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8.1 Introduction
Antenna is a device used for radiating and receiving EM waves
Any wireless communication cant happen without antennas.
Antennas have many applications like in
mobile communications (all mobile phones has in-built antennas)
wireless local areas networks (your laptop connecting wireless
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8.1 Introduction
Antennas
Radiation
fundamentals
Types of
antennas
Antenna
arrays
When does a
charge radiate?
Wave equation for
potential functions
Hertz dipole
Dipole antenna
Loop antenna
Fig. 8.1 Antennas (cover antenna pattern and parameters after types of antennas)
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Source
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Ptotal =
lim
r
P (r )
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and
it never comes back to the source
radiation
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di
dv
=Q
dt
dt
dv
=acceleration of charge, ms-2
dt
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deceleration
then there will be radiation even if the wire is straight
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r
One of the Maxwells equation B = 0
r
r
Hence B = A
Putting this in the following Maxwells equation
r
r
r
r
B
A
E =
E =
t
t
r
r
r A
r A
E +
= V
=0 E+
t
t
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E =
+ V =
2
+ V =
t
r
r
r
E
Another Maxwells equation B = J +
t
Simplifies to
r
+ V
r
r
r
r
t
2
A = A A = J
t
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r
V
A +
=0
t
Applying above condition
r
2
r
r
A
2
A = J 2 + V
t
t
r
r
r
A
2
A 2 = J
t
r
A
+ 2V =
t
14
2V 2 =
t
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2
2
A 2 = J ; V 2 =
t
t
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where =
To solve the above equation, we can apply Greens function
technique
Greens function G is the solution of the above equation with
the R.H.S equal to a delta function
2 G + 2 G = (space)
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G G
=
=0
r
r 2 r
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+ 2 = r (r )
+ 2 = 0
Therefore,
= Ae j r + Be + j r
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field, we get,
= Ae j r
Ae jr
G=
r
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20
()
r r
j r r '
r' e
J
r
r r'
r
r
V
dv '
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is positive
since the distance in spherical coordinates is always positive
r r'
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Dipole Antenna
Horn Antenna
r
E ( , )
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max
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0.62
3
Dmax
3
Dmax
< rnf 2
2
2 Dmax
2
2 Dmax
29
< rff
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3
Dmax
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31
3
Dmax
< rnf 2
2
2 Dmax
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32
ff
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antenna
It is the radiation lobe in the direction of maximum radiation
max is the direction in which maximum radiation occurs
Any lobe other than the main lobe is called as minor lobe
The radiation lobe opposite to the main lobe is also termed
as back lobe
This will be more appropriate for polar plot of radiation pattern
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radiation pattern
The amplitude of the maximum side lobe in comparison to
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S ( , )dA
= S ( , )r 2 (W / Sr )
d
Prad =
U ( , )d = U ( , ) sin d d
= 4
U avg
39
P
1
= rad =
4 4
=0
=0
U ( , ) sin d d
=0 =0
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antenna
to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions
which equivalent to the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna
D( , ) =
U ( , )
=
U avg
4 U ( , )
U ( , ) sin d d
=0 =0
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U max
=
Uavg
4 U max ( , )
U ( , ) sin d d
4
A
=0 = 0
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where HPBW
42
4
rad
rad
HPBW
HPBW
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Dmax
180
4
41, 253
deg
=
deg
deg
deg
HPBW HPBW
HPBW
HPBW
8.3.8 Gain
In defining directivity, we have assumed that the antenna
is lossless
But, antennas are made of conductors and dielectrics
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and dielectrics
Thereby, the power input to the antenna is partly radiated
and
remaining part is lost in the imperfect conductors as well as in
dielectrics
The gain of an antenna in a given direction is defined as
the ratio of the intensity in a given direction
to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power
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G ( , ) =
4 U ( , ) 4 U ( , )erad
=
= erad D( , )
Pinput
Prad
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Pt
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due to
reflection,
refraction and
diffraction
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as antenna polarization
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r
E ( , , t ) = E ( , ) cos (t ) + E ( , ) cos (t )
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E ( , , t )
E ( , , t )
1
= tan
= tan
E
,
,
t
E
,
,
t
)
)
(
(
1
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line
Therefore, the antennas polarization is LP
b) CP
When = , the two transversal electric field components
2
are out of phase in time
and if the two transversal electric field components are of
equal amplitude
E ( , ) = E ( , ) = E0 ( , )
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r
E ( , , t ) = E ( , ) cos (t ) + E ( , ) sin (t )
CP
sin (t )
1
= tan
= tan tan (t ) = t
cos (t )
1
This implies that the total radiated electric field vector of the
and so on
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For
E ( , ) E ( , ) and 00,,
The ratio of the major and minor axes of the ellipse is called
axial ratio (AR)
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orthonormality condition
*
*
uco uco
= 1, ucr ucr* = 1, uco ucr* = 0, ucr uco
=0
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r *
r *
uco = x , ucr = y ; Eco = E uco = Ex , Ecr = E ucr = E y
For a y-directed LP wave, LP =900, hence,
r *
r *
uco = y , ucr = x; Eco = E uco = E y , Ecr = E ucr = Ex
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x jy
x + jy
, ucr =
2
2
r * Ex + jE y
r * Ex jE y
Eco = E uco =
, Ecr = E ucr =
2
2
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x + Ae jEP y
1+ A
, ucr =
Ae jEP x + y
1 + A2
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and azimuthal)
The received field strength is measured by a spectrum
analyzer or power meter
which will be used to generate the antenna radiation pattern in
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1 2
1
I L+ I
4
4
( 2 f 0 )
2
I ( Rr + RL )
1
2
Rr
1
=
= Qlossless erad
2 f 0 Rr C ( Rr + RL )
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2 f 0 L
1
=
Rr + RL 2 f 0 ( Rr + RL ) C
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67
1 2
I Rr
2
1
I
2
( Rr + RL )
Rr
( Rr + RL )
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Small Antennas
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small antennas
When kr<1 (electrically small antennas), the quality factor
Q of a small antenna can found from the J. L. Chus relation
Q=
1 + 2 ( kr )
( kr )
{1 + ( kr ) }
2
erad
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( kr )
1
kr
Gmax = ( kr ) + 2 ( kr )
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71
Qmin =32283
It has very high Q and hence a very narrow FBW (0.000031)
Gmax=0.0638 or -12dB
Note that in the above calculations r=0.005 has been used
But the gain of the antenna in dB is also negative
Antenna size, quality factor, bandwidth and radiation
efficiency is interlinked
There is no complete freedom to optimize each one of them
independently
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Source
Feed
Line
Antenna
Radiated fields
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=0 =0
DdB=10log10(D) dBi
Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum
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of 50 Ohm
At the input of the antenna, the impedance seen by the feed
line can be assumed as ZL
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1+
Z L Z0
=
;VSWR =
Z L + Z0
1
0 1,1 VSWR
BW : VSWR 2
Polarization of the antenna is the polarization of the wave
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79
=p0/(4r2)
Power transmitted= pT gT
pfd= pT gT /(4r2)
In dB,
PFD= PT +GT-10log4r2=EIRP-10log4r2 (dBW/m2)
where equivalent isotropic radiated power=EIRP
No matter what, a large portion of the transmitted
energy 10log4r2 is not seen by the receiver
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wavelength
Hertz dipole is not of much practical use
but it is the basic building block of any kind of antennas
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P ( r , , )
I 0 e jt
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r r'
J ( r ) dv ' = I 0 dle jt
sin sin
cos sin
cos
sin sin
cos sin
cos
cos 0
sin 0
0 Az
Ar = Az cos ; A = Az sin ; A = 0
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r
A
=
0 r 2 sin r
Ar
rA
r sin
r sin A
have,
r
r
1
H=
0 r 2 sin r
Az cos
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rAz sin
r sin
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I 0 dle + jt
H =
4 r
r sin
0 r 2 sin
j r
sin )
( e
I 0 dle + jt e j r sin
=
4
rA
sin
A
cos
)
( z
)
(
z
e j r cos
I 0 dle + jt
e j r sin
j r
sin +
j e
4
r
r
j 1
+ 2
r
r
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before, we have,
r
r
1
E=
j r 2 sin r
0
88
r sin
0 =
r
H
r
H
r
sin
sin
(
)
(
)
j r 2 sin
r sin H
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2
Er =
+ ( r sin ) =
+ 2 r 2sin cos
2
j r 2 sin 4 r r 2
j
r
sin
r
r
I 0 dle jt sin
1
E =
j + e jr
r sin H =
r
j r 4
r
j r 2 sin r
r
I 0 dle jt sin j r j 2
j
=
e
+
2
3
4
r
r
r
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90
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2
c) Radiation field (1/r) is proportional to frequency (
)
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We can also observe that the three types of fields are equal in
magnitude when
2/r= /r2=1/r3 => r=1/= /2
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e
Er 2 j
; E j 0
3
4 r
4 r 3
E =
94
Er + E 2 =
I 0 dl
2
2
4
cos
+
sin
3
4 r
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Fig. 8.6 (a) Near field pattern plot of a Hertz dipole located at the
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Fraunhofer far field region, there exists the Fresnel near field
region thats why we have chosen an r>> /2), radiation
field is the dominant term
In other words kr>>1, we have,
I 0 dl sin e jt e j r 2
I 0 dl sin e jt e j r
E = j
; H = j
4 r
4 r
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other
They are 90 out of phase with the current due to the (j)
term in the expressions of E and H
It is interesting to note that the ratio of electric field and
magnetic field is constant
E
=
=
=
=
H
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Fig. 8.6 (b) E-plane radiation pattern of a Hertz dipole in far field
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r r*
1
1
= Re E H = Re Er r + E H *
2
2
S avg
{(
2
3
1
* $
I
dl
sin
0
= Re E H r =
r$
2
2 4 r
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direction
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resistance
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dl
2
implies that Rrad = 80
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Fig. 8.6 (c) A typical 3-D radiation pattern of a Hertz dipole in the far field
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plane)
H-plane (horizontal) radiations patterns
are sufficient to describe the radiation pattern of a Hertz
dipole
H-plane (xy-plane) radiation pattern is in the form of circle
of radius 1 since F(, ) is independent of
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109
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written as
111
dE
j 2 sin I ( z )dze j R1
dE =
; dH =
0
4 R1
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R1 R
since the dipole size is quite small in comparison to the distance
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E =
z = L
113
dE =
z = L
L
j 2 sin I 0 sin( ( L z ))e j R e j Z cos
j 2 sin I ( z )e j R e j Z cos
dz =
dz
4 R
4 R
z = L
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= j 60 I 0
R
sin
R
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(a) 2L=2/4= /2
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(b) 2L=2=2
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(c) 2L=22=4
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Vin
Vin
=
I in I 0 sin L
m
,L =
,sin L =1, Z in = in
I0
4
2
For dipole of length 2L, where L =even multiples of .
, L = m ,sin L = 0 Z in =
4
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of /2,
otherwise it is difficult to have a source with infinite impedance
2. Since increasing the dipole length more and more current is
available for radiation,
the total power radiated increases monotonically
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cos null = 1
is also zero
So let us take the limit of F() as 0, and see
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Lim
1
Lim
sin
sin
2!
4!
2!
4!
0,
0,
4
2
( L )2 sin 2 ( L )4 (1 cos 4 )
L
sin (1 + cos 2 )
(
)
L
sin
1
( )
=
=0
Lim
Lim
2!
4!
sin
2!
4!
0,
0,
dF ( )
d
=0
We can also take the mean of the first two nulls to approximate max
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Monopole is usually fed from a coaxial cable (see Fig. 8.7 (b))
A monopole of length L placed above a perfectly conducting
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Ground plane
Image of monopole
Coaxial cable
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The monopole looks like a dipole in free space (see Fig. 8.7
(b))
Since this monopole is of length L only,
it will radiate only half of the total radiated power of a dipole of
length 2L
Hence, the radiation resistance of a monopole is half that of a
dipole
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dipole,
the maximum radiation intensity will be also same for both
cases
But for monopole,
the total radiated power is half that of a dipole
ground plane is
twice that of dipole in free space
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They have
very low radiation and
are practically useless
that
it is equivalently represented as a Hertz dipole
current
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r
r
'
r
R
r
r'
P'
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( 1)
Q Jn ( z ) = zn
m =0
2m+n
z 2m
m !( n + m ) !
j I 0 ae j r J1 ( a sin )
A ( ) =
2r
130
r
A
) j Ar
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I 0 ae j r J1 ( a sin )
2r
I 0 ae j r
=
H =
J1 ( a sin ) ; H r = H = 0
2 r
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direction
should have direction along positive radial direction
Therefore H
must be negative
Fig. 8.10 shows the far-field radiation pattern of the loop
antenna
It can be observed that the radiation field has higher
magnitude
with the larger radius of the loop antenna
radius
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1
2
1
(a sin )3 + ... 1 a sin
16
2
I 0 a e j r 1
2
I 0 a e j r 1
( a sin ) ; H =
( a sin )
2
2r 2
134
direction
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antenna,
the beam or radiation pattern is fixed
Antenna array is a
configuration of multiple antennas (elements) arranged
to achieve a given radiation pattern
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136
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according to the
pattern multiplication principle
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8.10 (a)
The field radiated by the two elements,
assuming no coupling between the elements
e
jI
dl
sin
e
e
1
2
Etotal = E1 + E2 =
+
4 r1
4 r2
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r
r1
r
r
r
r2
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I1 = I 2 = I o
1 =
,2 =
j 2d cos + 2 j 2d cos + 2
+e
e
d
2 cos
cos +
2 j r
r
jI
dl
sin
e
Etotal = 0
4 r
2 j r
jI
dl
sin
e
= 0
4 r
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AF = 2 cos ( d cos + )
2
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0,
d,
2d, ,
(N-2) d and
(N-1) d
respectively
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,
2, ,
(N-2) and
(N-1)
0,
d,
2d, ,
(N-2) d and
(N-1) d
respectively
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I
(N-1)d
.
.
.
I 2
2d
I 0
( N 1)
I 0
( N 1)
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will become
AF = 1 + e
N
AF =
j ( d cos + )
+e
2 j ( d cos + )
e j (n 1)( d cos + ) AF
n =1
jN
145
e
1 = e
e j 1
N 1
j(
)
2
+ ..... + e
1 e jN
; = d cos +
N =
j
1 e
N
j ( N2 )
j ( )
e 2
e
1
j ( 1 )
j ( )
e 2 e 2
j ( N 1)( d cos + )
sin( )
N 1
j
(
)
=e 2
2
sin(
)
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( AF ) N
( N 1)
N
)
2
I 0
sin( )
2
( AF ) N =
sin(
N
)
2
2
146
( N 1)
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147
sin(
)
1
2
=
N sin 1
sin(
)
2
N
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148
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( AF ) N
sin(
)
1
2
=
N sin 1
N
) = 0 Q = ( cos ) d +
2
N
N
2n
= n {( cos ) d + } = n d cos =
2
2
N
1
2n
n = cos 1
n = 1, 2,3,......
N
d
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sin(
)
1
2
=
N sin 1
1
=0
d cos + )
(
2
=
m
m = cos 1
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= d cos + =90 = 0 = 00
0
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( N 1)
I 0
( AF ) N
153
sin(
)
1
2
=
N sin 1
( N 1)
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= d cos + =90 = 0 = 00
0
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= d cos + =0 = 0 = d
0
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2n
=
d cos null , n = 1,2,3,L
N
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