The slag
should be more than 50%and upto 70%. It is used for;

Marine and off shore structures- very high chloride and sulphate
resistant.

Sewage disposal treatments works

Water treatment plants

Constructions which are expected to be attacked by dissolved chlorides

and sulphate ions.
Should be mainly used for all future structures.

v) Portland Pozzolana Cement:

IS:1489(part-I ) -1991 (using flyash). It gives low heat of hydration and
reduces the leaching of calcium hydroxide. This cement should be used only
after proper evaluation. This should be tested as per IS:1489 (Pt I) 1991.
It is used for:

hydraulic structures-dams, retaining walls

Marine structures

Mass concrete works- like bridge footings

under aggressive conditions

Masonry mortar and plastering.

vi) SRC- Sulphate Resisting Cement:

(C3A < 3%) Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement is a type of Portland Cement
in which the amount of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) is restricted to lower than
5% and 2C 3A +C4AF lower than 25%. The SRC can be used for structural
concrete wherever OPC or PPC or Slag Cement are usable under normal
conditions.
The use of SRC is particularly beneficial in such conditions where the
concrete is exposed to the risk of deterioration due to sulphate attack, for
example, in contact with soils and ground waters containing excessive
amounts of sulphates as well as for concrete in sea water or exposed directly
to sea coast.
The use of SRC is recommended for following applications

Foundations, piles

Basement and underground structures

Sewage and water treatment plants

Chemical factories

Suitable for underground works where Sulphate is present in the Soil

and water.

Not Suitable for:

Sulphate resisting cement is not suitable where there is danger of

chloride attack. This will cause corrosion of rebar.

If both Chlorides and Sulphates are present, Ordinary Portland Cement

with C3A between 5 & 8 should be used.

vii) Low heat portland cement:

Low Heat Portland Cement is particularly suited for making concrete for dams
and many other types of water retaining structures, bridge abutments,
massive retaining walls, piers and slabs etc. In mass concreting, there is
often considerable rise in temperature because of the heat produced as the
cement sets and hardens.
The shrinkage which occurs on subsequent cooling sets up tensile stresses in
the concrete, may result in cracking. The use of low heat cement is
advantageous since it evolves less heat than OPC. This cement is not
available in the market on regular basis and has to be obtained on specific
orders.

viii) Rapid hardening cement:

The Rapid Hardening Cement is used for repair and rehabilitation works and
where speed of construction and early completion is required due to
limitations of time, space or other reasons. The cement is to be used in cold
weather concreting i.e. temperature < 5oC. Rapid hardening cement is
basically OPC but its fineness is 3250 cm2/g against 2250cm2/g in case of
OPC. The compressive strength after 1 day is 16 N/mm2 and that of 3 days
27 N/mm2. These days higher grade OPC are available in the country to meet
these requirements and therefore, this cement is not being manufactured
and marketed on regular basis. The characteristics of this cement can be
effectively met by only good quality 53 grade OPC.
ix) Hydrophobic portland cement: Hydrophobic Portland Cement is
manufactured on special requirement for high rainfall areas to improve the
shelf life of the cement. The cement particles are given a chemical coating

during manufacturing which provides water repelling property and the

cement is not affected due to high humidity and can be stored for a longer
period . This has to be obtained on special order from the cement
manufactures.

SPECIFICATION OF A GOOD QUALITY

BRICK
Following are the requirement of a good quality bricks:
(a) Bricks for masonry in foundations,walls and other locations shall be hand
or machine moulded and made from suitable soil and kiln burnt. They shall
have regular and uniform size and colour, sharp straight and right angled
edges and deep cherry red and copper colour, uniformity well burnt
throughout but not over-burnt. They shall have smooth rectangular faces
with parallel sides and sharp corners. Generally, they shall conform to
IS:1077.
(b) They shall be free from cracks, flaws and nodules of free lime.
(c) They shall give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck by a mallet
and shall not break when dropped on the ground on their flat face in a
saturated condition from a height of 600 mm.

(d) They shall show a fine-grained, uniform, homogeneous and dense

texture on fracture and shall be free from lumps of lime, lamination, cracks,

air holes, soluble salts causing efflorescence or any other defect which may
impair their strength, durability, appearance and usefulness for the purpose
intended. They shall not have any part under-burnt.
(e)

The size of the conventional bricks shall be 225 x 110 x 75 mm. Only

bricks of one standard size shall be used in one work unless specially
permitted by the Client / Consultant. The following tolerances are permitted
in the standard conventional size adopted on the particular work.

Length plus or minus 3.0 mm

Breadth plus or minus 1.5 mm

Depth plus or minus 1.5 mm

The size of the modular bricks shall be 190 x 90 x 90 mm or 190 x 40 mm.

(f) The crushing strength of the brick to be used in all types of works shall
not be less than 75kg/sq.cm unless otherwise specified when tested
according to IS:3495 (Part-1).
(g) After immersion in cold water for 24 hours, absorption by weight shall
not exceed 15 percent of the dry weight of the brick when tested according
to IS:3495 (Part-2).
(h)

Efflorescence in bricks shall be within limits prescribed in (Not more

than 10% of the exposed area of the brick shall be covered with a thin
deposit of salts) IS:3495 (Part-3)

SETTING PROCESS OF CEMENT

When water is mixed with cement to form a paste, reaction starts. In its pure
form, the finely ground cement is extremely sensitive to water. Out of the
three main compounds, viz. C3A, C3S and C2S, reacts quickly with water to
produce a jelly-like compound which starts solidifying . The action of
changing from a fluid state to a solid state is calledsetting and should not
be confused withhardening.
During the next stage of hydration, cement paste starts hardening owing to
the reaction of C3S and C2S with water and the paste gains strength. The
first few minutes, the setting action is more predominant and later on the
hardening action becomes dominant. In practice, such solidifying action or
loss of plasticity is required to be delayed, because some time is needed for
mixing, transporting and placing of concrete into final position before the mix
loses its plasticity due to the setting action.
It is usually specified that the plastic concrete should be placed and
consolidated before initial set has occurred and it should not then be
disturbed until concrete has hardened. This initial setting time should not be
too small and therefore, the standard specifies minimum initial setting time .
Once initial stiffening of concrete has taken place, it is desirable that it should
harden or gain strength as rapidly as possible, so that there is a minimum of
delay before shuttering can be removed and the risk of frost damage in cold
climate is minimized. The standard, therefore, specifies the maximum value
of final setting time.
It is not however, possible in practice to exactly locate the initial setting time
and final setting time. The Indian Standards have selected two arbitrary
points which relate setting of cement to the time measured from the moment
the water is added.
Initial setting time is defined as the period elapsing between the time
when water is added to the cement and the time at which the needle of 1
mm square section fails to pierce the test block to a depth of about 5 mm

from the bottom of the mould. A period of 30 minutes is the minimum initial
setting time, specified by ISI for ordinary and rapid hardening Portland
cements and 60 minutes for low heat cement.
The final setting time is defined as the period elapsing between the time
when water is added to cement and the time at which the needle of 1 mm
square section with 5 mm diameter attachment makes an impression on the
test block . 600 minutes is the maximum time specified for the final set for
all the above mentioned Portland cements. IS: 269-1976 specifies the
strengths in compression on the standard mortar-cube.

Fig: Vicat Apparatus for Cement Setting Time Test

Compressive strength test has two functions to fulfill. Firstly, it is a final
check on the quality of cement. Secondly, in case of doubt, it also helps us to
classify the cement as ordinary Portland cement, rapid hardening Portland
cement or low heat Portland cement, according to the strength it gives after
3 days and 7 days curing.
It is important to note the difference between setting and hardening of
cement at this stage. As has been explained earlier C3A reacts first with
water forming hydrated calcium alumino silicates. These compounds
contribute very little to the mechanical strength of concrete, but cement
starts losing its plasticity because of loss of water due to reaction and
formation of gel. This loss of plasticity without development of strength is
called setting action.
Cement is said to harden when the cement paste further reacts with water
bringing C2S and C3S into action. These compounds contribute to the

mechanical strength. Hardening, therefore, is associated with the

development of strength.

FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF

MORTAR
Following are the factors affecting properties of mortar:

The strength and extent of the bond are affected by many variables of
material and workmanship.

Complete and intimate contact between the mortar and the unit is
essential,

Workability influences the ease with which the mortar spreads and
covers the surfaces.

Rough units have a very porous surface that is highly receptive to the
wet mortar and increases adhesion.

The moisture content and suction of the units, the water retention of
the mortar.

Curing conditions such as temperature, relative humidity, and wind

combine to influence the completeness and integrity of the mechanical
and chemical bond.

Voids at the mortar-to-unit interface offer little resistance to water

infiltration and facilitate subsequent disintegration.

In aligning the masonry, laboratory tests show that tapping the unit to
level will increase bond strength 50 to 100% over hand pressure alone.

Often overlooked is the size/shape of mortar joints in that the ultimate

compressive load capacity of a typical 3/8 in. bed joint will probably be
well over twice the value obtained when the mortar is tested as a 2 in.
(50.8 mm) cube.

Mortars should typically be weaker than the masonry units, so that any
cracks will occur in the mortar joints where they can more easily be
repaired.

Compressive strength of mortar increases with an increase

in cement content and decreases with an increase lime, sand, water or air
content.

Retempering is associated with a decrease in mortar compressive

strength.

The amount of the reduction increases with water addition and time
between mixing and retempering.

It is frequently desirable to sacrifice some compressive strength of the

mortar in favour of improved bond, consequently retempering within
reasonable time limits is recommended to improve bond.

TYPES OF MORTAR AS BINDING

MATERIAL

Types of of Mortar as binding material:

The kind of binding material for a mortar is selected by keeping in mind
several factors such as expected working conditions, hardening temperature,
moisture conditions, etc. According to the kind of binding material, the
mortars are classified into the following five categories:
i. Lime mortar
ii. Surkhi mortar
iii. Cement mortar
iv. Gauged mortar
v. Gypsum mortar.

i. Lime mortar:
In this type of mortar, the lime is used as binding material. The lime may be
fat lime or hydraulic lime. The fat lime shrinks to a great extent and hence it
requires about 2 to 3 times its volume of sand. The lime should be slaked
before use. This mortar is unsuitable for water-logged areas or in damp
situations. It possesses good cohesiveness with other surfaces and shrinks
very little. It is sufficiently
durable, but it hardens slowly. It is generally used for lightly loaded aboveground parts ofbuildings.

ii. Surkhi mortar:

This type of mortar is prepared by using fully surkhi instead of sand or by

replacing half of sand in case of fat lime mortar. The powder of surkhi should
be fine enough to pass BIS No. 9 sieve and the residue should not be more
than 10% by weight. The surkhi mortar is used for ordinary masonry work of
all kinds in foundation and superstructure. But it cannot be used for
plastering or pointing since surkhi is likely to disintegrate after some time".

iii.

Cement mortar:

In this type of mortar, the cement is used as binding material. Depending

upon the strength required and importance of work, the proportion of cement
to sand by volume varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or more. It should be noted that
surkhi and cinder are not chemically inert substances and hence they cannot
be used as adulterants with matrix as cement. Thus the sand only can be
used to form cement
mortar. The proportion of cement with respect to sand should be determined
with due regard to the specified durability and working conditions. The
cement mortar is used where a mortar of high strength and water-resisting
properties is required such as underground constructions, water saturated
soils, etc.

iv. Gauged mortar:

To improve the quality of lime mortar and to achieve early strength, the
cement is sometimes added to it. This process is known as the gauging. It
makes lime mortar economical, strong and dense. The usual proportion of
cement to lime by volume is about 1:6 to 1 :8. It is also known as the
composite mortar or lime-cement mortar and it can also be formed by the
combination of cement and clay. This mortar may be used for bedding and
for thick brick walls.

v. Gypsum mortar:
These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding materials such as building
gypsum and anhydrite binding materials.

SELECTION OF MORTAR FOR

VARIOUS WORKS
Selection of Mortar for Various Works
Different grade of mortar is required for different nature of work. Special
types of mortars are required under special conditions.

Following table shows the types of mortars required for various works:

Sl. No.
1.

Nature of work
Construction work in waterlogged
areas and exposed positions

2.

Damp proof courses and cement

concrete roads
General RCC work such as lintels,
pillars, slabs, stairs etc.
Internal walls and surfaces of less
importance

3.
4.
5.

Mortar for laying fire-bricks

6.

Partition walls and parapet walls

7.

Plaster work

8.

Pointing work

9.
10.

Reinforced brickwork
Stone masonry with best varieties
of stones
Stone masonry with ordinary
stones, brickwork, foundations,
etc.

11.

12.

Thin joints in brickwork

Type of mortar
Cement or lime mortar of
proportions 1:3, lime being
eminently hydraulic lime.
Cement mortar proportions 1:2
Cement mortar of proportions 1:3,
the concrete mix being 1:2:4
Lime cinder mortar in proportion
1:3, sand is replaced by ashes or
cinder.
Fire-resistant mortar consisting of 1
part of aluminous cement to 2 parts
of finely crushed powder of firebricks.
Cement mortar of proportions 1:3
or lime mortar of 1:1. Lime should
be moderately hydraulic lime.
Cement mortar of proportion 1:3 to
1:4 or lime mortar proportion 1:2
Cement mortar of proportion 1:1 to
1:2
Cement mortar proportion 1:3
Lime mortar proportions 1:2, lime
being eminently hydraulic lime.
Lime mortar of 1:2 or cement
mortar of 1:6, lime should be
eminently hydraulic lime or
moderately hydraulic lime.
Lime mortar of 1:3, lime being fat
lime.

SPECIAL TYPES OF MORTARS

Special mortars: Following are tile various types of special mortars which
are used for certain conditions:
1. Fire-resistant mortar
2. Lightweight mortar
3. Packing mortar
4. Sound-absorbing mortar
5. X-ray shielding mortar

1. Fire-resistant mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding

aluminous cement to the finely crushed powder of fire-bricks. The usual
proportion is 1 part of aluminous cement to 2 parts of powder of fire-bricks.
This mortar is fire-resistant and it is therefore used with fire-bricks for lining
furnaces, fire places, ovens, etc.
2. Lightweight mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding materials such
as saw dust, wood powder, etc. to the lime mortar or cement mortar. Other
materials which may be added are asbestos fibres, jute fibres, coir, etc. This
mortar is used in the sound-proof and heat-proof constructions.
3. Packing mortar: To pack oil wells, special mortars possessing the
properties of high homogeneity, water resistance, predetermined setting
time, ability to form solid water-proof plugs in cracks and voids of rocks,
resistance to subsoil water pressure, etc. have to be formed.
4. Sound-absorbing mortar: To reduce the noise level, the soundabsorbing plaster is formed with the help of sound-absorbing mortar. The
bulk density of such a mortar varies from 6 to 12 kN/m3 and the binding
materials employed in its composition may be Portland cement, lime,
gypsum, slag, etc. The aggregates are selected from lightweight porous
materials such as pumice, cinders, etc.
5. X-ray shielding mortar: This type of mortar is used for providing the
plastering coat towalls and ceiling of X-ray cabinets. It is a heavy type of
mortar with bulk density over 22 kN/m3. The aggregates are obtained from
heavy rock and suitable admixtures are added to enhance the protective
property of such a mortar.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD
BUILDING STONE
The essential requirements of building stones used for structural work are
given below:
Strength
Ordinarily, the strength of a stone is not of primary importance, as very often
theloads to which it is subjected in a structure are much below its
permissible crushing strength
Durability

Stones should possess a natural durability to withstand the destructive

effects of various agents continuously operating on them. In fact, the life of a
structure depends upon the durability of the materials with which it is built.
The durability of a stone depends upon the relation between its chemical
composition and that of the atmospheric surroundings. The texture of the
stone also influences its durability. Crystalline homogeneous and closegrained varieties of stones with a dense structure should be selected for good
works. The surface of a freshly broken stone should be uniform in texture,
colour and hardness. Porous stones or those containing patches of soft or
objectionable materials are liable to disintegrate quickly.
Cost
An important consideration in the selection of building stone is its cost. Other
things being equal, the cost of a stone depends upon the ease with which it
can be quarried out, the proximity of the quarry to the place of use, and
the transportation facilities available. The subsequent cost of dressing a
stone, before it is placed directly in the structure, should also be low.
Appearance
In the case of the stone used for face work, where appearance is a primary
factor, its colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor.
Hardness
The stone used in floors, pavements and aprons of bridges, should be able to
resist the abrasive forces caused due to wear and friction. Hardness of stones
can be tested by the Mohrs scale of hardness in the laboratory and in the
field by scraping the surface with a sharp knife. A hard stone will not show
any scratches.

Fig: Building stones

Toughness
Building stones should also be tough enough to withstand stresses developed
due to vibrations of machinery and moving loads over them. The stones used
in the construction of roads should be hard as well as tough.
Specific Gravity and Weight
The stones used for the construction of dams, weirs, barrages, docks and
harbours should be of a heavier variety. In case of dams and roof coverings,
lighter varieties of stones are preferred. The specific gravity of good building
stones should be between 2.4 and 2.8.
Porosity and Absorption
A good stone should not be porous, rain water, enter the pores which is
generally acidic, Chemical Composition of Stone Limestone and weak
sandstone are relatively less durable than a good sandstone, granite or
gneiss. Air and water, containing carbon dioxide, seriously affect limestone.
Iron pyrites also tend to disintegrate stones; excess iron oxide or carbonate
in stones develops rust in the presence of moisture; presence of clay affects
the efficiency of the cementing materials; soda and potash also have a
disintegrating effect; all varieties of mica are soft and are readily
decomposed by exposure to atmosphere. Stones with silicates as the
cementing material will weather better than those with calcareous or
ferruginous binding material.
Texture
The texture of a stone indicates the arrangement of its constituent minerals.
Good building stone should be homogeneous in structure. Stones with
homogeneous and crystalline texture are hard and compact and superior to
non-crystalline and open-texture varieties. Generally, igneous and
metamorphic rocks such as granite, trap and gneiss are hard and compact.
Sandstone, limestone and some of the metamorphic rocks are porous.
Amorphous rocks like glass, flint, etc. have a fused texture and are hard and
compact.

ALTERNATE BUILDING MATERIALS

Alternate building materials are those which can be used economically by
replacing the conventional building materials. Alternate building materials are
made from waste products and thus it even minimizes environmental
pollutions. These alternate building materials can be used when it meets the
respective specifications in the code of practice. Here some new materials
and technology is discussed as well and a list many alternate materials for
foundation, roof and walls are presented with details of each.

New Materials & Technology

Aluminium
Bitumen Materials
Soil Conditioning Agents
Tempered Glass
Crumb Rubber
Fibre Reinforced Polymer
Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics
Bamboo reinforced plastics
Ferro-cement
Polyester Fibres
1. ALUMINIUM
More that 3000 commercialized applications.
35 percent aluminum produced is used in construction.
Non Corrosive.
High durability and low maintenance.

 Can be alloyed.
Ductile and malleable.
Aesthetically attractive.
Applications of Aluminium In Construction
Windows, doors, facades
Roofs, walls, building superstructure
Door handles, catches, staircases
Hvac and waterproofing
As a support structure for solar
Panels, solar collectors and light Shelves.
Wall cladding.
2. Bitumen Materials
Super pave system
Superior performing asphalt pavements systems
Advantages
Reduces Permanent deformation
Fatigue cracking
Low temperature cracking in hot asphalt mixtures
Soil Conditioning Agents
Bentonite Slurry
Polymer Liquids
Foams
Applications
Tunneling
Pipe Jacking
3. Tempered Glass
Thermally tempered glazing automobile windows
Polycarbonate glazing bullet proof glazing
4. Crumb Rubber
Crumb scrap tyres are shreded
Crumb rubber is added to asphalt is called crma ( crumb rubber modified
asphalt.)
Advantage

 helps in noise reduction

reduces skid
Fibre Reinforced Polymer
Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics
Bamboo reinforced plastics
Polyester Fibres
Ferrocement
WALLINGS
STABILISED, COMPRESSED EARTH BLOCKS
Made of mud stabilized with 5% cement/lime etc. and compacted in block
making machine with no burning. A good walling material as burnt bricks and
is economical, stronger, energy saving and simple to manufacture. The soil to
be used for the blocks should have the requisite component of clay and silt
and sand etc. Soil stabilized hollow and interlocking blocks can provide better
thermal insulation.
Developed by CBRI/ASTRA/Aurovil/e Building Centre.
STABILIZED ADOBE:
It is an improvement over traditional adobe or hand moulded and sun dried
mud block in which mud is mixed with a small proportion of cement or lime
or broken or cut dry grass as reinforcing media to impart added strength and
lower the permeability. It is appropriate in dry climates.
Fal-G STABlLISED MUD BLOCKS:
These are much stronger with less water absorption and cheaper than
cement stabilized blocks. With 5 to 10 per cent Fal-G, 30 percent saving in
cement could be achieved in addition to utilization of the waste product like
fly ash. These blocks could be manufactured at village level. Most suitable
where good burnt clay bricks are not available.

(Developed by INSWAREB Building Centre)

CLAY FLYASH BURNT BRICKS:
Produced from flyash and clay, are stronger than conventional burnt clay
bricks, consume less energy, provide better thermal insulation and solve the
environmental problem through utilisation of the flyash, an industrial waste.
(Developed by CBRI)
FLYASH/SAND-LIME BRICKS:
Produced from fly ash or sand with lime as binder, are strong, superior in
water absorption and crushing strength. However this needs autoclaving.
(Developed by CBRI/CFRI)
FLYASH-LIME-GYPSUM (Fal-G) PRODUCTS:
Manufactured by blending flyash, lime and calcined gypsum (from by product
of phosphogypsum or natural gypsum) for making a useful product, named
Fal-G, and can be used as a cementeous material for mortar/plasters and for
masonry blocks of any desired strength. It can also be used for road
pavements and plain concrete in the form of Fal-G concrete.
(Developed by INSWAREB Building Centre)
CLAY RED MUD BURNT BRICKS:
Produced from alumina red mud or bauxite an industrial waste of aluminium
producing plants in combination with clay. Possess all the physical properties
of normal clay bricks and solves the problem of disposal of the waste product
and environmental pollution. In addition, they have good architectural value
as facing bricks due to their pleasing hues of colour. Red mud in addition
improves the quality of bricks made from inferior soil deficient in clay
content.
(Developed by CBRI)
LATO BLOCKS:

These are improved bricks made from lateritic soil and cement or lime.
Available in South-West India as large soft rock masses. The blocks are
moulded under pressure to produce strong and good quality blocks which
consume lesser energy than conventional bricks and hence cheaper. They are
available in pleasing hues of colours ranging from cream to light crimson.
(Developed by CBRI)
PRECAST STONE BLOCKS:
These are of larger size than normal bricks are manufactured by using waste
stone pieces of various sizes with lean cement concrete and enable a
rationalised use of natural locally available materials. Shaping stones in this
manner, enables speedy construction saves on cement, reduces thickness of
stone walls and effects overall saving by eliminating plasters on
internal/external wall surface. Appropriate architectural rendering on exterior
surfaces can also be given.
(Developed by CBRI)
PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS:
Made to similar dimension of stone blocks without large size stone pieces,
but using coarse and fine graded aggregate with cement. They have excellent
properties comparable to other masonry block, are cheaper and facilitate
speedy construction and especially suitable where good quality clay for brick
making is not available.
(Developed by CBRI)
PRECAST HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS:
These are manufactured using lean cement concrete mixes and extruded
through block making machines of egg laying or static type need lesser
cement mortar and enable speedy construction as compared to brick
masonry. The cavity in the blocks provide better thermal protection and also
do not need external or internal plastering. These can be used for walling
block or as roofing blocks along with inverted precast tee beams.
(Developed by CBRI)

FLYASH BASED LIGHT WEIGHT AERATED CONCRETE WALLING AND

ROOFING BLOCKS:
These are manufactured by a process involving mixing of flyash, quick lime
or cement and gypsum, foaming agents such as aluminium powder. These
are considered excellent products for walling blocks and prefab floor slabs.
(Developed by CBRI/CFRI)
PRECAST AERATED/CELLULAR CONCRETE WALLING BLOCKS AND
ROOFING SLABS:
These are manufactured through aerated cellular concrete manufacturing
process. When used in multistoried structures reduce weight, resulting more
in economic design of structure. These components can also be worked and
handled easily, have high fire resistance rating and provide better insulation.
(Developed by CBRI)
RAT -TRAP BOND:
This is an alternate brick bonding system for English and Flemish bond. This
is economical, strong and aesthetic. 25% of the total number of bricks and
40% of motor the cost of the wall can be saved by using RAT -TRAP BOND. It
is simple to build and has better insulation properties.
(Developed by Laurie Baker)
BAMBOO/TIMBER MAT BASED WALLS (EKRA WALLING):
Plastered on either side by mud or cement mortar over bamboo mat placed
between horizontal and vertical timber/bamboos as a frame. Are easy to
construct, cost less and are popular in hilly areas due to self help. However,
these are non-load bearing and need supporting structure. This upgraded
traditional tecgnology is a relevant for earthquake view point walling option.
(Conventional)
COMPOSITE FERROCEMENT SYSTEM:

It is simple to construct and made of ferrocement i.e. rich mortar reinforced

with chicken and welded wire mesh. These reduce the wall thickness and
allow larger carpet area. Precast ferrocement units in trough shape are
integrated with R.C.C. columns. Ferrocement units serve as a permanent skin
unit and as a diagonal strut between columns. Inside cladding can be done
with mud blocks or any locally available material. Ideally suitable for seismic
areas.
(Developed by HUDCO)

ROOFS
LIFE EXTENDED THATCH ROOFING:
It is self-help, locally available and environmentally sound option. By treating
it with copper sulphate solution, its life can be lengthened to reduce
biodegradability effect. By using thatch in the form of compact panels instead
of bunches, its combustibility is also reduced. Additional coating of treatment
on the roof surface using phosphorilated spray or CNSL oil also achieves
water proofing, fire resistance, termite proofing and weathering resistance.
(Developed by CBRI/RRL- TVM)
COCONUT FIBRE AND WOODEN CHIPS ROOFING SHEETS:
Coconut fibre and wooden chips or fibre are soaked in water for two hours
and water drained off .Later these are mixed with cement and laid over a
corrugated mould and kept under pressure for 8 to 10 hours. After
demoulding, these are cured and dried before use. (Developed by RRL-TVM)
CORRUGATED BAMBOO ROOFING SHEET:
An innovative roofing material with an upgradation of traditional material
from Bamboo Board. It is eco-friendly, light in weight, strong and durable
and minimal fire hazard compared to thatch and other materials. These
sheets can be used for roofing, walling, door and window shutters and other
components in building construction. Sheets are bonded with phenol
formaldehyde resin to which anti-termite chemical is added at the time of
mat impregnation. These are termite resistant and fire retardant.

COUNTRY TILE ROOFING:

Can be less expensive than Mangalore tiles on wood when laid on balli
understructure, when moulded tiles are made longer and distance between
supporting members is increased. (Conventional)
GUNA TILE ROOF:
Such type of roof is very useful for villages. Its construction is possible only
with use of Terra-cotta cones made by village potter and village artisans with
nominal cost. Appropriate water resistant treatment can be given on top. It is
cheaper by 30 percent than normal roof. (Developed by CSV)
PYRAMIDAL BRICK ROOF:
In coastal areas where corossion of reinforcement is possible construction of
such roof is useful. There is no reinforcement in such roof. It is cast with
ordinary bricks used with cement mortar/concrete in the form of pyramid. A
ring beam is used along the periphery over walls. Such roofs are useful in
cyclone prone areas. (Developed by CBRI)
CEMENT BONDED FIBRE ROOFING SHEETS:
These are made by profitably utilising coir waste, coconut pith, wood wool or
sisal fibre, in combination with cement as binder for production of corrugated
or plain roofing sheets. These sheets use lesser cement than AC sheets, are
50% cheaper than AC/CGI sheets, light weight, fire resistant, water proof
and can be used for sloping roof option. (Developed by CBRI)
MICRO CONCRETE ROOFING TILE:
These are made of graded cement mortar layer vibrated and formed over
sloping mould and cured, used in pitched roofing system and is less
expensive than ACC/CGI sheets ad burnt country tile roofing at all spans. It
is appropriate where fired clay tiles are not available and timber supporting
skeletal system is costlier. The rafter and purlin system cost lesser by using
micro concrete roofing tiles. Further reduction can be made by using
ferrocement rafters and purlins.
(Developed by ITDG Development Alternatives/Tara Nirman Kendra)

STONE PATTI ROOFING:

This is a flat roofing system with sand stone slab (patties) resting over steel
or slender RCC section beams. The slabs are laid over with terracing for
insulation. It is appropriate where (sand) stone slabs are available and is
more economical than RCC slabs.
Where larger granite stone patties are available like in Rajasthan, MP, AP the
beams are not needed and can rest on walls. Further the impact load
distribution and thermal insulation is obtained by kharanjha distributors and
lime terracing on top of it.
(Conventional)
EXTRUDED STRUCTURAL CLAY UNIT FLOOR/ROOF
This is made from extruded structural clay units (HOURDIS), placed between
tee-sections containing rectangular hollows. These are used along with
precast joist and filler between the precast joint. Results in savings in cost
and time over conventional RCC cast-in-situ slabs and also provide better
thermal insulation.
(Developed by CBRI/SERC)
PRECAST BRICK PANELS:
This is used in combination with partially precast joists (beams) save in
economic use of steel and cement and provide an alternative to
reinforcecement concrete roofing/flooring where good qualIty bricks are
available.
(Developed by CBRI)
PRECAST L-PANEL ELEMENTS:
Provide a better alternative to RCC sloping roofs. Water seepage can be
eliminated in precast L shaped panels where better quality control is possible.
Precasting also result in saving on expensive shuttering.
(Developed by CBRI)

JACK ARCH ROOF/FLOOR:

These are easy to construct, save on cement and steel, are more appropriate
in hot climates. These can be constructed using compressed earth blocks also
as alternative to bricks for further economy.
(Conventional)
PRECAST BRICK ARCH PANEL SYSTEM:
In this technique, the precast brick arches 50cm x 50cm in size are cast on a
platform. These precast arches are placed side by side over the partially
precast joist. The hauches between the arches are filled with cement
concrete to have a level surface on top. Such roof/floor is 30 percent
economical, when compared with conventional RCC also.
(Developed by CBRI)
FERROCEMENT CHANNEUSHELL UNITS:
It provide an economic solution to RCC slab by providing 30 to 40% cost
reduction on floor/roof units over RCC slabs without compromising the
strength. These being precast, construction is speedy, economical due to
avoidance of shuttering and facilitates quality control. (Developed by
SERC/Auroville Building Centre)
PRECAST PLANK AND JOIST FLOORING/ROOFING:
Consisting of precast RCplanks supported over partially precast RCC joists
with in-situ concrete, suitable upto a span of 4.0 m and ensure 12% overall
saving in cost and 20% reduction in construction time.
(Developed by CBRI)
FUNICULAR SHELLS OVER EDGE BEAMS:
It provides a simple and attractive alternative to RCC construction for small
to medium spans. These can be used to span square, rectangular or even
triangular and non-orthogonal spaces and consist of thin sheet concrete,
brick, stones, tiles supported on edge beams. These are cost effective as the

required quantity of steel and cement is much less and can be precast
avoiding costly shuttering.
(Developed by SERC)
PRECAST WAFFLE UNITS:
Provide speedy construction with overall saving upto 10% besides avoiding
shuttering work. These consist of precast concrete waffle floors/roofs units
with nominal reinforcement. The shape is like an inverted trough with square
or rectangular in plan having lateral dimension upto 1.2m. Suitable for large
spans beyond 6m in either direction, on laying in grid pattern with
reinforcement and cast insitu concrete joints between them.
(Developed by CBRI)
PRECAST CHANNEL UNITS:
It is easy to construct a roofing/flooring with an effective saving in cost and
time. These units are reinforced cement concrete elements channel shaped in
section and 2.5 to 4.2m long providing for ceiling that looks like one way rib
beams.
(Developed by CBRI)
PRECAST CORED UNITS:
These are simple to manufacture and provide a speedy and economical flush
ceiling. Consist of extruded concrete sections units with circular hollows and
can be used upto 4.2 m span. Used for floors or roof in load bearing walls
and framed structures. (Developed by CBRI)
PRECAST IN-SITU THIN RIBBED SLAB:
These are made from precast/in-situ ribs provided at a spacing of 1.2 m with
cast-in-situ RC flange. These can be used for floor/roof slab. As the ribbed
slab is thin, roof treatment should be provided over the slab for better
thermal insulation. It is cheaper and easy to construct in comparison to
conventional cast in-situ RCC slab. (Developed by CBRI)

FILLER SLABS:
These are normal RCC slabs where bottom half (tension) concrete portions
are replaced by filler materials such as bricks, tiles, cellular concrete blocks,
etc. These filler materials are so placed as not to compromise structural
strength result in replacing unwanted and non-functional tension concrete,
thus resulting in economy. These are safe, sound and provide aesthetically
pleasing pattern ceilings and also need no plaster. (Developed by Laurie
Baker)

RAPID HARDENING CEMENT

ADVANTAGES AND USES
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement(RHPC)
Rapid hardening cement is similar to Ordinary Portland cement but with
higher tri-calcium silicate (C3S) content and finer grinding. It gains strength
more quickly than OPC, though the final strength is only slightly higher. This
type of cement is also called as High-Early Strength Portland Cement. The
one-day strength of this cement is equal to the three-day strength of OPC
with the same water-cement ratio.

Following are the advantages and uses of the rapid hardening portland
cement:
(a) It is used where formwork has to be removed as early as possible in
order to reuse it.
(b) It is used where high early strength is required.
(c) It is generally used for constructing road pavements, where it is
important to open the road to traffic quickly.
(d) It is used in industries which manufacture concrete products like slabs,
posts, electric poles, block fence, etc. because moulds can be released
quickly.
(e) It is used for cold weather concreting because rapid evolution of heat
during hydration protects the concrete against freezing.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL

REQUIREMENT OF CEMENT
Cement is defined as the product manufactured by burning and crushing to
powder an intimate and well-proportioned mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous materials.
The cement, which is generally used for preparing concrete, is the Ordinary
Portland Cement. But for special purposes other qualities of cement such as
Low Heat Cement, Rapid Hardening Cement, High Alumina Cement, White
Cement, Blast Furnace Slag Cement, Sulphate Resisting Cement, etc. are
also used.

The selection of a particular type of cement to be used for

manufacturing of concrete, depends upon the following factors :
(a) The required strength of the concrete structure.
(b) The type of structure.
(c) The conditions under which the construction of structure is to take place.
Chemical and physical requirement of 53 grade cement for construction is
given here. A 53 grade cement shall have the following properties.

Sl.
No.

Description

Properties

Chemical Requirement of 53 grade cement

1.

Lime saturation factor

Between 0.8 to 1.02

2.

Ratio of percentage of alumina oxide

to that of iron oxide

Not less than 0.66

3.

Insoluble residue (% by mass)

Not more than 3%

4.

Magnesia (% by mass)

Not more than 6%

5.

Sulphuric anhydride (% by mass)

Not more than 3%

6.

Total loss on ignition (% by mass)

Not more than 4%

7.

Chloride content (% by mass)

Not more than 0.05%

Physical requirement of 53 grade cement

1.

Fineness (m2/kg)

2.

Soundness

3.

4.

Not less than 225 m2/kg

(a) Lechatelier expansion (mm)

Not more than 10%

(b) Auto clave expansion (%)

Not more than 0.08%

Setting time (in minutes)

(a) Initial setting

Not less than 30 minutes

(b) Final setting

Not greater than 600

minutes

Compressive strength (MPa)

(a) After 73 +/- 1 hours

Not less than 27 MPa

(b) After 168 +/- 2 hours

Not less than 37 MPa

(c) 672 +/- 4 hours

Not less than 53 MPa

Tests on cement is done in India based on IS 4031 (different parts) and IS

4032. ASTM C 150 is used for chemical tests on cement. ASTM C 191 and
ASTM C 266 are used for setting time of cement.
ASTM C 150 & AASHTO M 85 are used for fineness test on cement. For
blended cement, ASTM C 595 is used.

EFFECT OF FIRE AND HIGH

TEMPERATURE ON FRPs
Effect of Fire and High Temperature on FRPs
The use of externally-bonded FRP plates and sheets to strengthen existing
reinforced concrete structures is now widely recognized. However, a primary
concern that still discourages the use of FRPs in some cases is their assumed
susceptibility to fire. While recent studies have demonstrated that the overall
performance of appropriately designed and insulated FRP-strengthened
reinforced concrete members is satisfactory, the specific behavior of FRP
materials at high temperature and after exposure to high temperature

remains largely unknown, particularly for externally-bonded FRP

strengthening systems. Axial tension tests, single-lap bond tests,
thermogravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry are all used
to elucidate high temperature residual performance.
Few studies have been performed on the effect of fire and high temperatures
on carbon and glass FRPs. Swiss researchers performed a series of bending
tests on beams strengthened with pultruded carbon FRP plates and steel
plates, positioned in a large testing oven (Meier 1996). Four beam were
strengthened by bonding carbon FRP plates (74 mm wide, 1mm thick), and
one beam was strengthened with steel plates (75 mm wide, 8 mm thick).
The beams were placed in the oven and the temperature was raised to
652C. The steel plates debonded from the beam in 8 minutes. The carbon
FRP began to burn atthe surface of the laminates and their cross sections
slowly decreased. The carbon FRP debonded from the beam after one hour.

Fig: Tensile Strength reduction of FRP with rise in temperature

The Aerospace Corporation subjected carbon and glass FRP panels
constructed by the wet lay-up method to dry heat at 60C for 1000 and 3000
hours (Steckel 2000). The effect of these exposures on modulus, ultimate
strength and ultimate strain are given in Appendix A. There was no
significant effect on either carbon or glass FRP.

No studies appear to have been done on the fire resistance of conventional

FRP panels constructed by the wet lay-up method and not treated with fire
retardents.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FRPs

Mechanical Properties of FRPs
Many FRPs have tensile strengths that exceed the strength of steel, but their
stiffness is generally lower than that of steel. When loaded along the fiber
direction they behave essentially linearly until fracture, and are therefore
brittle by nature.
Stress Corrosion and Stress Rupture
The average ultimate tensile strength of freshly drawn glass fibers may
exceed 3500 MPa. However, surface flaws tend to reduce the tensile strength
to values in the range of 1750 to 2100 MPa. Strength degradation is
increased as the surface flaws grow under cyclic loads. This is one of the
major disadvantages of using glass fibers in applications where fatigue may
be an issue. Sustained loads also cause surface flaws to grow, resulting in
reduced tensile strength.
Figure 1. shows reduction of strength with time for E-glass fiber under
different temperatures.

Stress corrosion refers to the characteristic property of FRPs in which the

failure strength under long term sustained loads in a chemical environment is
lower than its short term tensile strength. In air, this phenomenon is referred
to as stress rupture (Sen et al. 1993). Stress rupture tests are usually
performed by applying a constant tensile stress to a specimen until it
fractures completely. The time at which fracture occurs is termed the
lifetime. Creep, on the other hand, is defined as the increase in strain with
time at a constant load level (Mallick 1993).

Glass, Aramid, and Boron fibers and their composites exhibit failure by stress
rupture. Carbon fibers, on the other hand, are relatively less prone to stress
rupture failure. In order to prevent stress rupture in glass FRP for a period of
10, 30, and 50 years, the sustained strains in the GFRP should be less than
about 0.35

, 0.32

, 0.30

, respectively (Sen et al.1993, ACI 2000).

The relationship between the sustained stress (or strain) and the logarithm of
time is approximately linear as shown in Figure 1. ACI Committee 440R
recommends the use of a safety factor of 1.67 and hence a safe level of
sustained strain to prevent stress rupture in glass is about 0.2

ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS

(ACMs)

Advanced Composite Materials (ACMs) can be defined as combination of

materials appropriately arranged using reinforcing fibers, carefully chosen
matrixes, and some times auxiliary materials like adhesive core and other
inserts. These combinations after proper manipulation and processing result
in finished structure/item with synergistic properties i.e. properties achieved
after fabrication cannot be obtained by individual components acting alone.
The ACMs can be classified in different categories on the basis of micro
structures, multiphases, reinforcements, manner of packing fibers layered
compositions, method of composition, matrix system processing methods
etc. Basic components of ACMs are (i) Reinforcement (fibers) (ii) Matrix (iii)
Honey comb core/adhesives ( for sand witched structures ). The great variety
of fibers materials in various forms, shapes and sizes have been recently
developed for use in ACMs and in the construction industries. Steel, glass,
carbon, Aramid (kevlar), boron, silicon carbide, silicon nitrates, alumina
fibers are some of the commonly used high performance reinforcement fibers
in ACMs. The reinforcements may be called by different names according to
sizes such as Whisker ( < 0.025 mm ), fiber ( 0.025 0.8 mm ), Wire ( 0.8
6.4 mm ), rod ( 6.4 50 mm ) and bar ( > 50 mm ). In general the
continuous filamentary type reinforcement is important from structural
application point of view. It is the reinforcement which is primarily
responsible for the mechanical properties of ACMs. Usually all the
reinforcements (fibers) are stronger in tension than steel, but weak in shear
( i.e. brittle ) requiring the filler material (Matrix) relatively strong in shear
which will protect reinforcement against abrasion or environmental corrosion.
Matrix also helps in distributing the load from reinforcement, absorbing
energy, reducing stress concentration and preventing cracks propagation.
Thermosetting and thermo plastic types of organic polymers are used as
Matrix ( e.g. epoxide, phenolic, polyamide resins etc.).
Some of the important fibers used as reinforcement in ACMs along with their
characteristic properties are discussed briefly.
i) Carbon/Graphite Fibers
Carbon fibers are produced from petroleum pitches in large volumes. These
are low cost, low modulus. The current technology for producing carbon
fibers generally centers on the thermal decomposition of various organic
precursors, Rayons polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch, polyesters, polyamide
polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl chloride, poly-p-phenylene and phenolic resins
have all been considered and investigated as potential precursor materials for

producing carbon fibres. These are produced by heat treating the precursor
to temperature upto 10000c in inert atmosphere. Carbon fibers are very small
in diameter and also manufactured as continuous mats, brails, continuous
straight fibers. These are high strength, high modulus, low density, light
weight, and has significant cost and handling advantage, outstanding creep
and fatigue resistance. Pultruted carbon reinforced composites are noted for
their lubricity, wear resistance, capacity of heat dissipation, and resistance to
alkaline and soil solutions. Carbon fibers in general are not affected by
moisture, atmosphere, solvents, bases etc. The Table No 1 Shows carbon
fiber properties.

ii) Glass fibers

On a specific strength (i.e. strength to weight) basis, glass fiber is one of the
strongest and most commonly used structural materials. Some Lab tested
fibers has shown strength upto 6896 MPa and commercial grades range from
3448 4830 MPa. The continuous glass filament are manufacture by two
basic process i.e. by marble melt process and direct melt process
respectively. To minimise abrasion related degradation of glass fibers, surface
treatments (sizings) are applied prior to gathering of fibers in to strands.
Commonly glass fibers are round and straight and have diameters ranging
from G (9-10.2 mm) to T (22.9 24.1 mm ) are used. The glass fibers are
available in different forms like continuous form, woven roving, surfacing
mats, three dimensional and multidimensional (such as 5-D, 7-D, 11-D ) etc.
There are several glass fiber types with different chemical compositions
providing the specific physical/chemical properties.
E-glass ( calcium aluminoborosilicate composition) is best for general
purpose structural use. S-glass (magnesium aluminosilicate composition) is a
special glass with higher tensile strength and modulus, good heat resistance,

strong resistance to acids. These properties make S-glass fibers suitable

choice in ACMs to be used in elevated temperature and humid environments.
C-glass has good chemical stability in chemical corrosive environments. Tglass fiber exhibits improved performance over E-glass such as 36% increase
in tensile strength, 16% increase in tensile modulus, increased heat
resistance, improved impact, electrical, thermal and chemical resistance
properties. R-glass (magnesium-lime-aluminosilicate ) has higher tensile
strength and modulus compared to E-glass and gives higher resistance to
fatigue, aging temperature and corrosion. A-glass, ECR-glass, AR-glass, Dglass are some types of glass fibers.
Table No. 2 : Glass fiber properties.

E-glass

R-glass

D-glass

S-glass

Density (g/cm3)

2.60

2.55

2.16

2.49

Tensile strength (Mpa)

3400

4400

2500

4580

Tensile modulus (Gpa)

73

86

55

86.93

Elongation at break (%)

4.5

5.2

4.5

5.4

Filament diameter

3-14

3-14

3-14

iii) Aramid Fibers

Aramid fibers ( aromatic polyamide ) was introduced by Dupont under the
name Kevlar. The aromatic polyamide are believed to be made by solution
polycondensation of diamines and diacid halides at low temperature. The
structure of aramid fiber is anisotropic gives higher strength and modulus in
the fiber longitudinal direction. Aramid is resistant to fatigue, exhibits good
toughness and general tolerance characteristics. Applications of aramid fiber
in civil structures include ropes, cables, prestressing tendons,
pipes, walls etc. Table No 3 shows properties of Aramid fibers.
Table 3. Properties of Aramid fibers

Polyester

MONEX

Kevlar29

Kevlar49

Teflon

Density 9/cm3

1.38

1.38

1.44

1.45

2.15

Tensile
900
Strength(MPa)

670

2700

3500

Tensile
18
Modulus(GPa)

60

135

133

Elongation at
break %

10-15

20-30

2.5

20-30

Filament
diameter

10-12

20

iv) Linear organic Fibers

This fiber may become one of the major reinforcement for civil and building
structure in future. This high strength and high modulus organic fiber can be
produced by arranging the molecular structure of simple polymero to become
straight during manufacture. The properties of this fiber includes rigidity (240
GPa), lower density (0.97), tensile modulus (117 GPa) and tensile strength
(2.9-3.3 GPa)
v) Other notable high performance fibers are boron and silicon carbide
fibers (Sic). Ceramic fibers (including oxide and non oxide) are also
developed. Other organic fibers available are acrylic, nylon,
polybenzimidazole (PBI), polyester, polypropylene and teflon.
ACMs AS REINFORCEMENT, CABLES AND TENDONS
1. ACMs VERSES STEEL
Technical properties of ACMs depends upon type of reinforcing fibers, their
form, style, proportion, direction etc. The characteristic properties of ACMs
bars when compared with that of a high strength steel (ref fig I) can be
summarised as:

i) All the ACMs are stronger than steel.

ii) ACMs with carbon fibers has same stiffness as steel.
iii) ACMs with carbon fibers are stiffer than ACMs with aramid fibers which
inturns are stronger than steel.
iv) Stress strain carves of all ACMs are linear up to failure.
v) All ACMs have less ductility and unpredictable plastic behaviour.
vi) Due to their higher strengths and lower stiffnesses ACMs component
develop much larger strains within elastic limits as compared to steel.
vii) The ACMs has low bond strength which can be overcome by providing
mechanical anchorages and surface treatment to ACM bars.
The ACMs properties like corrosion resistant, light weight, high tensile
strength, high fatigue strength, withstanding extreme environmental attacks,
zero electrical conductivity, high impact resistance, smooth and fine finishing
with various colours, easy fabrication, handling, erecting, vibration damping
characteristics makes it far superior, efficient and effective and reliable
construction material in place of steel.
2. ACMs as cables and Tendons.
The application of ACMs in bridges as cables and tendons have been reported
from different countries. As ACMs cables are much lighter, stronger than the
conventional steel cables much longer distances can be spanned by ACMs

cable. In costal areas where corrosion of steel cables is a very big problem,
ACMs cables proves efficient and effective alternative. The state of the art
application is cable stayed bridges. The pultruded cables and tendons of
ACMs supporting concrete decks and girders in bridges render the structures
stronger and durable than steel.
The following are some of the case studies reported on use of ACMs as cables
and tendons.

Pultruded cables using several hundred parallel carbon fibers

composite wires (6 mm dia. pultruded from 500000 carbon fibers) using
epoxy resin system. Bundled wires are embedded in a polymer matrix,
non carbon radicals are then burned off in an inert atmosphere and
replaced by carbon. These pultruded cables can yield two to three times
the specific strength of steel and could last more than 100 years, permit
longer span cable stayed bridges ( upto 6 to 9 km ). The steel cables
would snap under their own weight over such a distance.

The idea of joining Europe and Africa across the strait of Gibraltar is
being under serious consideration by using carbon fiber composite cable
stayed bridge ( ref fig.2 ).

The Ullenbergstrace bridge in DUSSEL-DORF and Marienfelde bridge

both in Germany are the first kind of post tensioned bridges incorporating
tendons using glass fiber ACMs. Both the bridges are two spans each
ranging between 20 to 25 m. Difficulties were observed in attaching the
anchorages to the tendons. Slipping out and breaking out of tendons
prematurely was reported. As the modulus of elasticity of glass fiber ACM,
tendon is low leading to a strain as high as 2% at working stress level
during initial prestressing which produce very long elongation of
prestressing tendons and should be accommodated by long anchorages
and enough space behind anchorages.(refer fig 3, 4 )

Pretensioned slab on girder bridges and posttensioned using aramid

fiber ACM tendons and carbon fiber ACM tendons have been reported
from Japan.

The Heavy Assault bridge made for the U.S. Army is to be carried in
three jointed sections on a armored vehicle, unfolds hydraulically to
create 106ft. span and supports 70 ton load. Twelve carbon-epoxy chords
about 38 ft long and 45 inch in cross section supports the structure.

ARAPREE is a composite prestressing tendon consisting of aramid

filaments and epoxy matrix. The mechanical properties of rectangular

strip (20 mm x 1.5 mm) with 50% fiber volume are : tensile strength
2800 MPa, Youngs modulus 125-130 GPa, failure strain 2.4%, density
2.4, Relaxation is 15 to 20%.

AFRP ROD from Teijin is another concrete reinforcing tendon using

Technora aramid fibers. Mechanical properties of a typical 6 mm diameter
rod with 65% fiber volume are : tensile strength 1862 MPa, tensile
modulus 52.9 GPa, failure strain 3.7%, relaxation 7-14%.

CFCC is the carbon fiber composite cable from Tokyo Rope

Manufacturing Company. PAN based carbon fiber is impregnated with
epoxy. The Mechanical properties of typical cable (Seven strands, dia.
0.49 inch ) are : tensile strength 2118 MPa, tensile modulus 137 GPa ,
specific weight 1.5, elongation at break 1.57 %, relaxation loss upto
2.46%, creep 0.04%, bond stress 7.2 MPa.

3. ACMs as Reinforcement
It has been reported that ACM reinforced bar behave in the same manner as
that of steel bars in the slabs and beams1. Due to their less youngs modulus
deflection was considered as a limiting criteria in case of ACM reinforced
beams. In slabs ACM bars are used as reinforcement in the form of
composite grids, when compared with steel grid, the maximum load
supported by slab reinforced with ACM grid was observed to equal or more
than slab reinforced with steel grid2. Slabs when reinforced with 3-D
continuous carbon fiber and loaded exhibited non linear behavior and
reduction in stiffness in post cracking stage3.
Kajima-FRC reported a type of composite concrete called 3R-FRC in which 3D fabric, made by weaving the fiber rovings in three direction is impregnated
by epoxy and cured, and is employed as main reinforcement. The fiber is a
hybrid of PAN based carbon, aramid and vinylon fibers. NEFMAC is also a kind
of composite reinforcement for concrete. A hybrid of continuous carbon, glass
and aramid fibers is impregnated with resin and formed into mesh enabling
thinner section of concrete to be used.

COST ECONOMICS
In general composite products for main reinforcement of concrete, cables
and tendons are more expensive than steel on the basis of weight for weight

thereby prohibiting use of ACMs extensively in structural applications.

However weight is not logical basis for cost comparisons. A more rational
basis should be strength. The corrosion resistance, nonmagnetic properties,
low electrical conductivity, weather durability, light weight and other
properties of ACMs may play an important role for engineers to select ACM
reinforcement instead of conventional steel. If the cost of corrosion
rehabilitation and repairs of R.C.C. structures is to be considered, ACMs cost
could be comparable with steel. With the increase amount of usage, adopting
a good design scheme, increase opportunities for application, sophistication
in technology the cost of ACMs will be decreased considerably in future.

THREE PHASES OF BUILDING

MATERIALS
Three Phases of Building materials:
A materials life cycle can be organized into three phases:

Pre-Building

Building; and

Post-Building.

These three life-cycle phases relate to the flow of materials through the life
of the building. The evaluation of building materials environmental impact at
each stage allows for a cost-benefit analysis over the lifetime of a building,
rather than simply an accounting of initial construction costs.

Flowchart 3: Phases of building materials

Select sustainable construction materials and products by evaluating several
characteristics such as

Reused and recycled content,

zero or low off gassing of harmful air emissions,

zero or low toxicity,

Sustainably harvested materials,

High recyclability, durability, longevity, and local production.

Such products promote resource conservation and efficiency. Use

dimensional planning and other material efficiency strategies. These
strategies reduce the amount of building materials needed and cut
construction costs. For example, design rooms on 4-foot multiples to
conform to standard-sized wallboard and plywood sheets.
Reuse and recycle construction and demolition materials. For example, using
inert demolition materials as a base course for a parking lot keeps materials
out of landfills and costs less. Require plans for managing materials through
deconstruction, demolition, and construction. Design with adequate space to
facilitate recycling collection and to incorporate a solid waste
management program that prevents waste generation.

TYPES OF CEMENT AND THEIR USES

TYPES OF CEMENT, ITS COMPOSITION AND USES
The following are the types ofcement that are in practice:
1. Rapid Hardening Cement
2. Quick setting cement
3. Low Heat Cement
4. Sulphates resisting cement
5. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
6. High Alumina Cement
7. White Cement
8. Coloured cement
9. Pozzolanic Cement
10. Air Entraining Cement
11. Hydrographic cement
Table below shows different types of cement, their composition and uses:

Types of
Cement

Composition

Purpose

Rapid Hardening
Cement

Increased Lime content

Attains high strength in early days

it is used in concrete where form
work are removed at an early
stage.

Quick setting
cement

Small percentage of
aluminium sulphate as an
accelerator and reducing
percentage of Gypsum with
fine grinding

Used in works is to be completed

in very short period and
concreting in static and running
water

Low Heat
Cement

Manufactured by reducing
tri-calcium aluminate

It is used in
massive concreteconstruction like
gravity dams

Sulphates
resisting Cement

It is prepared by
maintaining the percentage
of tricalcium aluminate
below 6% which increases
power against sulphates

It is used in construction exposed

to severe sulphate action by water
and soil in places like canals
linings, culverts, retaining walls,
siphons etc.,

Blast Furnace
Slag Cement

It is obtained by grinding
the clinkers with about 60%
slag and resembles more or
less in properties of
Portland cement

It can used for works economic

considerations is predominant.

High Alumina
Cement

It is obtained by melting
mixture of bauxite and lime
and grinding with the
clinker it is rapid hardening
cement with initial and final
setting time of about 3.5
and 5 hours respectively

It is used in works where concrete

is subjected to high temperatures,
frost, and acidic action.

White Cement

It is prepared from raw

materials free from Iron
oxide.

It is more costly and is used for

architectural purposes such as
pre-cast curtain wall and facing
panels, terrazzo surface etc.,

Coloured cement

It is produced by mixing
mineral pigments with
ordinary cement.

They are widely used for

decorative works in floors

Pozzolanic
Cement

It is prepared by grindin
pozzolanic clinker with

It is used in marine structures,

sewage works, sewage works and

Portland cement

for laying concrete under water

such as bridges, piers, dams etc.,

Air Entraining
Cement

It is produced by adding
indigenous air entraining
agents such as resins,
glues, sodium salts of
Sulphates etc during the
grinding of clinker.

This type of cement is specially

suited to improve the workability
with smaller water cement ratio
and to improve frost resistance of
concrete.

Hydrographic
cement

It is prepared by mixing
water repelling chemicals

This cement has high workability

and strength

COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND
CEMENT
COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The principle raw materials used in the manufacture of cement are:

a) Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shales.
b) Calcareous or calcium carbonate, in the form of lime stone, chalk and marl
which is a mixture of clay and calcium carbonate.
The ingredients are mixed in the proportion of about two parts of calcareous
materials to one part of argillaceous materials and then crushed and ground
in ball mills in a dry state or mixed in wet state. The dry powder or the wet
slurry is then burnt in a rotary kiln at a temperature between 1400 degree C
to 1500 degree C. the clinker obtained from the kiln is first cooled and then
passed on to ball mills where gypsum is added and it is ground to the
requisite fineness according to the class of product.
The chief chemical constituents of Portland cement
are as follows:
Lime (CaO)
Silica (SiO2)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Iron oxide (Fe2O3)
Magnesia (MgO)
Sulphur trioxide (SO3)
Soda and/or Potash (Na2O+K2O)

60 to 67%
17 to 25%
3 to 8%
0.5 to 6%
0.1 to 4%
1 to 3%
0.5 to 1.3%

The above constituents forming the raw materials undergo chemical reactions
during burning and fusion, and combine to form the following compounds
called BOGUE COMPOUNDS.
Compound
Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2)
Dicalcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2)
Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3)
Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite
(4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3)

Abbreviated
designation
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF

The proportions of the above four compounds vary in the various Portland
cements. Tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicates contribute most to the
eventual strength. Initial setting of Portland cement is due to tricalcium
aluminate. Tricalcium silicate hydrates quickly and contributes more to the
early strength. The contribution of dicalcium silicate takes place after 7 days

and may continue for up to 1 year. Tricalcium aluminate hydrates quickly,

generates much heat and makes only a small contribution to the strength
within the first 24 hours. Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite is comparatively
inactive. All the four compounds generate heat when mixed with water, the
aluminate generating the maximum heat and the dicalcium silicate
generating the minimum. Due to this, tricalcium aluminate is responsible for
the most of the undesirable properties of concrete. Cement having less C3A
will have higher ultimate strength, less generation of heat and less cracking.
Table below gives the composition and percentage of found compounds for
normal and rapid hardening and low heat Portland cement.

Composition and compound content of Portland Cement:

Normal

Rapid
hardening

Low
heat

63.1
20.6
6.3
3.6

64.5
20.7
5.2
2.9

60
22.5
5.2
4.6

40
30
11
12

50
21
9
9

25
35
6
14

(a) Composition: Percent

Lime
Silica
Alumina
Iron Oxide
(b) Compound: Percent
C3S
C2S
C3A
C3A

Where Do Designers Go Wrong

Where Do Designers Go Wrong? Typical Problems in Wood
Construction

Wood and wood products are relatively simple engineering materials, but the
conception, design, and construction process is fraught with problems and
places to err. In using wood in its many forms and with its unique inherent
characteristics, there are problem areas which seem to present easily
overlooked pitfalls. As gentle reminders for caution, some of these areas are
discussed below.
Wood and water do not mix well
Wood is hygroscopic and, unless preservative-treated, rots when its MC rises
above 20%. It must be protected in some way. Minor roof leakage often
leads to pockets of decay, which may not be noticed until severe decay or
actual failure has occurred. Stained areas on wood siding or at joints may
indicate metal fastener rust associated with a wet spot or decay in adjoining,
supporting members. In many cases what appears to be a minor problem
ends up as major and sometimes extensive repair is required. Improper
installation or lack of an adequate vapor barrier can result in serious decay in
studs within a wall as well as paint peel on exterior surfaces. Ground contact
of wood members can lead to decay as well as providing ready access to
wood-deteriorating termites. Placement of preservative-treated members
between the ground and the rest of the structure (as a bottom sill in a
residence) is usually a code requirement. Timber arches for churches,
office buildings, and restaurants are usually affixed to a foundation by steel
supports; if the supports are not properly installed, they may merely form a
receptacle for rain or condensation to collect, enter the wood through
capillary action, and initiate decay. Once decay is discovered, major repair is
indicated; preservative treatment to a decayed area may prevent further
decay, but it will not restore the strength of the material. Elimination of the
causal agent (moisture) is paramount. Visible decay usually means that
significant fungal deterioration has progressed for 1 to 2 feet along the grain
of a member beyond where it is readily identifiable.
Pay attention to detail
In an area that has high relative humidity, special precautions should be
taken. A structure that is surrounded by trees or other vegetation or that
prevents wind and sun from drying action, is prone to high humidity nearly
every day, particularly on a north side. Likewise, if the structure is near a
stream or other source of moisture, it may have moisture problems. Home
siding in this type of atmosphere may warp or exhibit heavy mildew or fungal
stain. Buildings with small (or nonexistent) roof overhangs are susceptible to

similar siding problems if the siding is improperly installed, allowing water or

condensation to enter and accumulate behind the siding. Inadequate sealing
and painting of a surface can add to the problem. In a classic example, a
three-story home on a tree-shaded area next to a small stream and with no
roof overhang had poorly installed siding, which subsequently warped so
badly that numerous pieces fell off of the home. Poor architecture, poor site,
poor construction practice, and poor judgment combined to create a disaster.
This type of problem becomes magnified in commercial structures, where
large surfaces are covered with wood panel products that tend to swell in
thickness at their joints if they are not properly sealed and protected from
unusual moisture environments. If properly installed, these materials provide
economical, long-term, excellent service.
Wood is viscoelastic and will creep under load
This has created widespread problems in combination with clogged or
inadequate drains on flat roofs. Ponding, with increasing roof joist deflection,
can lead to ultimate roof failure. In situations where floor or ceiling deflection
is important, a rule of thumb to follow is that increased deflection due to
long-term creep may be assumed to be about equal to initial deflection under
the design loading. In some cases the occupants of a building will report that
they can hear wood members creaking, particularly under a snow load or
ponding action. This is a good indication that the structure is overstressed
and failure, or increasing creep deformation with impending failure, is
imminent. Deflection measurements over a several-week period can often
isolate the problem and lead to suitable reinforcement.
Repair structural members correctly
Epoxy resin impregnation and other techniques are often used to repair
structural members. These methods are said to be particularly effective in
repairing decayed areas in beams and columns. Removal of decayed spots
and replacement by epoxy resin is acceptable only if the afflicted members
are also shielded from the original causal agentexcess moisture or insect
attack. Likewise, if a wood adhesive must be used as a fastener in an
exposed area, use a waterproof adhesive; water-resistant or carpenters
glue wont do. Although several wood adhesives will produce a wood-towood
bond stronger than the wood itself, most of these adhesives are formulated
for, and used in, furniture manufacture, where the wood is dry (about 6 to
7% MC) at time of fabrication and is presumed to be kept that way.
Structural-use adhesives (unless they are specially formulated epoxy or

similar types) may be used where the wood is not above about 20% MC.
Structural-use adhesives must also be gap fillers; i.e., they must be able to
form a strong joint between two pieces of wood that are not always perfectly
flat, close-fitting surfaces. In addition, the adhesive should be waterproof.
The most common and readily available adhesive that meets these criteria is
a phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde adhesive, a catalyzed, dark purple-colored
adhesive which is admirably suited to the task.
Protect materials at the job site
Failure to do so has caused plywood and other panel products to become wet
through exposure to rain so that they delaminate, warp severely, or swell in
thickness to the point of needing to be discarded. Lumber piled on the
ground for several days or more, particularly in hot, humid weather, will pick
up moisture and warp or acquire surface fungi and stain. This does not harm
the wood if it is subsequently dried again, but it does render it esthetically
unfit for exposed use. To repeat, wood and water do not mix.
Take time to know what species and grades of lumber you require,
and then inspect it
Engineers and architects tend to order the lumber grade indicated by
mathematical calculations; carpenters use what is provided to them. Unlike
times past, no one seems to be ultimately responsible for appropriate quality
until a problem arises and expensive rework is needed. Case in point: a No. 2
grade 2-by, which is tacitly presumed to be used in conjunction with other
structural members to form an integrated structure, is not satisfactory for
use as scaffolding plank or to serve a similar, critical function on the job site
where it is subjected to large loads independent of neighboring planks.
Inspect the job site
Make sure that panel products, such as plywood, OSB, or flakeboard, are
kept under roof prior to installation. Stacked on the ground or subjected to
several weeks of rainy weather, not only will these panels warp, but they may
lose their structural integrity over time. An ounce of prevention, etc.
Be aware of wood and within-grade variability due to the uniqueness
of tree growth and wood defects

It is often wise to screen lumber to cull out pieces that have unusually wide
growth rings or wood that is from an area including the pith (center) of the
tree. This material often tends to shrink along its length as much as ten
times the normal amount due to an inherently high microfibrillar angle in
growth rings close to the pith. In truss manufacture this has resulted in the
lower chords of some trusses in a home (lower chords in winter being
warmer and drier) to shorten as they dry, while the top chords do not change
MC as much. The result is that the truss will bow upward, separating by as
much as an inch from interior partitions very disconcerting to the
inhabitants and very difficult to cure. A good component fabricator is aware
of this phenomenon and will buy higher-quality material to at least minimize
the potential problem. Conversely, avoid the expensive; cover all the bases
approach of ordering only the top grade of the strongest species available.
Inspect all timber connections during erection
Check on proper plate fasteners on trusses and parallel chord beams after
installation; plates should have sufficient teeth fully embedded into each
adjoining member. Occasionally in a very dense piece the metal teeth will
bend over rather than penetrate into the wood properly. A somewhat similar
problem arises if wood frames or trusses are not handled properly during
erection; avoid undue out-of-plane bending in a truss during transport or
erection since this will not only highly stress the lumber but may also
partially remove the plates holding the members together. Bolted connections
must be retightened at regular intervals for about a year after erection to
take up any slack due to subsequent lumber drying and shrinkage.
Perhaps one of the major causes of disaster is the lack of adequate
bracing during frame erection
This is a particularly familiar scenario on do-it-yourself projects, such as by
church groups or unskilled erection crews. Thin, 2-by lumber is inherently
unstable in long lengths; design manuals and warning labels on lumber or
product shipments testify to this, yet the warnings are continually
disregarded. Unfortunately, the engineer, designer, or architect and materials
supplier often are made to share the resulting financial responsibility.
Be aware of woods orthotropicity
A large slope of grain around a knot or a knot strategically poorly placed can
seriously alter bending or compressive strength and are even more limiting in

tension members. Allowable design values for tension parallel to the grain
are dictated by an ASTM standard (ASTM, 1992) as being 55% of allowable
bending values because test results have indicated that slope of grain or
other defects greatly reduce tensile properties. Different orthotropic
shrinkage values, due to grain deviations or improper fastening of dissimilar
wood planes, can lead to warpage and subsequent shifts in load-induced
stresses. Care must be taken when using multiple fasteners (bolts, split
rings, etc.) to avoid end splits as wood changes MC, particularly if the
members are large and only partially dried at the time of installation. When
installing a deep beam that is end-supported by a heavy steel strap hanger, it
is often best to fasten the beam to the hanger by a single bolt, installed near
the lower edge of the beam. This will provide the necessary restraint against
lateral movement, whereas multiple bolts placed in a vertical row will prevent
the beam from normal shrinkage in place and often induce splits in the ends
of the beam as the beam tries to shrink and swell with changes in relative
humidity. Not only are the end splits unsightly, but they also reduce the
horizontal shear strength of the beam at a critical point. In addition, if the
beam has several vertically aligned bolts and subsequently shrinks, the bolts
will become the sole support of the beam independent of the strap hanger, as
shrinkage lifts the beam free of the supporting strap hanger.
Use metal joist hangers and other fastening devices; they add
strength and efficiency in construction to a job
Toe-nailing the end of a joist may restrain it from lateral movement, but it
does little to prevent it from overturning if there is no stabilizing decking.
Erection stresses caused by carpenters and erection crews standing or
working on partially completed framework are a leading cause of member
failure and job site injury.
In renovating old structures, as long as decay is not present, the old
members can be reused
However, because large sawn timbers tend to crack as they dry in place over
a period of time, the members must be regraded by a qualified grader. The
dried wood (usually well below 19% MC) has increased considerably in
strength, perhaps counterbalancing the decrease in strength due to deep
checking and/or splitting. End splits over supports should be carefully
checked for potential shear failure.
Wood and fire pose a unique situation

Wood burns, but in larger sizes15 cm (6 in.) and largerthe outer shell of
wood burns slowly and, as the wood turns to charcoal, the wood becomes
insulated and ceases to support combustion. Once the fire has been
extinguished, the wood members can be removed, planed free of char, and
reused, but at a reduced section modulus. Smaller members can also be fire
retardanttreated to the degree that they will not support combustion.
However, treating companies should be consulted in regard to any possible
strength-reducing effects due to the treatment, particularly where such
members are to be subjected to poorly ventilated areas of high temperature
and high relative humidity, as in attic spaces. In recent years newly
developed fire retardant treatments have reacted with wood when in a high
temperaturehigh relative humidity environment to seriously deteriorate the
wood in treated plywood or truss members. These chemicals, presumably
withdrawn from the marketplace, act slowly over time, but have contributed
to structural failure in the attics of numerous condominium type buildings.
Preventive measures where such problems may be anticipated include the
addition of thermostatically controlled forced-air venting (the easiest and
probably most effective measure); the addition of an insulation layer to the
underside of the roof to reduce the amount of heat accumulation in the attic
due to radiant heat absorption from the sun; and the installation of a vapor
barrier on the floor of the attic to reduce the amount of water vapor from the
underlying living units. In using preservative-treated wood it is always best
certainly so when dealing with larger members to make all cuts to length,
bore holes, cut notches, etc., prior to treatment. Depth of preservative
treatment in larger members is usually not complete, and exposure of
untreated material through cutting may invite decay. Determination of the
depth of penetration of a preservative by noting a color change in the wood
is hazardous; penetration may be more or less than is apparent to the eye.
Deep checking as a large member dries will often expose untreated wood to
fungal organisms or insects. Periodic treatment by brushing preservative into
exposed cracks is highly recommended. This is particularly true for log
hometype construction. Modern log home construction utilizes partially
seasoned materials with shaped sections, which not only increase the
insulative quality of the homes but also tend to balance, or relieve, shrinkage
forces to reduce cracking. Treated or raised nonwood foundations are
recommended. Wood is an excellent construction material, tested and used
effectively over the years for a myriad of structural applicationsprovided
one takes the time to understand its strengths and weaknesses and to

pay appropriate attention to detail. Knowing species and lumber grade

characteristics and how a member is to be used, not only in a structure but
also during erection, can go a long way toward trouble-free construction.

FLEXIBLE ENGINEERED
CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES
Conventional concretes are almost un-bendable and have a strain capacity of
only 0.1 percent making them highly brittle and rigid. This lack of bendability
is a major cause of failure under strain and has been a pushing factor in the
development of an elegant material namely, Engineered
CementitiousComposites abbreviated as ECC. This material is capable to
exhibit considerably enhanced flexibility. An ECC has a strain capacity of
more than 3 percent and thus acts more like a ductile metal rather than like
a brittle glass. A bendable concrete is composed of all the ingredients of a
traditional concrete minus coarseaggregates or crushed stones and is
reinforced with micromechanically designed polymer fibers.

Plain concrete possesses a very low tensile strength, low ductility and little
resistance to cracking. Internal micro-cracks are inherently present in the
concrete (due to drying shrinkage) and its poor tensile strength is due to the
propagation of these cracks (under loading), eventually leading to brittle
failure of the concrete.
It is a well-known fact that the addition of small, discrete and uniformly
dispersed fibers in concrete acts as a barrier to crack propagation and
improves its mechanical properties. Such type of concrete consisting of
concrete mix (cement, sand, coarse aggregates, water and sometimes
admixtures) containing uniformly dispersed discrete fibers is known as Fiberreinforced concrete abbreviated as FRC. The conventional fiber-reinforced
concrete is prepared by using different material fibers, the important ones
being steel, polypropylene, asbestos, glass and carbon fibers.
The material ingredients which make up ECC are similar to FRCs that is it
contains cement, sand, water, and admixtures. However, coarse aggregates
are not used in ECCs (hence it is a mortar rather than concrete). Additionally,
ECC uses low amounts, typically 2% by volume, of short, discontinuous
fibers. ECC incorporates super fine (100 microns in diameter) silica sand and
tiny Polyvinyl Alcohol-fibers covered with a very thin (nanometer thick), slick
coating. This surface coating allows the fiber to begin slipping when they are
over loaded so they are not fracturing. It prevents the fiber from rupturing
which would lead to large cracking. Thus an ECC deforms much more than a
normal concrete but without fracturing. The different ingredients of ECC work
together to share the applied load.
According to geologists, sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625 mm to
2 mm. Silica sand is one of the most common varieties of sand found in the
world. Silicon sand is defined as sand which contains 80-90% of silica (SiO 2)
particles. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH, or PVA) is a water-soluble synthetic
polymer. Polyvinyl alcohol has high tensile strength and flexibility. Prior to
use in ECC, these fibers are slick-coated. Although complete friction
elimination is not possible by using any slick coating, the emphasis is to
reduce the friction at its maximum. According to geologists, sand particles
range in diameter from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. Silica sand is one of the most
common varieties of sand found in the world. Silicon sand is defined as sand
which contains 80-90% of silica (SiO2) particles. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH, or
PVA) is a water-soluble synthetic polymer. Polyvinyl alcohol has high tensile
strength and flexibility and are well-suited to be used in making ECC.

Polyvinyl Alcohol Fibers

Figure Bendable concrete

ECC has proved to be 500 times more flexible than traditional concrete, and
40 times lighter, which could even influence design choices in skyscrapers.
Additionally, the excellent energy absorbing properties of ECC make it
especially suitable for critical elements in seismic zones.

MOST SUITABLE MATERIAL FOR

CONSTRUCTION
Stone, bricks and concrete are materials that can be used in construction
ofbuildings. Each materials has its own characteristic that makes them
different to the other materials. In other word, each of these materials have
their own advantages and disadvantages, hence, the best option of material
should exhibits a balanced of characteristics ranging from its strength ,
elemental damage resistancy, durability , availability, longevity, costs,
protectiveness, and lastly, the ease of use.
Stone is the most basic natural building materials. People all over the world
have used them together to create homes to suit their local weather
conditions. In general, stones are used as basic structural components in
buildings. Stone structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is
the longest lasting building material ever used, and is usually readily
available. Stones are also extremely durable. It does not rot, corrodes nor
can be burnt easily. It gives the structure of buildings the look

of permanence and strength. Mostly, stone buildings can be seen in most

major cities, even in some civilisations were built entirely with stone such as
the Pyramids in Egypt. Stone is a very dense material so it gives a lot of
protection. Its main
draw-back is its weight which is very heavy compared to bricks and concrete.
This will lead to the high-cost of transportation from the quarry to the
construction site. Plus, building stone structures are also relentlessly timeconsuming affair.
On the other hand, bricks, are usually made of clay. Blocks of clay bricks are
formed in a mould by extruding clay through a moulding device and then
cutting them to the proper size. These heat-hardened bricks is much more of
flame retardant and moist-resistant than that of concrete especially in
crowding cities. Due to its property for being more of flame retardant,
it resists heat damage from fires which is useful for protection.Not to
mention its moist-resistancy feature is to avoid water particles from
degrading the brick strength as the water from any source such as the rain,
disrupt the solid-bonds of the brick .This will promoterelatively high
longevity to the building. Besides, bricks are highly-resistant against
compressive forc which is advantageous for skyscrapers builts. Bricks are
also known for itsease of fitting regular shapes, primarily the shapes of
polygons. However, although bricks arestrong but it is not strong as stone.
Bricks are also not expensive compared stone nor is cheap as concrete,
it costs moderately.
While, concretes is formed from combining water, a special cement and a
grinded rocks. Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and
placement due to a chemical process known as hydration. The water reacts
with the cement, which bonds the other components together, shortly a
moment later creating a stone-like material giving itstrength.
In addition,it is commonly used in buildings due to its relatively short timeconsumptionaffair. Concrete can be formed into many shapes due to its
fluidity before it hardens, thus, this heuilding material in this modern age. In
addition, concrete comes cheap and is durable, however it is considered to
be less strong and short-lived than brick and stone buildings. Concrete has
relatively high compressive strength, in which it can withstand strong
compressive force. Moreover, concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal
expansion, in other word, concretes are less resistant to stretching force due
to thermal expansion on a hot day. Hence, as is stretches beyond limit, it

cracks. Concrete that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep,

which may cause a building to become unstable and unsafe for further
protection compared to stone and bricks.
Therefore, stone can be chosen as the material for construction. Reason is,
although building a stone structures costs a lot of energy, time, and money,
the most important objectives to building is its capability to keep the safety
of peoples life. It is sure no one would want to stay in a building that is
unsure of its strength to provide shelter while the stone is very reliable one.
In addition, stone is the strongest compared to the other two. Stone are also
readily available to get. Besides, stone is extremely durable. In significance
of its supreme durability, elemental damages such as fire, floods, storms as
well as any other natural disasters except earth-quake can neither destruct
nor devastate stone structures as easy as the other buildings which is built
with bricks or concretes.
Plus, stone consigns the building the look of permanence and strength in
which the other two materials lacked of. It is proven that stone are truly the
best choice for shelters even before the foundation of bricks and concrete
due to its undisputable strength, for example, the existence of Pyramid in the
Egypt which was constructed thousand years ago using stones and yet the
so-called primitive building still stands firm until today. It is also believed that
for derelict buildings, concrete structures are the first to run down, followed
by brick structures, while stone structures may last for thousands of years
even after going through various violent natures course. Last but not least,
the appearance of permanence and strength in a building also convince its
visitors the feeling of calm and safeness which would then considers it as the
best building for whatever purposes it is made for.

TESTS ON BUILDING STONES

Building stones are to be tested for their properties. Following are the tests
conducted on stones:

1.

Acid Test:

Here, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken. It is placed in

a solution of hydrophobic acid having strength of one percent and is kept
there for seven days. Solution is agitated at intervals. A good building stone
maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface free from powder at the end
of this period. If the edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface,

it indicates the presence of calcium carbonate and such a stone will have
poor weathering quality. This test is usually carried out on sandstones.
1.

Attrition Test:

This test is done to find out the rate of wear of stones, which are used in
road construction. The results of the test indicates the resisting power of
stones against the grinding action under traffic.
The following procedure is adopted:
i. Samples of stones is broken into pieces about 60mm size.
ii. Such pieces, weighing 5kg are put in both the cylinders of Devils attrition
test machine. Diameter and length of cylinder are respectively 20cm and 34
cm.
iii. Cylinders are closed. Their axes make an angle of 30 degree with the
horizontal.
iv. Cylinders are rotated about the horizontal axis for 5 hours at the rate of
30 rpm.
v. After this period, the contents are taken out from the cylinders and they
are passed through a sieve of 1.5mm mesh.
vi. Quality of material which is retained on the sieve is weighed.
vii. Percentage wear worked out as follows:

Percentage wear =
1.

Crushing Test:

Samples of stone is cut into cubes of size 40x40x40 mm. sizes of cubes are
finely dressed and finished. Maximum number of specimen to be tested is
three. Such specimen should be placed in water for about 72 hours prior to
test and therefore tested in saturated condition.

Load bearing surface is then covered with plaster of paris of about 5mm thick
plywood. Load is applied axially on the cube in a crushing test machine. Rate
of loading is 140 kg/sq.cm per minute. Crushing strength of the stone per
unit area is the maximum load at which the sample crushes or fails divided
by the area of the bearing face of the specimen.
1.

Crystalline Test:

At least four cubes of stone with side as 40mm are taken. They are dried for
72 hrs and weighed. They are then immersed in 14% solution of Na2SO4 for
2 hours. They are dried at 100 degree C and weighed. Difference in weight is
noted. This procedure of drying, weighing, immersion and reweighing is
repeated atleast 5 times. Each time, change in weight is noted and it is
expressed as a percentage of original weight.
Crystallization of CaSO4 in pores of stone causes decay of stone due to
weathering. But as CaSO4 has low solubility in water, it is not adopted in this
test.
1.

Freezing and thawing test:

Stone specimen is kept immersed in water for 24 hours. It is then placed in a

freezing machine at -12 degC for 24 hours. Then it is thawed or warmed at
atmospheric temperature. This should be done in shade to prevent any effect
due to wind, sun rays, rain etc. this procedure is repeated several times and
the behaviour of stone is carefully observed.
1.

Hardness Test:

For determining the hardness of a stone, the test is carried out as follows:
i. A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from the
sample of stone.
ii. It is weighed.
iii. The sample is placed in Dorrys testing machine and it is subjected to a
pressure of 1250 gm.
iv. Annular steel disc machine is then rotated at a speed of 28 rpm.

v. During the rotation of the disc, coarse sand of standard specification is

sprinkled on the top of disc.
vi. After 1000 revolutions, specimen is taken out and weighed.
vii. The coefficient of hardness is found out from the following equation:

Coefficient of hardness =
1.

Impact Test:

For determining the toughness of stone, it is subjected to impact test in a

Page Impact Test Machine as followed:
i. A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from the
sample of stones.
ii. It is then placed on cast iron anvil of machine.
iii. A steel hammer of weight 2kg is allowed to fall axially in a vertical
direction over the specimen.
iv. Height of first blow is 1 cm, that of second blow is 2cm, that of third blow
is 3 cm and so on.
v. Blow at which specimen breaks is noted. If it is nth blow, n represents the
toughness index of stone.
1.

Microscopic Test:

The sample of the test is subjected to microscopic examination. The sections

of stones are taken and placed under the microscope to study the various
properties such as
i. Average grain size
ii. Existence of pores, fissures, veins and shakes
iii. Mineral constituents

iv. Nature of cementing material

v. Presence of any harmful substance
vi. Texture of stones etc.
1.

Smiths Test:

This test is performed to find out the presence of soluble matter in a sample
of stone. Few chips or pieces of stone are taken and they are placed in a
glass tube. The tube is then filled with clear water. After about an hour, the
tube is vigorously stirred or shaken. Presence of earthy matter will convert
the clear water into dirty water. If water remains clear, stone will be durable
and free from any soluble matter.
1.

Water Absorption Test:

The test is carried out as follows:

i. From the sample of stone, a cube weighing about 50gm is prepared. Its
actual weight is recorded as

gm.

ii. Cube is then immersed in distilled water for a period of 24 hrs.

iii. Cube is taken out of water and surface water is wiped off with a damp
cloth.
iv. It is weighed again. Let the weight be

gm.

v. Cube is suspended freely in water and its weight is recorded. Let this
be

gm.

vi. Water is boiled and cube is kept in boiling water for 5 hours.
vii. Cube is removed and surface water is wiped off with a damp cloth. Its
weight is recorded. Let it be

gm.

From the above observations, values of the following properties of stones are
obtained.

Percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours =

Percentage absorption by volume after 24 hours =

Volume of displaced water =

Percentage porosity by volume =

Density =

Specific Gravity =

Saturation Coefficient =

INHIBITORS ADMIXED CEMENT

New concrete buildings are built for long life. Inhibitors
added concrete structures have still longer life.
The crack formation in concrete structure occurs due to the corrosion of
rebar inside the concrete. This occurs because of the surface oxidization of
iron rod into iron oxide due to diffused oxygen and moisture in the concrete.
The places, where the chloride content in the ground water is more,
carbonation reaction occurs which leads to the decrease in alkalinity. Because
of this, the rate of corrosion of steel rebar increases and eventually the
cracks are formed. By adding the inhibitors admixture to the concrete mix,
the corrosion of steel rebar can be prevented.

TWO MAJOR CAUSES OF CORROSION IN CONCRETE:

Concrete is highly alkaline material when first produced (pH range 12-13).
The embedded steel is protected by a passive oxide layer which is maintained
by high alkalinity at the surface of steel.
Under certain exposures and conditions the natural passivating protection of
steel breaks down. In the presence of moisture and oxygen, the corrosion
then occurs.
The two major causes are,
1. CARBONATION OF CONCRETE:

The most common cause of loss of passivating alkalinity is carbonation-a

process where by atmospheric carbon-di-oxide and sulphur-di-oxide present
in lime reacts with the soluble alkaline calcium hydroxide in concrete and it is
converted into soluble calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate.

The alkalinity of the cement matrix is reduced and its passivating ability is
lost progressively from the surface inward.
Once the concrete in contact with reinforced steel was carbonated the steel is
no longer protected. In the presence of moisture and oxygen corrosion is
inevitable.
2. CHLORIDES IN CONCRETE:
The concentration of chlorides require to promote corrosion of embedded
reinforcement is affected by the pH of the concrete. In alkaline fresh
concrete higher chloride concentration is needed to promote corrosion. When
the alkalinity is reduced due to carbonation process even small chloride
concentration may induce the corrosion of rebar in concrete.
PROCESS OF CORROSION:
The corrosion product of steel (iron oxides or hydroxides) occupies a much
greater volume than the steel (4-12 times the volume). This increase in
volume exerts a great expansive pressure within the concrete, leading to
cracking.
Being an electrochemical process, corrosion of steel in concrete requires an
electrolyte. Concrete is full of small pores which contains moisture, and so, is
an effective electrolyte. A small, electrical current flows between the anode
and the cathode with corrosion activity (rust formation) taking place at the
anode. When INHIBITORS reaches reinforcing steel, it forms a protective
layer that protects the steel in both anode and cathode areas.

CORROSION RATE OF STEEL:

PROPERTY

CEMENT

CEMENT +
INHIBITOR

Corrosion
rate (mmpy)

0.0191

0.0029

CORROSION PREVENTION ACTION BY INHIBITORS:

When inhibitor approaches the steel rebar surface, it forms a protective layer
which prevents the corrosion of iron by moisture and other ions such as
chloride. The steel rebars life is increased by five times, which is proved by
the weight loss experiment. The inhibitor doesnt alter the properties of
concrete such as strength and setting time but increases the life of the
concrete. The chemical nature of the inhibitor doesnt change with time. This
property helps in increasing the life of the concrete.

COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

S.No.

CHARACTERISTICS

1.

Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

CEMENT

CEMENT
INHIBITORS

16.000

16.500

On mortar cubes as per

IS 1489 (Part I):1991
3 days

7 days
2.

38.70

1.240

1.260

.328

.290

149

135

345

330

Consistency for 33 mm penetration

(As per IS269:1952)

5.

38.70

Tensile strength (N/mm2}

(As per IS 269: 195)

4.

19.830

28 days compressive strength

on concrete cubes (N/mm2)

3.

17.750

Setting time (minutes)

[As per IS 1489 (Part I): 1991]
Initial setting time (mts)
Final setting time (mts)

CORROSION RESISTANT PROPERTY OF CONCRETE (AFTER 3 YEARS):

TECHNIQUE

ADDED
CORROSION
CEMENT +
CHLORIDE CEMENT
DURABILITY
PARAMETER
INHIBITOR
IN PPM

Impedance

Charge transfer
resistance (Rct)10,000
(K-ohm)

5.2

37

We infer from the tabular column, that the concretes corrosion resistant
property is very much less when compared to that of INHIBITOR ADMIXED
CONCRETE.
The same is shown in the graphical representation as below;
COMPARISON OF CORROSION RESISTANT PROPERTY:

TMT STEEL RODS MANUFACTURING

& PROPERTIES
TMT STEEL RODS
For years, Bamboo has been used by man for construction activities, later it
has been replaced by CTD (Cold Twisted Deformed steel rods) or TOR steel
rods. The manufacturers adopted the Cold Twisting Process in which the
naturally cooled rods were twisted by means of motors. Thus the molecular
structure of the core steel is weakened. Thus it should not be used for
construction activities.
Now, the TMT (THERMO MECHANICALLY TREATED) steel rods have emerged.
This rod is not twisted; instead it is treated with the WATER JACKETING
PROCESS and allowed to cool in the ambient condition.

COMPOSITION:
The TMT chemistry
BIS

(BUREAU

STANDARDS)

OF

INDIAN

ROSUN TMT

Carbon (Max%)

0.30

0.25 to 0.30

Manganese (%)

0.5 to 1.2

0.5 to 0.8

Sulphur & Phosphorous

as per IS:1786/85

as per IS:1786/85

MANUFACTURE:

WATER JACKETING:

The steel rebar are at high temperature when they leave the last rolling
stand. They are immediately passed through a pre-determined quantity of a
high-pressure water-cooling system. These instant cooling tempers the outer
surface and it becomes very hard. The next phase involves cooling at an
ambient temperature that allows the hot core to temper the surface through
thermal exchange. This result in a unique tempered structure
ofMARTENSITE (outer) and a fine-grained BAINITE-FERRITE /

PEARLITE (core) that is stronger, more flexible and far better suited for
construction.

COMPARISON OF TMT & CTD:

Properties

CTD Bars

Strength

High (Normally up to Grade Fe-415)

Elongation

As per IS: 1786/ 85

TMT Bars

Very High as grades of Fe-500 & 550 are easily

achievable

Very High in all grades and over- achieves the

elongation

requirement

in

the

recent

amendment

to

IS:

1786

for

earthquake

resistance

Preferably avoided as welded joints are

Weld-ability

weak

Formability

Ductility
Fatigue

Bend 3D 5D, Re-bend 5D 8D

&

Corrosion
Resistance

Workability

Excellent due to uniform elongation

Very

High

High,

Most

suited

for

earthquake

resistantstructures

Strength

Fire Hazards

Better and no loss of strength

Loss of Strength on temperature rise

Negligible loss in strength up to 500 deg. C

Scale fall down during cold twisting

Pre-welded meshes can be used

Easy working at site

Overall Economy

Advantages of TMT:

Availability of Grade Fe-500 & 550 results in

steel saving

Availability of Grades Fe-500 & 550 results in

steel Saving

Special Features of TMT Bars:

1.

Savings

of

14

19%

1.

Higher strength with better elongation

2.

Excellent Weld-ability

3.

Resistance to fire hazards

4.

Excellent Ductility

5.

Higher Fatigue Strength

6.

Easy work ability at site

7.

Better Bonding Strength

8.

Better Corrosion Resistance

9.

Achieves better results than BIS Standards

steel

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Reduction in Costs
Better safety of structures
Easy working at site
Better ductility & bend-ability
Better Corrosion Resistance
Good Weld-ability
Resistant to fire hazards

FLY ASH BRICKS

A Clay brick, which was the primary wall material, is now being replaced
by FLY ASH BRICKS, which are hi-tech well-improved quality products.
They are competitive in comparison to the conventional clay bricks and
provide enormous indirect benefits. The country can gain a lot by gainful
utilization of fly ash bricks resulting in conservation of natural resources as
well as protection of environment.

COMPOSITION:
The important compositions of fly ash bricks are as follows;

FLY ASH

CEMENT

SAND

WATER

SOURCES OF FLY ASH:

72% of Indias power plants are coal based. These power stations generate
nearly 40 million tones of fly ash annually. Fly ash contains Co2 emitted from
Thermal power plants, industries using coal as a fuel emits unwanted ash
and smoke from which fly ash is produced. In all the power plants and
industries, they separate the fly ash by using the cyclone converter. This fly
ash is then used as a raw material for manufacture of bricks.

NATURE OF POLLUTION CAUSED BY FLY ASH:

Fly ash causes severe pollution of air and water, and its disposal gobbles up
large tracts of land. Well-planned programs for proper management of fly ash
are therefore being undertaken to enhance the use of fly ash in various
applications, so that our already perilously imbalanced environment can be
protected

MANUFACTURE:

The fly ash brick is nothing but a slow setting pozzalona cement mix. The
process is same as making cement in cement factories whereas the clay and
limestone are burnt with coal and gypsum. And it is mixed and ground to
cement.
In fly ash mix also the fly ash, which is burnt clay particles (oxides of clay)
obtained from burning coal, which contains clay from the mines. When
hydrated lime powder, gypsum are mixed and ground in a pan, the mixture
gives a slow setting pozzalona cement.
While the mix is pressed at low pressure at low moisture content in hydraulic
machine, which is specially designed to give high pressure load at a slow
rate, in the order of 350kg/square inch.
At this of rate of pressure and with holding the pressure for a desired time
gives ultimate strength to fly ash bricks.

FLOWCHART SHOWING THE MANUFACTURE:

FLY ASH TO LESSEN GLOBAL WARMING:

The increase in green house gases, out of which CO2 is one of the major
constituents, increases the global warming year after year, causing drought
and floods. The total CO2Emissions globally account for 24,960 million tons at
1990 levels. Cement and building materials industry is one of the major
contributors.

The CO2 emission is about ninety million tons out of cement and forty nine
million tons out of clay bricks production in India. As per the ongoing
practices in India, each million clay bricks consume about 200 tons of coal
(or any other fuel with equal quantity of thermal values) and emit around
270 tons of CO2.

Fly ash bricks production in energy-free route saves the emissions totally,
befitting the project to qualify under Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),
as envisaged by Kyoto Protocol towards the welfare of Mother Earth.

COMPARISON OF CLAY BRICKS AND FLY ASH BRICKS:

PROPERTIES
1.

1.

1.

1.

1.

1.

RED BRICKS

FLY ASH BRICKS

REMARK

1600-1750 kg/m3

1700-1850 kg/m3

Higher
bearing

load

30-35 kg/cm2

90-100 kg/cm2

Higher
bearing

load

15-25%

10-14%

Less
dampness

Very low tolerance

High tolerance

Saving
in
mortar up to
25%

Up to 10%

Less than 2%

Saving in cost
up to 8%

Density

Compressive
strength

Absorption

Dimensional
stability

Wastage
transit

Plastering

during

Thickness vary on the Even on both sides

both sides of wall

Saving
in
plaster up to
15%.

AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

AIM
To determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregate.
The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance of
an aggregate crushing under gradually applied compressive load . With
aggregate crushing value 30 or higher the result may be anomalous and in
such cases the ten percent fines value should be determined instead.

APPARATUS
(I) A steel cylinder 15 cm diameter with plunger and base plate .
(II) A straight metal tamping rod 16mm diameter and 45 to 60cm long
rounded at one end.
(III) A balance of capacity 3 kg readable and accurate to one gram.
(IV) IS sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm
(V) A compression testing machine.
(VI) Cylindrical metal measure of sufficient rigidity to retain its from under
rough
usage and of 11.5cm diameter and 18cm height.
(VII) Dial gauge

SAMPLING
Coarse aggregate passing 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on a10mm. IS sieve
and heated at 100 to 110C for 4 hours and cooled to room temperature.
The quantity of aggregate shall be such that the depth of material in the
cylinder , after tamping as described below shall be 10 cm.
The appropriate quantity may be found conveniently by filling the cylinder.
Measure in three layers of approximately equal depth ,each layer being
tamped 25 times with the tamping rod and finally leveled off using the
tamping rod as straight edge,care being taken in the case of weaker
materials not to break the particles.the weight of the material comprising the
test sample shall be determined (weight A) and the same weight of sample
shall be taken for the repeat test.

PROCEDURE
((i)Put the cylinder in position on the base plate and weigh it (W)
(ii)Put the sample in 3 layers ,each layer being subjected to 25 strokes using
the tamping rod ,care being taken in the case of weak materials not to break
the particles and weigh it (W1)

(iii)Level the surface of aggregate carefully and insert the plunger so that it
rests horizontally on the surface ,care being taken to ensure that the plunger
does not jam in the cylinder.
(iv)Place the cylinder with plunger on the loading platform of the
compression testing machine.
(v)Apply load at a uniform rate so that a total load of 40T is applied in 10
minutes .
(vi)Release the load and remove the material from the cylinder.
(vii)Sieve the material with 2.36mm IS sieve, care being taken to avoid loss
of fines .
(viii)Weigh the fraction passing through the IS sieve (W2)

CALCULATIONS
The ratio of weight of fines formed to the weight of total sample in each test
shall be expressed as a percentage , the result being recorded to the first
decimal place.
W2
Aggregate crushing value = (W2x100) / (W1-W)
W2 =Weight of fraction passing through the appropriate sieve
W1-W =Weight of surface dry sample.
The mean of two result to nearest whole number is the aggregate crushing
value
RESULT
The aggregate crushing value of the given sample=

BAMBOO- A GREEN BUILDING

MATERIAL
What is Bamboo?

Bamboo is a grass, not a wood.

Extensive root system constantly growing underground. Replenishes

itself naturally.

Grows naturally in biologically diverse forests throughout southeast

Asia, South and Central America, and the Caribbean

Why Use Bamboo?

Bamboo stands release 35% more oxygen than equivalent stands of

trees.

Some bamboo even sequester up to 12 tons of carbon dioxide from the

air per hectare.

Bamboo can also lower light intensity and protects against ultraviolet
rays.

It is very easy, affordable, and profitable for low income communities

to grow and use bamboo.

Bamboo is one of the strongest building materials, tensile strength is

28,000 pounds per square inch versus 23,000 pounds per square inch for
steel.

In Costa Rica, 1000 houses of bamboo are built annually with material
coming only from a 60 hectare bamboo plantation. If an equivalent
project used timber, it would require 500 hectares of threatened tropical
rainforests.
10-30% annual increase in biomass versus 2 to 5% for trees.

A High Yield Renewable Resource

"Ply boo" is now being used for wall paneling and floor tiles; bamboo
pulp for paper-making; briquettes for fuel, raw material for
housing construction; and rebar for reinforcedconcrete beams.

Diverse species makes bamboo adaptable to many environments.

It can be harvested in 3-5 years versus 10-20 years for most

softwoods.

Bamboo tolerates extremes of precipitation, from 30-250 inches of

annual rainfall.

In Limon, Costa Rica, only bamboo houses stood after a violent

earthquake in 1992. Because it is flexible and lightweight bamboo
enables structures to "dance" in earthquakes.

Bamboo is useful for different things at different ages:

<30 days it is good for eating
6-9 months for baskets
2-3 years for bamboo boards or laminations
3-6 years for construction
>6 years bamboo gradually loses strength up to 12 years old
It is important to treat bamboo against rot and insects. One method is to
cure the bamboo by standing cut culms on a stone for a month amongst
the living culms. The leaves are left on as they continue to remove starch
from culm.

The fabrication of bamboo requires very little energy, especially in

comparison to other frequently used building materials.

Concrete 240 MJ/M3 per N/MM2

Steel 1500

Timber 80

Bamboo 30

Problems Facing the Bamboo Industry

In many places bamboo is disappearing. In Brazil there were 85,000 sq

km of bamboo in 1976, while in 1983 there were only 32,000 sq km. It is
feared that within a decade all bamboo in Brazil will be gone. Guadua is

among the threatened species because it can only grows at tropical

latitudes.

The perception that it is a poor persons housing material. In India, the

highest castes use stone to build, the middle castes use wood, and only
the lowest castes use bamboo.

RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE

To obtain good quality concrete using recycled aggregate it is necessary to
follow the minimum requirements defined by the respective Building
Standards. Acceptable properties of aggregates are an elemental base for
concrete quality, however adequate mix proportions and concrete production
methods are highly important in concrete quality too. Recycled aggregates
composed of original aggregates and adhered mortar. The physical properties
of recycled aggregates depend on both adhered mortar quality and the
amount of adhered mortar. The adhered mortar is a porous material; its
porosity depends upon the w/c ratio of the recycled concrete employed.
Crushing concrete to produce coarse aggregate for the production of new
concrete is one common means for achieving a more environment-friendly
concrete. This reduces the consumption of the natural resources as well as

the consumption of the landfills required for waste concrete. The crushing
procedure and the dimension of the recycled aggregate have an influence on
the amount of adhered mortar. The density and absorption capacity of
recycled aggregates are affected by adhered mortar and they must be known
prior to the utilization of recycled aggregates in concrete production in order
to control properties of fresh and hardened concrete.
The absorption capacity is one of the most significant properties that
distinguish recycled aggregate from raw aggregates, and it can have an
influence both on fresh and hardened concrete properties.
The utilization of recycled sand was avoided, due to its absorption capacity,
which would no doubt produce a shrinkage effect M.Etxeberria et al. If
recycled aggregates are employed in dry conditions the concretes workability
is greatly reduced due to their absorption capacity. Some researchers argue
that the recycled aggregates should be saturated before use A. Nealen, S.
Schenk.
In general the workability of recycled aggregate concretes is affected by the
absorption capacity of the recycled aggregates. The shape and texture of the
aggregates can also affect the workability of the mentioned concretes. This
depends on which type of crusher is used Shokry R, Siman A.
The aggregate particles of recycled concrete compare well to conventional
mineral aggregates in that they possess good particle shape, high
absorption, and low specific gravity. Recycled aggregate concrete has also
been shown to have no significant effect on the volume response of
specimens to temperature and moisture effects. However, the presence of
gypsum in the concrete rubble, which is used as aggregate for new concrete,
can produce an expansive reaction with the cement matrix due to the
concentration of sulphate ions.
The density of concrete made with recycled aggregate shows opposite
properties with the normal concrete. Its density is less than normal concrete.
It has been found that the workability of recycled concrete is low. With the
increase of recycled aggregate in concrete mixture, the values of toughness,
plastic energy capacity and elastic energy capacity decreases. Frost
resistance of recycled aggregate concrete has been proven not to differ from
that of the conventional concrete.

STRENGTH OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED COARSE

AGGREGATE
Strength of reinforced concrete is defined as the maximum load or stress it
can carry. Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. Because of
this, concrete structures with exception of pavement are designed on the
assumption that concrete carries little or no tension but compression while
reinforcements are designed to withstand tension.
With the rapid advancement of concrete technology, high strength concrete is
being increasingly widely used in the construction of high-rise buildings and
other reinforced concrete structures. However, the tensile and shear strength
of high strength concrete do not increase in proportion with the compressive
strength. And of the two strength properties, the shear strength is of
particular importance because the tensile strength is not normally relied on
for carrying load but shear is unavoidable in beam column framework.
Although there has been a rapid growth of interest in high strength concrete,
current specifications for the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams in
the American concrete institute [ACI] Building code and British standard are
based on results of beam tests done using concrete with relatively low
compressive strength.
Compressive Strength Of Concrete With Recycled Coarse Aggregate
The compressive strength of concrete is evaluated by the concretes 28 days
cube strength. BS: 1881: part 3 requires that the specimen load per unit
area sustained by a concrete specimen before it fails in compression.
BS 1881 stipulates that the usual test is the crushing of a 150mm cube in a
compression machine loaded at the rate of 15Nmm-2 without reinforcement.
However, when the maximum size of aggregate does not exceed 19mm.
100mm cubes can be used for laboratory work. Most structural concrete are
proportioned to have strength of 20-30Nmm-2at 28 days.
Tavakoli M., Soroushian P. studied that concrete made with 100% of recycled
coarse aggregate with lower w/c ratio than the conventional concrete can
have larger compression strength. When the w/c ratio is the same the
compression strength of concrete made with 100% of recycled aggregate is
lower than that on conventional concrete. For the recycled aggregate
concrete it will be necessary to add more cement in concrete made with
100% of recycled aggregate in order to achieve the same workability and

compression strength as conventional concrete. Any variation in concrete

production or in the properties of the constituents used produces a variation
of strength in the resultant concrete.
TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED COARSE
AGGREGATE
This is of great importance in the design of concrete roads, railways etc.
Concrete members are also required to withstand tensile stresses resulting
from restraint to contraction due to drying or temperature variation.
Unlike metals it is difficult to measure concrete strength in direct tension and
indirect methods have been developed for assessing this property. The
concrete strength in direct tension is evaluated by split cylinder test. This
method entails diametrically loading a concrete cylinder in compression along
its entire length (BS 1881: part 4). The load induces tensile stress over the
loaded diametrical plane and the cylinder splits along the loaded diameter.
The magnitude of the induced tensile stress at failure in expressed as:
fct = 2F/(pi*Ld) (2.1)
Where; F = Applied load
L = Length of cylinder
d = Diameter of cylinder
FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED COARSE
AGGREGATE
The flexural strength of concrete is known as the modulus of rupture that is
used to evaluate tensile strength as determined from tests on beams. The
standard size of beams for flexural tests according to (BS 1881) is 150mm x
150mm x 700mm. However, the American society for testing materials
(A.S.T.M) stipulates that the length of the beam should be at least 50mm
longer than three times its depth and its width should be not more than one
and half times its depth. The minimum depth of width should be at least
three times the maximum size of aggregate and not less than 50mm. This is
determined from simply supported beam loaded at the third points. The
resulting bending moment induces compressive and tensile stresses in the
top and bottom of the beam respectively. The beam flexural strength is given
as:

fct = FL/(b*d*d) - (2.2)

where; F = Applied load
L = Effective span
b,d, = Breadth and depth of beam respectively.
The strength in bending is the extreme stress on the tensile side of a point at
the point of failure. The ultimate strength of under reinforced beams in
flexure is insensitive to the model used to represent the stress-strain
relationship. It is only where failure occurs by crushing of concrete in
compression that the different stress-strain relationship may result in
different calculated ultimate strength.
SHEAR CAPACITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED
COARSE AGGREGATE
The strength of a material is normally given in terms of unit stress or internal
force on unit area. The point at which yielding starts is generally expressed
as unit stress. A safety factor is applied to either of these stresses to
determine a unit stress that should not be exceeded when the member
carries design load. That unit stress is known as allowable stress or working
stress. In working stress design to determine whether a structural member
has adequate load carrying capacity, the maximum unit stress produced by
design loads in the members for each type of internal force, tensile,
compressive or shearing has to be computed and compared with the
corresponding allowable unit stress.
Shear is generally used as a measure of the beams ability to resist principal
tensile stresses. It is of paramount importance to note that the strength of a
beam in shear depends on the compressive strength, tensile strength,
shearing strength of the concrete as well as the amount and distribution of
the shear reinforcement and even to some extent on the longitudinal
reinforcement and also on the bond between the concrete and reinforcement.
In reinforced concrete, the term shear stress refers to the stress in the
concrete while bond stress refers to the shearing stress between steel and
concrete at the surface of the steel bars. The intensity of each can be
computed using the flexure formulae. Shear transfer in reinforced concrete
beams relies heavily on the tensile and compressive strength of concrete.

The shear in a reinforced concrete beam without shear reinforcement is

carried by a combination of three main components.
(i). Concrete in the compression zone.
(ii). Dowelling action of tensile reinforcement.
(iii). Aggregate interlock across flexural crack.
In flexural members in particular the shear resisting mechanism interacts
intimately with the bond between concrete and the embedded reinforcement
and the anchorage of the reinforcement. With regard to the way in which the
shear strength of concrete increases with the compressive strength, the ACI
Building Code assumes that the nominal shear capacity (shear capacity of
beam without shear reinforcement) is essentially a function of the square
root of the compressive strength while the British Standard takes it as being
proportional to the cube root of the compressive strength. It is thus apparent
that even for normal-strength concrethe shear capacity of a reinforced
concrete member without shear reinforcement is calculated using empirical
formulae which are based principally on experimental results obtained using
simply supported beams.
In recycled aggregate concrete (RAC), the recycled aggregate from fielddemolished concrete for example can be relatively weaker than a typical
natural aggregate, and hence can yield reduced shear strength. Han et al.
studied the shear behavior of beams made with RAC. They concluded that
using the current ACI code equations, the shear strength of RAC can be
overestimated. However, 10 out of the 12 beams they reported were tested
under a relatively low span to depth ratio ( 2.0), and hence can be
considered deep beams, an unlikely target for RAC use.
Khaldoun Rahal observed that the shear strength of concrete depends
significantly on the ability of the coarse aggregate to resist the shearing
stresses. He compares the average strength of recycled aggregate concrete
(RAC) with normal aggregate concrete (NAC). The cube and cylinder
compressive strengths and the indirect shear strength are included in the
comparison. On the average, the RAC cube strength was 88.4% of that of
the normal concrete. Similarly, the cylinder compressive strength and the
indirect shear strength of RAC were 92.2% and 87.7% of those of NAC,
respectively. In general, there is a 10% decrease in strength when recycled
coarse aggregates are used. This observation is similar to that by Ravindraraj

which measured a 9% decrease in compressive strength and departs from

that of Yamato et al. who observed that the decrease in strength was 20%,
30% and 45% for recycled coarse aggregate replacement of 30%, 50% and
100%, respectively. The significant difference in strength reduction shows
the effect of the various factors such as the source of the recycled aggregate
and shows the need to test local materials for the actual behavior.
Masaru Sogo et al. Experimental results indicate that reinforced recycled
concrete (RRC) beams without stirrups is decreased in shear strength by
20% and empirical design code overestimates the shear strength of recycled
aggregate concrete. On the contrary, shear strength of RRC beams with
stirrup is almost the same as those of conventional concrete beams in
experimental results, while modified truss theory underestimates the
ultimate shear strength of beams by 30% on the condition that shear failure
is defined by yielding of stirrup.
DURABILITY OF RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE
The mechanical properties and the durability characteristics of recycled
aggregate concrete (RAC) must be observed to ensure proper use of the
recycled material. There have been numerous studies concerned with the
mechanical and durability properties of RAC. Tests have shown that the
mechanical properties depend on the properties of the recycled concrete
used to produce the aggregate and on the percentage replacement of coarse
aggregates in the new concrete.
Ravindraraj suggested equations for the modulus of elasticity that give an
average decrease of 15% for NAC and RAC of similar cylinder compressive
strengths. Due to the wide variation in the properties of the available
resources, properties using local materials need to be observed in order to
gain the required confidence in the performance of the new material.
RAC has been shown to be weaker than a similar concrete made of natural
aggregate and could hence be softer in that the strain at peak stress could
be larger than the typically assumed value of 0.002 Khaldoun Rahal. Hence
the modulus of elasticity and the strain at peak stress of locally produced
RAC need to be studied to obtain the necessary confidence required for
structural use.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE WITH RECYCLED
COARSE AGGREGATE

The strength of concrete is affected by a number of factors such as:

CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
(A) Water-Cement Ratio: Most concrete properties are influenced by water
contained in the cement paste. This determines the workability and the
strength of concrete. The required quantity of water depends primarily on the
maximum size, shape and surface characteristics of the aggregates. The
amount of cement required for a particular concrete strength varies
considerably for different aggregates. This depends of the strength and
modulus of deformation of the aggregate particular and also on the free
water content required for adequate workability.
(B) Aggregate: The particle grading of the aggregate mainly affect the
quantity of mixing water required for adequate workability. Increase in the
proportion of fines increases the water requirement and this leads to a lower
concrete strength unless the cement content is increased. It should be noted
that the utilization of recycled sand was avoided, due to its absorption
capacity, which would no doubt produce a shrinkage effect.
(C) Expansive Additive: Addition of expansive additive increases the shear
strength by 10% in any cases of aggregate type. This can be explained by
that the axial force, which is produced by expansion of concrete, makes
wider compressive zone and narrower cracking width. The wider compressive
strength zone improves the shear resistance and the narrower cracking width
improves the interlocking performance.
Masaru Sogo et al. shows the effect of water-cement ratio and aggregate
type on shear strength of recycled concrete [RC] beams without shear
reinforcement which is obtained by V/(bd), where V denotes shear force at
diagonal cracking, compared with shear strength of virgin concrete [VC], the
shear strength of (RC) indicated 20% decrease at most. This decrease can be
explained mainly by the weakness of aggregate without the roundabout crack
on the surface of the aggregate, which should reduce fracture energy and
interlocking effect, while the effect of the difference of compressive strength
on the shear stress is included. Reducing water-cement ratio increases the
shear strength and it can be concluded that reducing water-cement ratio
improve the shear property of RC beams with recycled aggregate.
ABSORPTION CAPACITY

The absorption capacity is one of the aw aggregates, and it can have an

influence both on fresh and hardened concrete properties. The absorption
capacity of recycled aggregates are affected by adhered mortar and they
must be known prior to the utilization of recycled aggregates in concrete
production in order to control properties of fresh and hardened concrete.
Recycled sand will be avoided, due to its absorption capacity, which would no
doubt produce a shrinkage effect. Workability of recycled aggregate
concretes is affected by the absorption capacity of the recycled aggregates.
INFLUENCE OF METHOD OF CRUSHING
The crushing method (mechanical or manual) of concrete to produce coarse
aggregate for the production of new concrete is one of the factors that affect
the strength of the concrete. The crushing procedure and the dimension of
the recycled aggregate have an influence on the amount of adhered mortar.
INFLUENCE OF METHOD OF PREPARATION
During the period of mixing concrete ingredients, care must be taken to
ensure that a consistent and homogenous mass is obtained to avoid low
quality concrete and adequate care taken during placing and compaction to
minimize the probability of occurrence of bleeding, segregation and honey
comb.
INFLUENCE OF CURING
The quality of concrete is determined by the manner in which curing is
accomplished. Evaporation of water entails cessation of hardening of a
fraction of binder grains that are as yet failed to hydrate causing air to take
up their spaces forming supplementary voids in the texture of the hardening
concrete.
FAILURE MODES OF CONCRETE BEAM WITH RECYCLED AGGREGATE
It is a well-known fact that flexural members can fail not only from bending
moment but also due to its low shear resistance and absence of shear
reinforcement. Lawrence observed that the primary cause of failure in beams
may be due to splitting along the longitudinal reinforcement in tension zone
caused primarily by transverse shear in the reinforcement or due to crushing
in the zone resulting from combined state of shear and compression in the
concrete or from a critical state of combined stress without significant

relative rotation of the segment. it was observed that the mode of failure
behaviour of recycled concrete beams were similar to normal concrete
beams.
Failure of reinforced concrete beams is classified under two main groups:
(a) Flexural failure.
(b) Diagonal failure.
FLEXURAL TENSION FAILURE OF CONCRETE BEAM WITH RECYCLED
AGGREGATE
The first flexural cracks appear at the points of maximum moment. As the
applied load continues to increase, the flexural cracks gradually increase in
number as well as length and usually propagate vertically towards the
centroidal axis of the beam. The first type of crack is often referred to as a
web-shear crack, the second type being identified as a flexural-shear crack.
The flexural crack causing the inclined crack is the initiating flexural crack.
Secondary cracks results from splitting forces developed by the deformed
bars when slip between concrete and steel reinforcement occurs, or from
dowel action forces in the longitudinal bars transferring shear across the
crack.
DIAGONAL TENSION AND COMPRESSION FAILURE OF CONCRETE
BEAM WITH RECYCLED AGGREGATE
In beams where shear effect is significant, diagonal cracks are formed due to
diagonal tension resulting from a combination of shearing and flexural
tension. It is evident that the value of diagonal tension is generally
indeterminate. For this reason, it is the practice now for beams with shear
reinforcement to calculate the value of vertical shearing unit stresses
developed in the beams noting of course that the actual diagonal tension is
considerably greater than the vertical shearing stress. In fact, most failures
that are termed shear failure are diagonal tension failure, shear bending
failure, shear bond failure, and occasionally compression failure. The
diagonal crack starts from the least flexural crack and more inclined under
the shear loading.
A diagonal tension failure is defined as an inclined crack in the shear span
extending from tensile reinforcement towards the nearly concentrated load

and intersecting the level of tensile reinforcement at an angle of

approximately 450. This occurs when the shear force is relatively large and
bending moment rather low. It is usually when the load is close to the
support. Large diagonal cracks propagate from the support to the load as
shown in the figure 2.1(a)

The manner in which inclined cracks develop and grow and the type of failure
that subsequently develops is strongly affected by the relative magnitude of
the shear stress and flexural stress.
Angelakos et al. Experimental data has shown that in normal strength
concrete, the shear crack propagates in the hardened cement matrix, and
around the relatively stronger coarse aggregate. In higher strength concrete
where the matrix is relatively stronger, the shear crack passes through the
matrix as well as the aggregate, forming a smoother crack surface.
Etxeberria M. et al. studied the failure mode of recycled concrete beam and
observed that the failure of the concrete derives from its weakest point. The
weakest point being in these medium strength concretes, the recycled
aggregates themselves. In medium strength conventional concretes, the
interface is the weakest point, however this is not the case when the
concrete is made with recycled aggregates, as what happened in high
strength concretes where the failure is through the aggregates. His research
also shows splitting tensile failure of concrete made with a high amount of
recycled aggregates. The failure happened through the recycled aggregates
(the recycled aggregates being the weakest point) producing two similar
symmetric faces, the failure never happened in the new interfacial transition
zone.
Belen Gonzalez-F. et al. studied the behaviour of concrete beam made with
conventional and recycled coarse aggregate, each specimen without shear
reinforcement exhibited an initial flexural crack at the centre of the specimen
and subsequent flexural cracks away from that section. As the applied load
was increased, one of the flexural cracks extended into a diagonal crack near

one of the supports, or a diagonal crack formed abruptly at the mid-height of

the beam within the shear span. After the formation of the diagonal crack,
brittle failure occurred. The specimens with shear reinforcement showed the
same crack pattern as the specimens without shear reinforcement until the
formation of diagonal cracking, but showed higher load-carrying capacity
following it. Considerable splitting cracks along the tension reinforcement
were observed, especially in recycled concrete beams. The inclusion of an
appropriate amount of minimum shear reinforcement (maintaining an
appropriate stirrups spacing) controlled these horizontal-splitting cracks and
resulted in improved shear response. Recycled concrete beams present
almost the same shear force at failure andield increases. However, a rise in
the amount of transverse reinforcement obtained by increasing the stirrup
diameter and maintaining the stirrup spacing causes lower shear forces at
stirrup yield. It was also noted that only the recycled concrete beams
achieved the shear force at stirrup yield in the spans. The ratio of shear force
at failure to shear force at cracking indicates that the recycled concrete
beams reached shear force at cracking in earlier load stages than
conventional concrete beams.

THE CHARPY IMPACT TEST

Objective:
To test the resistance of the material towards an impact load
Apparatus:
Charpy Testing machine, a rod of mild steel and a rod of carbonate steel.
Introduction:
The Charpy impact test is one of the impact-testing that is used to determine
the resistance towards a sudden load or impact. Impacted specimens with
small fracture or with a very little plastic deformation is said to be in a brittle
manner whereas fracture of a metal after extensive plastic deformation is
said to be in a ductile manner. Brittle fracture looks clear, shinny with
surfaces while ductile fracture looks grayish and fibrous.

Procedure:
1) A Charpy V-notch specimen is placed across parallel jaws in the impacttesting machine
2) The pointer is being set up to its maximum value (300 J)

3) The hammer is released from the initial height downward towards the
sample
4) Observations and the energy absorbed is recorded and tabulated.
5) Step 1-3 is repeated for another type of metal
Results:

Steel

Energy Absorbed (Joule)

Mild steel

299.0

Carbon steel

21.0

Mild Steel Carbon Steel

Discussion:
From the results obtain from the experiment, we can see that the specimen
fracture differently. The mild steel fracture but did not broke completely and
some part of the steel still attached therefore it is said to be in the ductile
manner. The carbon steel is said to be in brittle manner although it is harder.
The carbon specimen broke completely into 2 parts and the broken surfaces
looks smoother than the mild steel.
Carbon steel has lower ductility compared to the mild steel but the carbon
steel is more brittle than the mild steel. This is because carbon steel has high
percentage of carbon in it (percentage of carbon in mild steel is less than
0.2%) that lower the ability to absorb energy when sudden load is given.
From the way both specimen cracks and the grayish and fibrous broken
surfaces of the mild steel shows that it undergoes plastic deformation and in
the ductile manner. The carbon steel experience less plastic deformation and
the surfaces looks smoother and shinny.
Ductile fracture is better because of the following reasons:
a) More energy needed in the ductile fracture because it is a tough material

b) Brittle fracture happens quickly without warning while the ductile fracture
took a longer time before the whole process to happen
Conclusion:
From the Charpy impact test, carbon steel undergoes brittle fracture while
the mild steel undergoes ductile fracture. More energy is absorbed by mild
steel shows that it is more suitable to be use in the
structural construction that expose to high load for example: car body.

PENETRATION VALUE OF BITUMEN

AIM:
(i) To determine the consistency of bituminous material
(ii) To assess the suitability of bitumen for use under different climatic
conditions and various types of construction.
APPARATUS:
(i) Container: A flat bottomed cylindrical metallic dish 55 mm in diameter
and 35 mm in depth is required. If the penetration is of the order of 225 or
more, dish of 70mm diameter and 45mm depth is required.
(ii) Needle: A straight, highly polished, cylindrical hard steel rod.
(iii)Water bath: Water bath maintained at 25 0.1 C, containing not less
than 10 litres of water, the sample being immersed to a depth not less than
100 mm from top& supported on perforated shelf not less than 50 mm from
bottom of the bath.
(iv)Transfer dish or tray: Should provide support to the container & should
not rock it. It should be of such capacity as to completely immerse container
during test.
(v) Penetration apparatus: Should be such that it allows needle to penetrate
without much friction& is accurately calibrated to give results in one tenth of
a millimeter.
(vi)Thermometer: Range 0- 44 C and in readable upto 0.20 C.
(vii)Time measuring device: With an accuracy of l second.
THEORY:

Penetration value is a measure of hardness or consistency of bituminous

material. It is the vertical distance traversed or penetrated by the point of a
standard needle in to the bituminous material under specific conditions of
load, time and temperature. This distance is measured in one tenths of a
millimeter. This test is used for evaluating consistency of bitumen. It is not
regarded as suitable for use in connection with the testing of road tar
because of the high surface tension exhibited by these materials.
PROCEDURE:
(i) Preparation of test specimen: Soften the material to a pouring consistency
at a temperature not more than 60C for tars and 90C for bitumen above
the approximate softening point and stir it thoroughly until it is homogeneous
and is free from air bubbles and water. Pour the melt into the container to a
depth at least
10mm in excess of the expected penetration. Protect the sample from dust
and allow it to cool in an atmosphere at a temperature between 15 to 30 C
for one hour. Then place it along with the transfer dish in the water bath at
25 0.1 C, unless otherwise stated.
(ii) Fill the transfer dish with water from the water bath to depth sufficient to
cover the container completely, place the sample in it and put it upon the
stand of the penetration apparatus.
(iii) Clean the needle with benzene, dry it and load with the weight. The total
moving load required is 100 0.25 gms, including the weight of the needle,
carrier and super-imposed weights.
(iv) Adjust the needle to make contact with the surface of the sample. This
may be done by placing the needlepoint in contact with its image reflected by
the surface of the bituminous material.
(i) Make the pointer of the dial to read zero or note the initial dial reading.
(ii) Release the needle for exactly five seconds.
(vi) Adjust the penetration machine to measure the distance penetrated.

(vii)Make at least 3 readings at points on the surface of the sample not less
than 10 mm apart and not less than l0mm from the side of the dish. After
each test return the sample and transfer dish to the water bath and wash the
needle clean with benzene and dry it. In case of material of penetration
greater than 225, three determinations on each of the two identical test
specimens using a separate needle for each determination should be made,
leaving the needle in the sample on completion of each determination to
avoid disturbance of the specimen.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) There should be no movement of the container while needle penetrates
into sample.
(ii) The sample should be free from any extraneous matter.
(iii)The needle should be cleaned with benzene and dried before penetration.
OBSERVATIONS
Actual test temperature = C

Penetration dial reading

(a) Initial
(b) Final
Penetration Value
Mean

Test 1

Test 2

Test 3

RESULT:
Mean Penetration Value =
RECOMMENDED VALUE:
Penetration test is a commonly adopted test on bitumen to grade the
material in terms of its hardness. A 80/100 grade bitumen indicates that its
penetration value lies between 80 & 100.Grading of bitumen helps to assess
its suitability in different climatic conditions and types of construction. For
bituminous macadam and penetration macadam, IRC suggests bitumen

grades 30/40, 60/70, 80/100. In warmer regions, lower penetration grades

are preferred to avoid softening whereas higher penetration grades like
180/200 are used in colder regions to prevent the occurrence of excessive
brittleness. High penetration grade is used in spray application works.

DETERMINATION OF LOS ANGELES

ABRASION VALUE
DETERMINATION OF LOS ANGELES ABRASION VALUE
AIM:
(i) to determine the Los Angeles abrasion value.
(ii) to find the suitability of aggregates for use in road construction.
APPARATUS:
The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) 1963 consists of:
(i) Los Angeles Machine: It consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both
the ends with an internal diameter of 700 mm and length 500 mm and
capable of rotating about its horizontal axis. A removable steel shaft
projecting radially 88 mm into cylinder and extending full length (i.e.500
mm) is mounted firmly on the interior of cylinder. The shelf is placed at a
distance 1250 mm minimum from the opening in the direction of rotation.
(ii) Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in
diameter and
each weighing between 390 to 445g; six to twelve balls are required.
(iii) Sieve: 1.70, 2.36,4.75,6.3,10,12.5,20,25,40,50,63,80 mm IS Sieves.
(iv) Balance of capacity 5kg or 10kg
(v) Drying oven
(vi) Miscellaneous like tray
THEORY:

The aggregate used in surface course of the highway pavements are

subjected to wearing due to movement of traffic. When vehicles move on the
road, the soil particles present between the pneumatic tyres and road surface
cause abrasion of road aggregates. The steel reamed wheels of animal driven
vehicles also cause considerable abrasion of the road surface. Therefore, the
road aggregates should be hard enough to resist abrasion. Resistance to
abrasion of aggregate is determined in laboratory by Los Angeles test
machine. The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to produce abrasive
action by use of standard steel balls which when mixed with aggregates and
rotated in a drum for specific number of revolutions also causes impact on
aggregates. The percentage wear of the aggregates due to rubbing with steel
balls is determined and is known as Los Angeles Abrasion Value.
PROCEDURE:
The test sample consists of clean aggregates dried in oven at 105 110C.
The sample should conform to any of the gradings shown in table 1.
(i) Select the grading to be used in the test such that it conforms to the
grading to be used in construction, to the maximum extent possible.
(ii) Take 5 kg of sample for gradings A, B, C & D and 10 kg for gradings E, F
& G.
(iii) Choose the abrasive charge as per Table 2 depending on grading of
aggregates.
(iv) Place the aggregates and abrasive charge on the cylinder and fix the
cover.
(v) Rotate the machine at a speed of 30 33 revolutions per minute. The
number of revolutions is 500 for gradings A, B, C & D and 1000 for gradings
E, F & G. The machine should be balanced and driven such that there is
uniform peripheral speed.
(vi) The machine is stopped after the desired number of revolutions and
material is discharged to a tray.
(vii) The entire stone dust is sieved on 1.70 mm IS sieve.

(viii) The material coarser than 1.7mm size is weighed correct to one gram.

Sieve
size
(square
hole)

Weight of
test
sample in
gm

Passing
(mm)

Retained
on (mm)

80

63

2500*

63

50

2500*

50

40

5000*

40

25

1250

25

20

1250

20

12.5

1250

2500

12.5

10

1250

2500

10

6.3

2500

6.3

4.75

2500

4.75

2.36

5000*
5000*

5000*
5000*

5000

Table 1: Grading of Test Samples

*Tolerance of 12 percent permitted.

Grading

No of Steel balls

Weight of charge in gm

12

5000 25

11

4584 25

3330 20

2500 15

12

5000 25

12

5000 25

12

5000 25

Table 2: Selection of Abrasive Charge

OBSERVATIONS:
Original weight of aggregate sample = W1 g
Weight of aggregate sample retained = W2 g
Weight passing 1.7mm IS sieve = W1 - W2 g
Abrasion Value = (W1 - W2 ) / W1 X 100
RESULT:
Los Angeles Abrasion Value =
RECOMMENDED VALUE:
Los Angeles test is commonly used to evaluate the hardness of aggregates.
The test has more acceptability because the resistance to abrasion and
impact is determined simultaneously. Depending upon the value, the
suitability of aggregates for different road constructions can be judged as per
IRC specifications as given:

Sl.
No.

Type of Pavement

Max.
permissible
abrasion value
in %

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Water bound macadam sub base course

WBM base course with bituminous surfacing
Bituminous bound macadam
WBM surfacing course
Bituminous penetration macadam
Bituminous surface
dressing, cementconcrete surface course
Bituminous concrete surface course

60
50
50
40
40
35
30

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER

ABSORPTION TEST
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION TEST
AIM:
i) To measure the strength or quality of the material
ii) To determine the water absorption ofaggregates

APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of the following
(a) A balance of capacity about 3kg, to weigh accurate 0.5g, and of such a
type and shape as to permit weighing of the sample container when
suspended in water.
(b) A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature at 100-110
C.
(c) A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container of
convenient size with thin wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.
(d) A container for filling water and suspending the basket
(e) An air tight container of capacity similar to that of the basket
(f) A shallow tray and two absorbent clothes, each not less than 75x45cm.

THEORY:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of

strength or quality of the material. Stones having low specific gravity are
generally weaker than those with higher specific gravity values.

PROCEDURE:
(i) About 2 kg of aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines,
drained and placed in wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a
temperature between 22- 32 C and a cover of at least 5cm of water above
the top of basket.
(ii) Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the
sample by lifting the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank
and allowing it to drop at the rate of about one drop per second. The basket
and aggregate should remain completely immersed in water for a period of
24 hour afterwards.
(iii) The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in water at a
temperature of 22 32C. The weight while suspended in water is noted
=W1g.
(iv) The basket and aggregates are removed from water and allowed to drain
for a few minutes, after which the aggregates are transferred to the dry
absorbent clothes. The empty basket is then returned to the tank of water
jolted 25 times and weighed in water=W2g. .
(v) The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no
further moisture could be removed by this cloth. Then the aggregates are
transferred to the second dry cloth spread in single layer and allowed to dry
for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface dry. The
surface dried aggregate is then weighed =W3 g
(vi) The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained
at a temperature of 110 C for 24 hrs. It is then removed from the oven,
cooled in an air tight container and weighted=W4 g.

(1) Specific gravity = (dry weight of the aggregate /Weight of equal volume
of water)

(2) Apparent specific gravity = (dry weight of the aggregate/Weight of equal

volume of water excluding air voids in aggregate)

OBSERVATIONS
Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket = W 1 g
Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g
Weight of saturated aggregate in water = W1 W2 g
Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W3 g
Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = W3(W1W2)g
Weight of oven dry aggregate = W4 g
(1) Specific gravity = W3 / (W3 (W1 W2))
(2) Apparent specific gravity = W4 / (W4 (W1 W2))
(3) Water Absorption = ((W3 W4) / W4) X 100

RESULT:
(1) Specific gravity =
(2) Apparent specific gravity =
(3) Water Absorption =

RECOMMENDED VALUE:
The size of the aggregate and whether it has been artificially heated should
be indicated. ISI specifies three methods of testing for the determination of
the specific gravity of aggregates, according to the size of the aggregates.
The three size ranges used are aggregates larger than 10 mm, 40 mm and
smaller than 10 mm. The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in

road construction ranges from about 2.5 to 3.0 with an average of about
2.68. Though high specific gravity is considered as an indication of high
strength, it is not possible to judge the suitability of a sample road aggregate
without finding the mechanical properties such as aggregate crushing, impact
and abrasion values. Water absorption shall not be more than 0.6 per unit by
weight.

DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE
IMPACT VALUE
DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE
AIM:

(i) to determine the impact value of the road aggregates;

(ii) to assess their suitability in roadconstruction on the basis of impact
value.

APPARATUS:
The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) 1963 consists of:
(i) A testing machine weighing 45 to 60 kg and having a metal base with a
painted lower surface of not less than 30 cm in diameter. It is supported on
level and plane concrete floor of minimum 45 cm thickness. The machine
should also have provisions for fixing its base.
(ii) A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102 mm, depth 50 mm and
minimum
thickness 6.3 mm. .
(iii) A metal hammer or tup weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end being
cylindrical in shape, 50 mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm
chamfer at the lower edge and case hardened. The hammer should slide
freely between vertical guides and be concentric with the cup. Free fall of
hammer should be within 3805 mm.
(iv) A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 mm and depth
50 mm
for measuring aggregates.
(v) Tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long, rounded at one end.
(vi) A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate upto 0.1
g.

THEORY:

The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to

movement of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact
resulting in their breaking down into smaller pieces. The aggregates should
therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to
impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value test. The aggregate
impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which
may differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive load.

PROCEDURE:
The test sample consists of aggregates sized 10.0 mm 12.5 mm. Aggregates
may be dried by heating at 100-110 C for a period of 4 hours and cooled.
(i) Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0mm IS sieves. The
aggregates
passing through 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprises the
test
material.
(ii) Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3 rd depth of measuring cylinder.
(iii) Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of
the
tamping rod.
(iv) Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.
(v) Strike off the surplus aggregates.
(vi) Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram(W).
(vii) Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing up on the
level plate, block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns
are vertical.

(viii) Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole of
the test
sample in it and compact by giving 25 gentle strokes with tamping rod.
(ix) Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of
aggregate sample in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate
sample. Give 15 such blows at an interval of not less than one second
between successive falls.
(x) Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36
mm IS sieves until no further significant amount passes in one minute.
Weigh the fraction passing the sieve to an accuracy of 1 gm. Also, weigh the
fraction retained in the sieve.
Compute the aggregate impact value. The mean of two observations,
rounded to nearest whole number is reported as the Aggregate Impact Value.

OBSERVATIONS
Sample 1
Total weight of dry sample ( W1 gm)
Weight of portion passing 2.36 mm sieve
(W2gm)
Aggregate Impact Value (percent) = W2 /
W1X 100
Mean =

RESULT:
Aggregate Impact Value =

Sample 2

RECOMMENDED VALUES
Classification of aggregates using Aggregate Impact Value is as given below:
Aggregate Impact ValueClassification
<20%

Exceptionally Strong

10 20%

Strong

20-30%

Satisfactory for road surfacing

>35%

Weak for road surfacing

Specified limits of percent aggregate impact value for different types of road
construction by Indian Roads Congress is given below.

Sl No

Type of pavement

Aggregate impact
value not more than

1.

Wearing Course

30

a)

Bituminous surface dressing

b)

Penetration macadam

c)

Bituminous carpet concrete

d)

Cement concrete

2.

3.

Bitumen bound macadam base

course
WBM base course with bitumen
surfacing

35

40

Cement concrete base course

45

WOOD AS A CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL
Wood as a Construction Material:
Used extensively for buildings, bridges, utility poles, piles, floor, trusses,
roofs
- Natural, and

- Engineered wood products (laminates, plywood, strand board.)

Low cost, availability, ease of use, and renewable

Wood is natural, renewable product from trees. There are more than 600
species of trees in the U.S alone
Trees are classified into 2 types based on growth
- Exogenous (most widely used in the U.S.)
==> Growth from center out by adding concentric layer of wood
- Softwoods (conifers-evergreens)
Less dense, grow faster, have uniform stem (20 species)
- Hardwood (deciduous)
Not used for construction
- Endogenous
==> Growth with intertwined fibers, such as bamboo. Not used widely in
U.S.

Predominant physical features of tree stem

1. Bark
2. Cambium
3. Wood
4. Pith
The wood section of a tree is made up of sapwood and heartwood
1. Sapwood
Function as storehouse for starches and as a pipeline to transport sap

2. Heartwood

Cells that are chemically and physically altered by mineral deposit. It

provides structural strength for the tree
Structure of Wood Growth Rings
Annual rings or tree rings are the concentric layers in the stem of
exogenous trees
Each annual ring is composed of earlywood and latewood
- Earlywood (growth during spring time)
Have large cell openings (cavities)
- Latewood (growth during summer)
Consists of dense, dark, and thick cells wall, which produce a stronger
wood than earlywood

An isotropic Nature of Wood

An isotropic ==> different properties in various directions
Three-axis orientation in wood are
1. Longitudinal or parallel to the grain
2. Radical or across the growth rings (perpendicular to the grain)
3. Tangential or tangent to the growth rings

An isotropic nature affects physical and mechanical properties such as

shrinkage, stiffness, and strength

 The wood cells have a rectangular cross section. The center of the tubes
are hollow. The tube structure resists stresses parallel to its length, but it
will deform when loaded on its side
Tubes are 100/1 (length to diameter)

Chemical Composition
Cellulose
50% by weight, HMW linear polymer
Lignin
23-33% in softwoods, 16-26% in hardwoods
It is the glue for the cells. It controls the shear strength.
Hemicellulose
15-20% of softwood and 20-30% of hardwood.
Polymeric units made from sugar molecules. Xylone in hardwoods,
mannose in softwood.
Extractives
5-30% of the wood substance
Include poly-phenolics, coloring material, oils and fats, resins, waxes,
gums, starches. Soluble in water, alcohol, acetone, and benzene
Ash-forming material
0.1 to 3.0% of the wood material.
Include calcium, potassium, phosphate, and silica

Moisture Content
Weight of water as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood
Oven-dried is attained in an oven at 100 C to 150 C until the wood
attains a constant weight
Physical properties, such as weight, shrinkage and strength depend on
the moisture content of wood

Types of water in wood:

Bound water
Held within the cell wall by absorption forces
Free water exists as either condensed water or water vapor

Fiber Saturation Point (FSP)

The level at which the cell walls are completely saturated, but no free
water exists in the cell cavities
FSP varies among species, typically range in 21-32%
Physical and mechanical properties are dependent on the FSP

Shrinkage
If the moisture content is higher than the FSP, the wood is dimensionally
stable
Shrinkage may result with the moisture content less than the FSP

 Occurs when moisture is lost from cell walls

Swelling occurs when moisture is gained in the cell walls
Shrinkage in the radial direction is generally one-half the change in the
tangential direction
Shrinkage in the longitudinal direction is usually minimal, ranging from
0.1 to 0.2% for a change in the moisture content from FSP to oven dry

Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)

The moisture content for average atmospheric conditions (humidity and
air temperature) is the EMC
The EMC ranges from
- less than 1% at temperatures greater than 55 C (130 F) and 5% humidity
to
- over 20% at temperatures less than 27 C (80 F) and 90% humidity

Wood Production
Logs
Logs are harvested during the fall or winter due to fire hazards and
respect for non-tree plant life in the forest
Logs are transported to a sawmill where they are cut into useful
dimensional shapes
Lumber

Dimensional Lumber
50 125 mm (2 5 inch) thick, sawing and surfacing on all four sides
remove 5-10 mm from the dimensions
Sizes include 2X4, 2X6, 2X8, 2X10, 2X12, 4X4 referring to rough cut
dimensions in inches, actual sizes are less
Lengths range from 8 to 24
Uses include studs, sill, and top plates, joists, beams, rafters, trusses,
and decking

Heavy Timber
Rough sawn dimensions of 4X6, 6X6, 8X8 reduced by 10 mm per side due
to surfacing.
- Uses include heavy-frame construction, landscaping, railroad ties, and
marine construction
Round Stock
Poles and posts used for building, marine pilings, and utility poles

Engineered Wood
Produced by bonding together wooden strands, veneers, lumber, and
other wood to produce a composite unit
The units are tested for their responses to loading
Examples include plywood, oriented strand-board, composite panels
Glued laminated lumber (glulam), structural composite lumber, and
wood I-joists

Wood Production Processes

Sawing into the desired shape
Harvested wood is cut into lumber and timber at sawmills
Quality is governed by the angle between the aging rings and the saw
blade,
categorize by:
- flat sawn (< 45 degrees)
- rift sawn (45 to 80 degrees)
- vertical or edge sawn (80+ degrees)
Vertical sawn are considered to have the highest structural value while
flat sawn look nice

Seasoning
Green wood contains 30 to 200% moisture by oven-dried weight, this is
lowered to 7% for dry areas or up to 14% in damp areas, leaving a saw
mill, wood is at 15% moisture
Air drying (inexpensive and slow)
- Stack boards with air space between them to allow drying
- After 3 to 4 months, it reaches the local humidity level
- Often requires further dying to reach acceptable levels
Kiln drying (scientific and expensive)

- Boards dried at 70-120 F for 4-10 days

- Rapid drying may result in cracks and deformed lumber, and postprocess wood is thirsty, so it must be covered and cared for properly

Surfacing
Planning (surfacing) to produce a smooth surface
Post-drying surfacing yields higher quality lumber because it removes
small defects developed during the drying
In case of pre-surfacing, the dimensions are slightly increases to
compensate for shrinkage during seasoning

Preservative Treatment (optional)

Superficial (surface) treated or pressure treated by fluid penetration

Grading Systems
Usually based on number and magnitude of its flaws
Flaws include knots, checks, pitch pockets, shakes, stain, and many more
(see below)
Flaws affects strength, durability, workability
High variability in grading standards due to variability of wood sources
and types
The National Bureau of Standards and the USDA is trying to produce a
simple, uniform method of lumber sizing, common nomenclature, and
grading standards

 There are several agencies (7 listed in the book) that are certified by the
American Lumber Standards Committee

Hardwood Grades:
The National Hardwood Lumber Association based grading of the
hardwood on the amount of usable lumber each piece of standard-length
lumber
Grades are given the classification of Firsts, Seconds, Selects, and
Common (No. 1, No. 2, No. 3A, or 3B)

Software Grades
Purpose of grading
Ensure that all lumber within a specific graded has at least the minimum
mechanical or load-carrying capability
Graded visually or by machine-stress graded

Machine Stress Grading

Based on bending test. Measurements include bending stress, tension
parallel to grain, compression parallel to grain, modulus of elasticity
Grade is based on mechanical responses (Table 10.2)(text)

Visual Grading
Small, clear specimens are tested to determine basic mechanical
properties
Properties are defined for each species of softwood
Designations are: yard, structural, factory and shop, construction,
standard, utility
- Sub-grades are select, select B, select C, and No.1, No. 2, and No. 3
commons, appearance and studs
Structural lumber is graded according to its intended use
- Designations are light framing, joists and plans, beam and stringers, post
and timbers