2011-05-(40)

Contribution to Thermal Correlation between a Laboratory-scale

Tribometer and Brake Dynamometer
Patric Daniel Neis
Ney Francisco Ferreira
Flavio Jos Lorini
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Rua Sarmento Leite, 425 Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil

Luciano Tedesco Matozo

FRAS-LE, RS 122 Caxias do Sul, RS, Brasil

Copyright 2011 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc

ABSTRACT
The current article intends to describe the attempt to
make a tribometer to reproduce, as close as possible, the
thermal behavior of tests performed on brake dynamometer.
The same operating parameters and mating materials have
been used on both machines during the tests. Different disc
thickness, sample size and presence of insulator in the back
surface of the tribometer disc were evaluated. According to
the methodology adopted, the bigger is the apparent contact
area the higher is the temperature gain of the disc. A ticker
disc of the tribometer reduces the magnitude of temperature
gain in all stops. The thermal insulator also contributes
towards to a better thermal correlation.
INTRODUCTION
Manufacturers of brake systems have shown
particular interest in assessing the performance of friction
materials at high temperatures (above 300C). Under these
conditions reduction in coefficient of friction can occur, an
effect known as fading [1]. Other effects related to elevated
temperatures are the formation of hot spots and hot bands in
the brake disc surface [2-3] and degradation of the phenolic
resin of organic matrix composite [4].
Correlate thermal behavior from real applications (as
for automotive brakes) in a laboratory-scale machine has

been a challenge, since no equipment seems to be able to

perform this task. According to [5], reduced-scale tests
cannot reproduce the same thermal behavior as at full-scale.
It is because the disc rubbing-surface in the laboratory-scale
machine does not conform the scale factor (a ratio between
areas of disc friction-surface from both reduced and fullscale equipments).
Within this context, the current research intends to
contribute for successfully to reproduce in a laboratoryscale tribometer the thermal behavior from tests performed
on brake dynamometer. The methodology for doing that
includes to using the same operating parameters (according
to the theory of scale) and mating materials on both
tribometer and dynamometer. It is also includes evaluating
different disc thickness, sample size and presence of
insulator in the back surface of the tribometer discs. Finally,
a control analysis is done in order to identify whether the
response of the control system can be affecting in somehow
the thermal results.
METHODOLOGY
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS - The brake
dynamometer used as a reference machine for comparing
the results with the tribometer is shown in the Fig. 1-a.

The laboratory-scale tribometer (Fig. 1-b) has been

designed to match the range of contact pressure and sliding
speed as those in real automotive brake systems, according
to a previous study conducted by other author in the past
[6]. In this equipment, the sample has a smaller size in
order to allow scale tests to be performed and besides
reduce the costs.

Pneumatic
actuator

Sample Bearings

Load
cell

Motor

Shaft
Torque
transducer

Disc

Figure 2. Scheme of the tribometer

(a)

COUPLING THE SCALES - Theory of scale, which

was previously proposed by [7] and later also followed by
[8-9], has been adopted in the current research. According
to this theory, density of energy dissipated in the pads
rubbing area, sliding velocity, deceleration and braking stop
time should be equivalent in both full and scale machines.
Based on the theory of scale, the braking torque set in the
tribometer, expressed in terms of geometrical parameters is
calculated by the equation 1:

(b)

Figure 1. Experimental apparatus, where in a) brake

dynamometer and in b) tribometer.
Regarding to the rotating system, the tribometer can
operate in two modes:

T = i =

I) Constant drag mode: rotation speed of the disc is

kept constant over time during the tests.

Iar 2 i f

AR
t

(1)

Where T is the braking torque in the tribometer [Nm],

i is the inertia simulated on the tribometer [kgm], is the
angular deceleration of the tribometer shaft [rad/s], I is the
inertia used on dynamometer [kgm], a is the sample area
used on tribometer [m], r is the slip radius set in the
tribometer [m], A is the pad area tested on the
dynamometer [m], R is the slip radius set in the
dynamometer [m], t is the average braking time [s], is the
angular velocity of the tribometer shaft, where i and f
are the sub-indexes that denote the velocity in the beginning
and in the end of each braking.

II) Disc deceleration mode: the rotation speed of the

disc decreases at a pre-set rate as the braking proceeds,
similar to the braking process in cars and the tests
performed on brake dynamometers.
Regarding to the load/actuator system, the tribometer
can operate in two different modes:
I) Constant force mode: the normal force on the disc,
which is done by means a pneumatic actuator, is kept
constant over time during the tests. At the same time, the
braking torque remains free to vary according to the
changes in the coefficient of friction.

By the equation 1, braking torque is altered by

using different sample sizes. Thus, it is possible to vary the
total energy in each stop by keeping constant the density of
energy dissipated over the sample area.

II) Constant torque mode: the braking torque is kept

constant over time during the tests. This is done by a closed
loop process that controls the applied force at each fraction
of a second. A feedback from the current torque is
performed by means of a torque transducer installed on the
tribometer shaft.

BRAKING ENERGY CALCULATION - A

numerical equation (equation 2) is used to determine the
braking energy from the tests performed on the tribometer.
i= t f

ET =

(t
i

t i 1 )Ti

(2)

i =1

Figure 2 illustrates the scheme of the laboratory-scale

tribometer, where both the rotating and load/actuator
systems are presented.

Where ET is the total energy produced by the braking

process [J], i is the index that denotes the point of analysis,
tf is the last point of the discretization, which coincides with
the final instant of the braking, Ti is the braking torque in

the point of analysis [Nm], i is the angular speed of the

tribometer shaft in the point of analysis [rad/s], ti is the
instant of time in the point of analysis [s], ti-1 is the instant
of time immediately preceding [s].

mm, giving a spot diameter of 3 mm. The emissivity was

set to 1 during the tests performed on both test equipments.
For this reason, the temperature values should be analyzed
as a relative scale, since the brake disc emissivity is not
equal to 1 and can vary considerably during braking tests
[11]. However, considering both a close thermal behavior
and equivalent operating parameters between the test
machines, the variations in emissivity are supposed to be
approximately the same in the tests from both cases. Based
on that, the temperature curves from the tests performed on
the tribometer and dynamometer can be compared to each
other. A more deep analysis of the emissivity variations in
the brake disc surface during fading tests would need
additional research effort and, for this reason, it will be the
subject of a further publication.

THE EXPERIMENTS - Firstly, a fading test has been

run on the brake dynamometer in accordance to the AKMaster standard procedure [10]. This test was performed
with two brake pads, a disc with diameter of 160 mm (12
mm thick) and inertia of 6.15 kgm.
Cylindrical-shaped samples with four different
diameters have been used on the tribometer in order to
evaluate the influence of the apparent contact area on the
thermal results. Other factors investigated were the effect of
changing in the thermal mass (thickness) of the tribometer
discs and the presence of a 3 mm layer of thermal insulating
material (ceramic fiber paper) at its back surface. Both the
two discs used on the tribometer have the same diameter as
in the dynamometer disc (160 mm), but lower thickness (4
mm or 6 mm). The thickest disc
(6 mm) used in the
tribometer has been chosen based on fact that in the scale
machine only one sample is pressed against the disc.
Consequently, the energy generated during the braking
process in this case is half the energy produced in the brake
dynamometer, which uses two pads. So, the thickest disc in
the tribometer have thickness of approximately half of
dynamometers disc, which is 12 mm.

THERMAL ANALYSIS

Figure 3 shows results of disc temperature in each

stop for the fading-cycle (set of 15 stops), run on the
dynamometer and tribometer. A sample with diameter of 34
mm and disc 6 mm thick (insulated) was used in the
tribometer during the current test. The points plotted in this
graph represent data acquired with a sampling rate of 2 Hz,
where a continuous line connects these points in order to
facilitate the visualization of patterns and trends.

Table 1 shows the parameters used on each machine

for doing the fading tests in the current research.
Table 1. Operating parameters used in the tests
Parameter

Brake
Dynamometer

Tribometer

Initial/Final sliding
speed [m/s]

10 / 0

Initial temperature [C]

46 86 107 125 142

161 186 210 240 270
293 314 325 342 354

Total area of the

samples [mm]

3200

Braking energy [J]

82500

Braking torque [Nm]

130

Braking time [s]

491

707

804

Figure 3. Evolution of the disc temperature during the

fading test run on the dynamometer and tribometer
908

Below, the influence of each factor (contact area,

thickness of the disc and the presence of insulating) on the
thermal behaviour is described separately.

12650 18687 20730 23400

13

18.75

21.3

24.1

In order to facilitate the analysis of the temperature

curves, the comparison will be made with respect to the
temperature gains in each stop. This parameter is calculated
by subtracting the maximum disc temperature from the
initial temperature of each stop. The temperature gain is the
average between 3 replicates performed on each condition.

7.8

Although the AK Master standard recommends the

use of thermocouples for temperature measurement on the
disc, in the current experiment an infrared sensor (optical
pyrometer) has been used due to the difficulty of installing
thermocouples inside the thin tribometer discs. The
distance between the infrared sensor and the disc was 60

Figure 4 shows the comparison of the temperature

gains in fading test for the different friction material sample

sizes and using the 4 mm thick disc. It is observed a

decrease of the temperature gain with the increase in the
stop number for all curves of the tribometer, behavior not
observed for the dynamometer curve. This phenomenon is
mainly attributed to the bigger thermal mass associated to
the brake dynamometer, where the metallic parts (shaft,
screws, structure, etc) are larger than in the scale
tribometer, and make the thermal inertia effect more
significant in the full-scale machine .

higher during the beginning of the fading-cycle than in the

end. The reduction of the temperature gain in the beginning
(first stops) is a desired effect in order to better reflect the
thermal behavior of the brake dynamometer tests.
Notice that a satisfactory, but not perfect, thermal
correlation has been encountered for the test performed on
the tribometer with the disc 6 mm thick (insulated) and
sample of 34 mm. According to previously mentioned, the
differences in thermal behavior between both machines are
mainly due to the bigger thermal mass related to the brake
dynamometer. Besides, differences in design and
construction between both machines may also contribute to
distinguish the thermal behavior, since it changes the heat
dissipation in each machine.

From the evaluation of the sample size, it can be

concluded that the increase in contact area of the samples
leads to increase in temperature gain. Regarding to the
thermal insulator, its presence also increases the
temperature gain.

Temperature gain [C]

CONTROL ANALYSIS OF THE TRIBOMETER

A delay in the initial temperature (trigger) has been

identified in the tribometer curves (see Fig. 3). This effect
becomes clearer in the stop numbers 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14 and
15.

110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Table 2 presents the braking energy calculated in each

stop of the fading cycle for the tribometer. This results
correspond to the same experiment previously illustrated in
Figure 3, ie sample with diameter of 34 mm and disc
thickness of 6 mm (insulated) in the tribometer.

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Stop number

Table 2. Results from braking energy

Figure 4. Gain of disc temperature in each stop for both

dynamometer and tribometer (disc 4 mm thick)

Stop numbe r

Expe rime ntal Pre se t value

Temperature gain [C]

Figure 5 shows the evaluation of different disc

thicknesses (4 mm and 6 mm). The other factors were kept
constant in this test: sample with diameter of 34 mm and
insulator.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-

d=34mm and disk thickness of 6mm (insulated)

d=34mm and disk thickness of 4mm (insulated)
Dynamometer
0

Braking e ne rgy [kJ]

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Stop number

Figure 5. Comparison of temperature gain for different disc

thicknesses (diameter of the sample of 34 mm)
The increase in the disc thickness of the tribometer
causes two effects: firstly it reduces the magnitude of
temperature gain in all stops and secondly this reduction is

25.07

24.86

24.72

24.03

24.56

24.58

24.54

24.47

24.53

10

24.47

11

24.48

12

24.72

13

24.72

14

24.65

15

25.12

Ave rage

24.63

Variabil ity

0.51

23.4

The analysis of the experimental data from the table 2

shows a relatively low variation, which in percentage is

The increase in the disc thickness of the tribometer

reduces the magnitude of temperature gain in all stops,
mainly during the beginning (first stops) of the fadingcycle.

about 2% of the average (level of confidence of 95%). This

result allow us to know how repetitive are the tests
performed on the tribometer.

Pre-set rotation
Pre-set torque
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
1

The control analysis of the tribometer indicates that

the experimental values of braking energy are on average
about 1.23 kJ higher than the pre set value. It can be
attributed to the higher magnitudes of braking torque and
rotational speed of the shaft. For this reason, a fine-tuning
is necessary to make the control system response more
accurate and efficient in the tribometer.

Experimental rotation (average)

Experimental torque (average)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
4
5
6
7
8
Time [s]

The braking energy dispersion is about 2% of the

average (level of confidence of 95%), which give us an idea
of the repeatability of the test conditions using the
tribometer.

Braking torque [Nm]

Shaft rotation [1/min]

The average value of the braking energy

experimentally determined (24.63 kJ) is approximately 1.23
kJ higher than the pre set value (23.4 kJ). It is due to the
higher value of shaft rotation (around 24 rpm on average)
and braking torque (around 0.7 Nm on average) measured
during the tests when compared to the pre set values for
these parameters. Figure 6 illustrates this fact.

The main reason for the differences in thermal

behavior between the tribometer and the brake
dynamometer cannot be attributed to the control system, but
to the thermal mass, geometrical and total dissipated energy
differences between both machines.

Figure 6. Pre-set and experimental curves of rotation and

torque for the fading tests performed on tribometer (sample
with diameter of 34 mm and disc 6 mm thick insulated).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Both rotation and torque inaccuracy can be

attenuated by means of a fine tuning in the controllers for
the pneumatic actuator (in the case of the torque) and
servomotor inverter (in the case of the rotation).

Authors are grateful to the Fras-le S/A company by

the technical support supplied during the realization of this
work.

The higher value for the braking energy can explain

the higher level of the temperature gains obtained in the
beginning (first 4 stops) of the tests performed on the
tribometer (see Fig. 5). However, the gross differences in
thermal behavior are not in the first stops, but towards to
the last stops. This behavior is associated to the differences
in construction characteristics and thermal mass of each
machine.

REFERENCES

[1] R. Limpert, Brake design and safety, Second Edition,

SAE International, 1999.
[2] P. D. Neis, G. A. S. Kruze, N. F. Ferreira, Relation
Between the Temperature of the Disc Measured with
Thermocouple and by Thermography Using a ReducedScale Dynamometer, 20th International Congress of
Mechanical Engineering, Brazil, 2009.

CONCLUSIONS

[3] S Panier, P. Dufrnoy, D. Weichert, An experimental

investigation of hot spots in railway disc brakes. Wear
2004, v.256, p.76473.

The thermal results show that by keeping constant

energy density on the contact area of the samples
(according to the methodology adopted), the bigger is the
apparent contact area the more energy is generated during
the braking process and the higher is the temperature gain
of the disc.

[4] A. Cristol-Bulth, Y. Desplanques, G. Degallaix, Y.

Berthier, Mechanical and Chemical Investigation of the
Temperature Influence on the Tribological Mechanisms
Occurring in OMC/Cast Iron Friction Contact, Wear 2007,
v. 264, p. 815-825.

Regarding the influence of the thermal insulator it

was noticed that its presence causes the increase in
temperature gain.

[5] Y. Desplanques, O. Roussette, G. Degallaix, R. Copin,

Y.Berthier, Analysis of tribological behaviour of paddisc
contact in railway braking. Part 1. Laboratory test
development, compromises between actual and simulated
tribological triplets. Wear 2007,v. 262,p.58291.
[6] M.B.Infantini, Variveis de Desempenho dos Sistemas
de Freios, Master dissertation, 96 p. Universidade Federal
do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 2008.
[7] A. J. Wilson, W. G. Belford, G. T. Bowsher, Testing
machines for scale vehicle brake installations, The
Engineer, 317-323, 1968.
[8] P. G. Sanders, T. M. Dalka, R. H. Basch, A reducedscale brake dynamometer for friction characterization.
Tribology International, vol. 34, p. 609-615, 2001.
[9] G. A. S. Kruze, Avaliao do coeficiente de atrito em
um dinammetro em escala reduzida. Master dissertation,
79 pages. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil, 2009.
[10] AK-Master Standard, In Brake German Procedures,
Germany, 1998.
[11] J. Thevenet, M. Siroux, B. Desmet, Measurements of
brake disc surface temperature and emissivity by two-color
pyrometry, Applied Thermal Engineering 30, p. 753759,
2010.

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