Mech PDF

r Tech
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ni
ci
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Educati
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Sponsored by
ALL INDIA COUNCIL
FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION
ia
Ind Coun
ll
ISSN 0971-3034
Special Issue of the

First National Conference in the Emerging Vistas of Technology
st
in 21 Century
THE
INDIAN
JOURNAL
OF
TECHNICAL
EDUCATION
Futuristic Trends in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Organized By
Gujarat Technological
University
Supported By
Parul Institute of Engineering &
Technology
Promoted by
INDIAN SOCIETY FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION
Near Katwaria Sarai, Shaheed Jeet Singh Marg,
New Delhi - 110 016
INDIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Editorial Advisory Committee
Dr. R. Murugesan Chairman
President, ISTE
Prof. L.M.Patnaik
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
Prof. R.S.Nirjar
Vice Chancellor
Gautam Buddha University
Greater, Noida, U.P.
Prof. D.P.l Agrawal

Chairman, UPSC, New Delhi
Prof. Ashok Ghatol

Vice Chancellor
Dr. B.A. Technological University, Lonere
Prof. K.Balaveera Reddy

Former Vice Chancellor, VTU, Belguam
Prof. Ranjit Singh
Executive Secretary, ISTE, New Delhi
Prof. M.S. Palanichamy

Former Vice Chancellor
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai
Prof. N.V. Vasani

Director General, Nirma University of
Science & Technology, Ahmedabad
Prof. N. Ramachandran
Vice-Chancellor, Periyar Maniammai
University, Thanjavur
Prof. R.S. Sirohi, Vice Chancellor

Amity University, Jaipur
Prof. H.P Khincha

Vice Chancellor, VTU, Belgaum
Prof. B.S. Sonde, Former Vice-Chancellor

Goa University, Goa
Prof. Krishna Vedula

Professor and Dean Emeritus
University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA
Editorial Board
Prof. D. Balakrishnan
Member, ISTE National Executive, Council
Prof. T.S. Rathore

Professor, IIT, Mumbai
Prof. S. Mohan
Chief Executive, Innovation Centre (SID)
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
Prof. A.K. Chatterjee

Professor, Birla Institute of Technology,
Mesra, Ranchi
Prof. V.K. Bhansali

Member, ISTE National Executive Council
Prof. Anand Rao Bhalerao

Principal, BVU, College of Engineering, Pune
Prof. S.Y. Kulkarni

NMAM Institute of Technology, Nitte
Dr. Renu Bapna

Scientist-F, Technology Development Board,
New Delhi
Chief Editor
Prof. Ranjit Singh
Executive Secretary, ISTE, New Delhi
Editor
Prof. R. Hariharan
Development Co-Ordinator, ISTE, New Delhi
Copyright (c) Indian Society for Technical Education, The Journal articles or any part of it may not be reproduced in any form
without the permission of the publisher.
r Tech
l fo
ni
ci
l
ca
Educati
o
Sponsored by
ALL INDIA COUNCIL
FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION
ia
Ind Coun
ll
ISSN 0971-3034

st
in 21 Century
THE
INDIAN
JOURNAL
OF
TECHNICAL
EDUCATION
Futuristic Trends in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Organized By
Gujarat Technological
University
Supported By
Parul Institute of Engineering &
Technology
Promoted by
New Delhi - 110 016
NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century, 14th & 15th April 2012, Ahmedabad
Organized by
Gujarat Technological University
Supported by
Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology
PREFACE
This special issue of the Indian Journal of Technical Education (IJTE) contains
proceedings of the National Conference on Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st
Century NCEVT12 organized by Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad
and supported by Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Limda, Vadodara on
14th and 15th April 2012 at Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
The NCEVT is being organized by Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology since
2009. This is the 3rd event that Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology is
organizing NCEVT in 2012.
The prime idea to organize this conference is to bring researchers, Scientists,
Engineers and Scholar Students together to exchange and share their experiences,
new ideas, and research results in all major areas of Engineering and identify with
the practical challenges encountered and the solutions adopted through presentation
and discussion of papers. The conference intends to encourage inventions, scientific
investigations and research to promote their application for development in all
sectors of national economy. In addition, NCEVT12 aims to serve as a platform to
promote the exchange of ideas between Industry and Academia to equip them with
the capability to meet with the emerging challenges and changing requirements in
the context of globalization and privatization.
All conference papers were reviewed by a technical review committee of Professors of
repute from IITs, NITs and leading national institutes in the specific area of the
conference. I am grateful to each of the conference Co-conveners, Coordinators and
their various committee members for their work in managing the review process and
in the compilation of these proceeding volumes of this conference.
I thank all the scholars who responded readily to our call for papers and participated
in this conference. We had received 213 research papers in our first national
conference in 2009. In 2010 around 200 delegates were registered and we have
received more than 230 papers. This year we have received nearly 388 research
papers. All were sent to the reviewers and after their review and recommendation
only 250 papers have been accepted in five different themes of conference. I convey
my thanks to all participants for their overwhelming response. I also would like to
express our great thanks to all of our reviewers for their excellent and careful reviews
of the contributed papers.
I am very much thankful to Honorable Vice Chancellor, GTU, Dr. Akshai Aggarwal Sir
for his very kind support at any moment and issue for this conference, for providing
all necessary financial and moral support and also for putting trust on NCEVT team
members shoulders.
I am also thankful to all GTU officials, Dr. G. P. Vadodaria, Prof. M. N. Patel, Dr.
Rajul Gajjar, Ms. Almas Juneja and all who helped for this conference in one or
another way.
I extend my gratitude to our Chairman & Managing Trustee, Dr. J. K. Patel, who
helped in facilitating each required task.
Also, I record my gratefulness to Dr. Devanshu J. Patel, Trustee, for his vision to
guide us to organize this conference and also for showing interest in each particular
earnestly and to shore up the event successfully.
Finally, on behalf of GTU and PIET conference team I deeply appreciate efforts made
by Prof. Indrajit Patel, Member, National Executive Council, ISTE, to have this
proceeding volumes in the form of IJTE journal special issue for NCEVT12 under the
aegis of ISTE. On behalf of NCEVT organizers I am very much thankful to ISTE to
honor this event at national level.
As one theme of the conference is GREEN CITY, we must initiate it from ourselves. It
is decided to save the paper for Proceedings and thereby to save trees for GREEN
ENVIRONMENT so hard copy of the proceedings were published only for conference
paper contributors and for all other participating delegates proceedings are made
available on CD-ROM. A softcopy of the proceedings are also available on website
convenience of all researchers.
Last but not the least, as a witness of the hard work done by my faculty members; I
want to congratulate everyone for their immeasurable efforts. Its hard work of our
organizing team which made this gigantic task looks simpler than ever.
I wish this conference the great success
Dr. Vilin Parekh
Convener, NCEVT12
Principal, Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Limda.
Date: 14/04/2012
Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century
Organizedby
GujaratTechnologicalUniversity
Supportedby
ParulInstituteofEngineeringandTechnology
ChiefPatron
Dr.AkshaiAggarwal
HonourableViceChancellor,GujaratTechnologicalUniversity
Patrons
Dr.JayeshK.Patel
Chairman
ParulGroupofInstitutes
Dr.G.P.Vadodaria
RegistrarI/C
GujaratTechnologicalUniversity
Dr.DevanshuJ.Patel
ManagingTrustee
ParulGroupofInstitutes
Prof.M.N.Patel
Principal,LDcollegeofEngineering
MemberSecretary,ACPC
Convener
Dr.VilinParekh
Principal,ParulInstituteofEngineeringandTechnology
CoConveners
Prof.K.B.K.Lamba
H.O.DMechanicalDepartment
ParulInstituteofEngineeringand
Technology
Prof.IndrajitPatel
NationalExecutiveCouncilMember
ISTE
Coordinators
Prof.ImranM.Molvi
Prof.SohailM.Siddiqi
OrganizingCommittee
Prof.AdilKhan
Prof.NiravH.Gandhi
Prof.BindiS.Thakkar
Prof.A.N.Jejurkar
Prof.DipeshP.Patel
RegistrationCommittee
Prof.SwatiPrajapati
Ms.SnehaGosai
Ms.TejalRana
Ms.RajshreeKokate
HospitalityCommittee
Prof.DipeshP.Patel
Prof.NityamOza
Prof.R.N.Barot
Prof.HemantN.Panchal
Prof.DevangV.Mahant
Mr. PriyankShah
InaugurationCommittee
Prof.BindiS.Thakkar
Ms.AliceDSouza

AdvisoryCommitteeandSpeakersList
Advisors
Speakers
Dr.AtulSharma
Professor
MechanicalEngineeringDepartment
IndianInstituteofTechnologyMumbai
Dr.DPMishra
Professor
DepartmentofAerospaceEngineering
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur
Dr.SAChanniwala
Professor
SardarVallabhbhaiNationalInstituteof
TechnologySurat
Dr.PPrabhakaran
Professor
FacultyofEngineeringandTechnology
MaharajaSayajiraoUniversity,Baroda
Prof.GDKarhadkar
Professor&H.O.D
Prof.PDSolanki
Professor&H.O.D
LDCollegeofEngineering,Ahmedabad
Prof.ASLoiwal
Professor
MechanicalEngineeringDepartment,
ParulInstituteofEngineeringandTech.
Limda
Dr.SPHarsha
Professor
IndianInstituteofTechnologyRoorkee
Mr.ACMathur
GroupDirector,AntennaDesignDepartment
IndianSpaceResearchOrganization,
Ahmedabad
Dr.SHUpadhyay
Professor
Dr.MHassan
Professor
JamiyaMiliyaIslamiyaUniversity,NewDelhi
Dr.RahulChhibber
Professor
IndianInstituteofTechnologyRajasthan
TechnicalPapersReviewCommittee
Dr.PVBhale
Dr.MilindRane
Professor
Professor
IndianInstituteofTechnologyMumbai
SardarVallabhbhaiNationalInstituteof
TechnologySurat
Dr.MNQureshi
Dr.PVRamana
Professor
Professor&HOD
SardarVallabhbhaiInstituteofTechnology,
Vasad
Dr.AjitShukla
Professor
PanditDindayalPetroleumUniversity
Gandhinagar
Dr.SHUpadhyay
Professor
Dr.JMPrajapati
Professor
Govt. of Gujarat,
Minister,
Education (Primary, Secondary, Adult),
Higher & Technical Education
Block No. 1, 8th Floor, Sardar Patel Bhava,
Gandhinagar, Gujarat-382 010.
Telephone : (079) 23223080, 23238073
23257762, 23257861
Fax: (079) 23257766
Dt.:3-4-2012
Message
My heartily congratulations to Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad and
Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Limda for organization of First National
Level Conference on Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century at Amdavad
Management Association, Ahmedabad.
I always look forward for an innovation in education segment which can usher the era
of modern education compatible with technological education. This conference is a
proof that Gujarat Technological University & Parul Institute provides not only quality
education but also opportunities to apply the newly acquired knowledge. This is a
cosmos where Researchers, Scientists, Engineers and Scholar Students come together
to exchange and share their experiences, new ideas and research results in all major
areas of engineering.
I congratulate the Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad and Parul Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Limda for organizing this Conference.
Meeting the
challenge in recent technological developments will require vision, leadership and hard
work.
Please accept my best wishes for the success of this important conference.
Minister,
Education (Primary, Secondary, Adult),
Higher & Technical Education
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

2nd Floor, ACPC Bridling, L. D. College of Engineering Campus,
Navarangpura, Ahmedabad,
(Gujarat) India - 380015
Message
The Indian engineering industry comprises both heavy engineering and light
engineering units. It manufactures a wide range of capital goods for use at home as
well as in other industries. However while industries production continues to increase,
indias relative position in research continues to decline. Recently in the 24 February
2012 issue of Science, prime-minister Manmohan Singh expressed concern over india
being overtaken by china and other countries in science. On March 30, 2012 the
minister of state in human Resource Development, D. Purandeswari said in the
parliament that according to the Quacquarelli Symonds global system of ranking of
higher education institutions institutions for 2011, IIT-Delhi is the overall highest
ranking institution in india at serial number 218. The QS ranking for the highest
ranking institution in the country for China, Singapore, South Africa, Malayasia,
Thailand, Saudi Arabia and Indonesia are 22, 28, 42, 156, 167, 171, 200 and 217
repectively. Since 2009, India QS ranking is going down every year. This is mainly
due to the relatively poor research by the faculty members and research student in all
the institutions in our country.
On 14th and 15th April 2012, GTU si organizing a national conference on Emerging
Vistas of Technology in the 21st Century (NCEVT12) in collaboraton with Parul
Institute of Engineering & Technology, at Ahmedabad Management Association,
Ahmedabad. The objective of NCEVT12 is to bring Research Scientists and Engineers
together to exchange and share their experience, new ideas and research result in all
major areas of Engineering. At NCEVT12, the faculty member and research student at
GTU will work with the engineers from industries and other Universities to identify the
practical challenges being encountered and the solution being proposed and being
adopted. Such conferences serve as a platform to promote the exchange of ideas
between industry and academia, to equip them both with the capability to meet with
the emerging challenges and changing requirements in the context of globalization.
At the conference, a number of learned speakers both from the industry and R&D
organizations and renowned academic institutions have been invited to deliver plenary
talks. We expect these talks to authoritatively delineate the development in their
respective fields.
I hope this conference will bring new momentum to research and development work at
our Colleges.
Thanks
Dr. Akshai Aggarwal

1st April 2012
Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century, 14th & 15th April 2012,
Ahmedabad
Organized by
Supported by
Message
With a view to make available the quality technical education to the students of the
State, it is pleasure to hear that institute like PIET has been accredited by National
Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC-UGC) AND National Board of
Accreditation of AICTE.
In this era of knowledge, the source of information and knowledge need to be updated
instantaneously. As the world is becoming a Global Village, still there remains a gap of
information amongst the student community.
PIET had organized national level conference on Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st
Century in the previous years and now in collaboration with Gujarat Technological
University, is organizing a National Level Conference Emerging vistas of Technology in
21st Century (NCEVT12), under the technical sponsorship of the Indian Journal of
Technical Education & Indian Society for Technical Education.
NCEVT12 includes various technical events which will provide ideal platform for the
student to show their ability.
I hope the objective of NCEVT12 to bring Researches, Scientists, Engineers and
Scholar Student together to exchange and share their experiences, now ideas and
research result in all major areas of Engineering and identify the practical challenges
encountered and the solutions adopted through presentations and discussions o f
paper will be fulfilled and the event will be served as a platform to promote the
exchange of ideas between Industry and academia to equip them with the context of
globalization and privatization.
I convey my best wishes to the NCEVT12 team.
Prof. M. N. Patel
Principal,
L. D. College of Engineering
Member Secretary,
Admission Committee for
Professional courses
Ahmedabad
Organized by
Supported by
Message
It gives me an immense pleasure to thank Parul Institute of Engineering and
technology for supporting Gujarat Technological University to organise two days
National Conference on Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century(NCEVT21)
wherein technocrats from various disciplines such as Civil engineering, Mechanical
engineering, Electrical engineering, Electronics &Communication and Information
technology shall be disseminating knowledge and updating themselves for young
engineers; thereby strengthening our society in general and the country in particular
.
Global demand of Excellence in Higher education and Indian Technocrats is now
increasing day by day and I am sure the event will provide a platform to know about
the new method of design, discuss challenges related to design, development, and the
new innovations in the field of engineering.
I hope the event will be a unique learning experience, networking space and
opportunity to think. I wish a great success to the conference and once again thank
institute in supporting the noble cause of teaching fraternity and the stake holders.
3rd April, 2012

Ahmedabad
Dr. G. P. Vadodaria
I/c Registrar & Controller of Examinations
Gujarat Technological University, Gujarat
Ahmedabad
Organized by
Supported by
MESSAGE
It gives me immense pleasure to know that Parul Group of Institutions with support
of Gujarat Technological University is honored to host and organize a National Level
Conference Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century during 14-15 April
2012. Since inception PIET is pioneer in organizing National and International
conferences convention and symposium in the field of Engineering & Technology,
Business & Management, Science & Pharmaceutics for the noble cause of education
and its sustainable growth. PIET also have a brand name to organize series of
techno-management event name Projection and Job Mela to nurture the youth of
the nation. Young researchers, faculties and PG students will have great impact on
their endeavor through this conference.
Institute has always supported ISTE activities at institute, state and national level for
the betterment of technical and higher education, growth of individual institution
and society at large. Its approach to include professional bodies like ISTE, IEE, and
CSI etc. is highly appreciated.
On behalf of technical feternity, President ISTE and on my personal behalf I
congratulate the management, staff and student of Parul Group for organizing this
mega event.
I wish the conference a grand success.
Prof. Indrajit Patel
National Executive Council Member
Indian Society for Technical Education, New Delhi
Member
Dean Council
Gujarat Technological University, Gujarat

2nd Floor, ACPC Bridling, L. D. College of Engineering Campus,
Navarangpura, Ahmedabad,
(Gujarat) India - 380015
Message
It is a matter of great pleasure that a National Conference on Emerging Vistas of
Technology in 21st Century is being organized by Parul Institute of Engineering and
Technology.
There is definitely a dearth of good platforms where researchers, students and faculty
can come together on. The efforts of PIET must be greatly appreciated, for creating a
forum that opens up new vistas of research and development. It is also an important
message to all who aim to support quality research, to come forward and create such
opportunities in future too.
My best wishes to students who are presenting their papers and to PIET for a
commendable effort for pushing forward the realm of research.
Dr. R.K.Gajjar
Dean PG and Research, GTU
Ahmedabad
Organized by
Supported by
Message
As every Educational organization prefers to be known for the holistic
development of students our aim for Parul group of institutes is slightly
different. We percolate to have 360 degree development not only of students but
also of teaching staff. As Gujarat has been rated first for industrial development
we may have practical situations, technical problems, research related in field
questions. We wanted to have proper brainstorming and fruitful discussions for
the same along with presentations based on the contemporary domains of
research to be in vogue with the recent research as well as technical education.
And I am happy to inform you all that Parul Institute of Engineering &
Technology is back with the 4th successive year of National Conference on
Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century. It is a scope, an attempt to
extend the theme of vibrant Gujarat to industrial, educational and research
level.
I welcome you all to be part of this national conference.
Dr. Devanshu J Patel

Trustee
Ahmedabad
Organized by
Supported by
From the Desk of Co-Convener

With the exponential growth of knowledge it is imperative that we keep abreast of the
innovations taking place around us which open up new vistas in the area of
technology to translate the knowledge in its applied form for the benefit of mankind &
for us to stay on forefronts of progress brought in by the advances in technology.
Technology is the harbinger of change being the inseparable interface between the
innovations & their potential applications and hence the justified emphasis on
innovation & the technology through the media of this National Conference on
Futuristic Trends in Mechanical Engineering has been scheduled on 14th 15th
April 2012 in Ahmadabad.
Precisely with this in mind, we organize this National Conference under the auspices
of Gujarat Technological University, so as to provide a platform to bring together
practicing engineers, research scholars, postgraduate students & academia to share
and update their knowledge. The response has been over whelming.
A cordial welcome is extended to all the participants coming from wide across the
country to attend this conference.
I am sure the conference will enrich the participants with latest information &
knowledge in the field of Mechanical Engineering.
With best of wishes
Prof.K.B.K.Lamba
Head of the Department
Mechanical Engineering
Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology
This Page is intentionally kept blank.
Ahmedabad
Organized by
Supported by
From the Desk of Coordinator

It gives us an immense pleasure to present the proceedings of the papers to be
presented in the National Conference on Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st
Century FUTURISTIC TRENDS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (NCEVT12) as
being scheduled on 14th 15th April 2012, organized by Gujarat Technological
University and supported by Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology.
Objective of this National Conference is to provide a common platform for Academia,
Technocrats from various Industries, Researchers to exchange and share their views
on recent developments and trends in Mechanical Engineering.
We would like to thank all the National Advisory Committee members, Reviewers and
Eminent Speakers for their timely help and support. We are very thankful to the
Gujarat Technological University and Management of Parul Group of Institute for
their valuable support. We take this opportunity to thank all the authors for having
made their contributions to enrich this National Conference NCEVT 2012.
We sincerely acknowledge the contribution of one & all in making this Conference a
successful event.
Prof. Imran M Molvi

Assistant Professor
Mechanical Department
PIET, Limda
Prof. Sohail M Siddiqi

Assistant Professor
Mechanical Department
PIET, Limda
Speakers Profile
Dr. D. P. Mishra
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Dr. D.P. Mishra is working as a Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Indian Institute
of Technology (IIT) Kanpur, Kanpur, India where he was instrumental in establishing a combustion
laboratory.
He has served as Visiting Professor in 2002 at the Tokyo-Denki University, Japan.
His areas of research interest include combustion, computational fluid dynamics, atomization, etc.. He is
recipient of the Young Scientist Award in 1991 from the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Government of India. He has been conferred the INSA-JSPS Fellowship in 2002.
Dr. Mishra has been a recipient of Samanta Chadrasekhar award for his contribution to the science and
technology. For technological contribution for the common people, he has been conferred with Vikash
Prerak Sanman in 2010.
He was an Associate Editor, Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, Elsevier, USA. Currently he
is serving as an Assistant Editor, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Elsevier, USA. Besides this,
he is also serving as a editorial board member of Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, Taylor &
Francis, International Journal of Turbo and Jet engines.
Dr. Mishra has four Indian patents and more than 169 publications in referred Journals and in conference
proceedings to his credit.
He has authored a textbook titled Fundamentals of Combustion, published by Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi. Two text books namely Gas Turbine Propulsion and Engineering Thermodynamics have been
published by Anamaya Publisher, New Delhi and Cengage India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi respectively.
Topic:
Micro-Combustion: Powering the Miniature Machines
Dr. D. P. Mishra
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Machines of daily use are getting smaller and more compact. Notable among them are the consumer
electronics such as laptop computers, cellular phones, and remote sensors. Nanosatellites, microsatellites,
and miniature air vehicles are other communication devices with smaller package sizes. These machines
must operate without the need for human intervention for long enough time and need a reliable source of
power. Presently, the power supply system of a small machine relies on Lithium-ion batteries. This is a
well-developed technology but suffers from drawbacks such as frequent need to replace or recharge and
low energy density (energy per unit mass). Fuel cell and microcombustion are two of the competing
technologies in this area. This talk focuses on microcombustion as the technology of choice.
Competitiveness of combustion as a power source at multiple scales is used to demonstrate its potential.
The need for microcombustion as a power source for small machines is discussed with a brief overview of
current research and development work. The essential feature of microcombustion, that of flame
stabilization in the presence of heat losses, is highlighted and current research effort undertaken at IIT
Kanpur and elsewhere in this direction is discussed. In particular, a novel annular microcombustor design
that could be a future power source for vehicular propulsion and generation of electric power is described
highlighting its important features namely flame stabilization mode, excess enthalpy combustion, and
higher combustion efficiency.
Speakers Profile
Dr. S. P. Harsha
Associate Professor
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Dr. S. P. Harsha has done his PhD (Nonlinear Dynamics & Control) from Mechanical Engineering
Department at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India, 2004.
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee from May,
2007 to till date. Post Doctoral Fellow, Villanova University, Philadelphia, USA from January, 2006 to
April, 2007. Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical, BITS, PILANI from January, 2005 to
December, 2005. Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS PILANI, from December, 1999
to December, 2004. Lecturer (Ad-hoc), Department of Mechanical Engineering, CTAE, UDAIPUR from
August, 1996 to May, 1997.
To his name funded research Projects carried out are : Diagnostic and Prognostic Analysis of High Speed
Rolling Element Bearings, Funding Agency: SERC - DST, India Rs. 31.84 Lacs Duration: Three Years
(Ongoing) (Principal Investigator); Study of Low Frequency Vibration in Railway System Rs. 40 Lacs
Funding Agency: Sweden International Developing Agency (SIDA), Sweden Duration: Three Years
(Completed) (Team member); Dynamic Analysis of Unmanned Surface Vehicles Funding Agency: Office
of Naval Research (ONR), U.S.A US $65k Duration: One & Half Year (Completed) (Team member); Team
member of Collaborative Research in the field of Sound and Vibrations Rs. 5 Cr Funding Agency:
European Commission Asia Link Project, EC (Completed) Duration: Three years (Completed)
He has guided : 07 Ph. D Theses and 14 M.Tech Thesis
Dr. Harsha has published International journal papers: 59 ; International/National Conferences: 63
Courses Developed under NPTEL (MHRD Scheme)
Topic:
Diagnostic Application of Carbon Nanotube as Bio-Sensor
Dr. S. P. Harsha
Associate Professor
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Carbon nanotubes have been used for ultra-sensitive mass sensor application. For this purpose, a carbon
nanotube is anchored to substrate in one end or both ends to form a cantilever or double-clamped beam
structure. It can be activated to vibrate and the resonant frequency of the nanotube structure can be
measured. The resonant frequency of the nanotube structure depends on the spring constant of the nanotube
and the mass distribution along the nanotube. If another atom or molecule is attached to the carbon
nanotube, the mass distribution along the beam will be changed, and hence the resonant frequency of the
nanotube will be shifted. By measuring the resonant frequency shift of the carbon nanotube resonator, the
mass of the attached atom/molecule can be precisely measured. Since such mass sensor is based on an
individual carbon nanotube, extremely high resolution can be achieved. It can be used to measure the mass
of an individual atom or molecule. A few applications of such type of Carbon Nanotube based mass sensors
have been described in the succeeding sections.
Speakers Profile
Mr. A C Mathur
Group Director, Antenna Design Department
ISRO, Ahmedabad.
Shri A C Mathur graduated in Mechanical Engineering from University of Roorkee (presently IIT,
Roorkee) in 1977 and did post graduation in Machine Design in 1988 from the same university.
He joined, Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad as Scientist /Engineer in the year 1978. Since
than he has been working on the design, development, manufacturing, installation of Satellite fixed earth
station antennas, Road and Air transportable antennas, communication and radar satellite antenna system.
He had been actively involved with design, fabrication and installation of 14M dia fully steerable antenna
systems at INSAT Master Control Facility, Hassan and Satellite News Gathering Road Transportable
Terminals on LCV.
He has worked as Project Manager, Antenna in INSAT-3A and INSAT-3C spacecraft projects. He was
responsible for development of shaped antenna reflectors, feed systems and moulds etc. He had also
worked in the development of advanced satellite antenna like Dual Grid antenna reflector used for satellite
communication and planner antennas for Radar Imaging Satellites (RISAT).
He had published around 32 papers on Antenna design & manufacturing in various National and
International conference proceedings and have two patents to his credit. He has worked as Head,
Fabrication and Integration Section of Antenna Feed Group from the year 1995 to 2001. He was the Head
of the Mechanical Design and Analysis Division from the year 2001 to 2010. Presently he is heading
Antenna Mechanical design and analysis division of Antenna and Mechanical systems Group at Space
Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad.
Shri Mathur is actively associated with a number of professional associations in the country. He is a fellow
of the Institution of Engineer (I) Calcutta and President, Space Society of Mechanical Engineers (SSME),
Ahmedabad and Life Member of Astronautical Society of India, Bangalore. He has been instrumental in
popularizing Space Mechanical Engineering in the country through Space Society of Mechanical
Engineers. He is closely interacting with the Mechanical and Aerospace Eng. departments of various
academic institutions of the country for the advance research and challenging work in the field of Space
Mechanical Engineering.
His current area of research is in the field of Reconfigurable , Gossamer , Inflatable and Ultra light antenna
reflectors using SMART/ INTELLIGENT and Composite materials.
Topic:
Challenges in Space Mechanical Engineering
Mr. A C Mathur
Group Director, Antenna Design Department
The Mechanical Engineering is one of three popular branches of engineering since the starting of the formal
engineering education in the country. Initially the education was started only with Civil engineering but in a
very short span of time the electrical and mechanical engineering joined. Slowly with time and needs of the
human beings the other branches of engineering came out. Presently there are about 20 branches in which
formal engineering education is given and the professionals are working.
The space research started in the country sometime in 1960s. The scientist and engineers from various
disciplines contributed in the success of the space programmes not only of India but also of other countries.
The mechanical engineering is the basic engineering which practically contributes in all the fields of life in
some way or the other. Slowly it has shown its importance in almost all the areas like Nuclear, Aerospace,
Space, Agricultural, medical, Modern automobiles, modern Textiles, modern Printing, Transportation etc.
The mechanical engineering used in the design, analysis, development and realization of Space Science and
technology projects is known as SPACE MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. There is no formal education
given in this field by any institute as it is an emergent branch of Mechanical Engineering and is very
challenging. It consists of mechanical design and development of Launch vehicles with re-entry
capabilities, spacecrafts , communication and remote sensing payloads , sensitive appendages like
Antennae, Pointing and tracking systems etc. Using special alloys, composites and SMART materials..
In the invited talk the various challenges in the field of Space Mechanical Engineering (SME) would be
highlighted for the benefit of mainly the young faculty members from various engineering institutes of the
country, research engineers and the professionals who are attending the conference. This will open another
highly specialized and challenging field to mechanical engineers to carry out the research, educational and
professional work.
Speakers Profile
Dr. Sanjay H. Upadhyay
Assistant Professor
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department,
IITR, Roorkee
Dr. Sanjay H Upadhyay has done his PhD (Nonlinear Dynamics & Chaos) from Mechanical & Industrial
Engineering Department, IIT, Roorkee, 2009.
Areas of Interests : Teaching and research in Nonlinear Dynamics & Chaos, Rolling Element Bearings,
Fault diagnosis and prognosis, Smart Material and Structure.
Academic Positions: Total 14 years teaching experience, Presently working as an Assistant Professor,
Nov.2010 till date, Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee
Research Publications: Journal published: (11), International Conference published (13), National
Conference/Symposium: (02),
Sponsored Research/Consultancy Projects:
Health Diagnosis of High Speed Ball Bearings Using Acoustics Emission Techniques
Funding Agency: MHRD, India, Rs. 04.75 Lacs
Duration: Two Years (Ongoing) (Principal Investigator)
To Study On Prognostics of Rolling Element Bearings using Soft Computing Techniques

Funding Agency: CSIR, India, Rs. 14.90 Lacs
Duration: Three Years (Submitted) (Principal Investigator)
Dissertation Guided:
Ph.D. : 03 (In progress), M.Tech: 05 (In progress), B. E.:

14 + 05 groups (In progress)
Reviewer of International Referred Journals/International Conference:
Proceedings of the ASME 2010 International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition
IMECE2010, November 12-18, 2010, Vancouver, British Columbia
Proceeding of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part K, Journal of Multi-Body Dynamics.
Nonlinear Dynamics (Springer),
Sensors and Actuators A: Physical (Elsevier).
Computational Mechanics (Elsevier).
Journal of Vibration & Control (SAGE)
Sensors Reviews (Emerald)
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Research.
Topic:
Nonlinear Vibration and Chaos
Dr. Sanjay H. Upadhyay
Assistant Professor
IITR, Roorkee
Rolling element bearings are one of the most widely used components in the industrial applications. They
have a great influence on the dynamic behavior of the rotating machines and act as a source of vibration
and noise in these systems. There is a critical need to increase reliability and performance of rolling element
bearings to prevent catastrophic failure of the machinery. These bearings generate vibrations during
operation even if they are geometrically and elastically perfect. This is because of the use of a finite number
of rolling elements to carry the load. The number of rolling elements and their position in the load zone
change with bearing rotation, giving rise to a periodical variation of the total stiffness of the bearing
assembly. This variation of stiffness generates vibrations commonly known as varying compliance
vibrations. The other possible sources of vibrations are due to radial internal clearance, the unbalanced rotor
force and the defective bearing elements of a rotor bearing system. The importance of a clear understanding
of vibrations associated with rolling element bearings is therefore obvious. This work attempts to analyze
the non-linear vibration response of high-speed rotor supported by rolling element bearings under the
balance and unbalanced rotor conditions and due to defective rolling element bearings. A mathematical
model has been developed, which takes into account the sources of non-linearity such as Hertzian contact
(non-linear contact stiffness), radial internal clearance, non-linear damping, distributed defects and sources
of parametric excitation, which are the varying compliance of rolling element bearings.
The mathematical formulation accounts for tangential and radial motions of rolling elements, as well as of
the rotor, the inner and the outer races. The contacts between the rolling elements and the races are treated
as non-linear springs whose stiffnesses are obtained on the basis of the Hertzian elastic contact deformation
theory. The application of Lagrange equation leads to a system of non-linear ordinary differential equations
governing the motion of the rotor bearing system. The system equations of motion have non-analytic
stiffness terms, which are found to be numerically stiff. The implicit type numerical integration technique
Newmark- with Newton-Raphson method has been used for the solution of these system equations.
Various techniques like Poincar maps, bifurcation diagram, phase trajectories, non-autonomous shooting
technique, orbit plots and Fast Fourier Transformations (FFT) are used to study the nature of the response.
Theoretical analysis for the balanced and the unbalanced rotor over a wide range of rotor speed has
revealed several regions of instability and deterministic chaotic response. An important finding from the
present analysis is the existence of unstable and chaotic response region at very high speeds, primarily due
to the bearing clearance and distributed defects.
Speakers Profile
Dr. M M HASAN
Professor
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Dr M M Hasan is a Professor in Mechanical Engineering Department, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. Dr
Hasan is having more than 25 years of teaching /research experience. During this period he taught several
subjects in Post-graduate and Undergraduate level.
His primary areas of interest include development of alternative fuels, low emission engine,energy sources
and heat transfer.
He has to his credits more than 50 International and National publications in these areas. He is actively
involved in several sponsored research projects in the area of Alternative fuels and emission analysis. He
supervises Doctoral and Masters Thesis in this field.
Dr Hasan had organised two National, two International Conferences in the area of Energy and
Environment and four Winter/Summer Schools.
He attended several conferences. He delivered several invited talks in reputed Institutes.
Dr Hasan is the Faculty Advisor of SAE Jamia and guided several projects like SAE BAJA Car and
Efficycle 11. The team under his guidance performed well and secured fourth position.
He is the member of various professional societies.
Dr Hasan is presently working as Professor In-Charge Examination, Faculty of Engg.& Technology,Jamia
Millia Islamia.
Topic:
Production Optimization of Biodiesel using Thumba oil and its Performance Analysis
Dr. M M HASAN
Professor
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Biodiesel has emerged as a sustainable alternative to petroleum origin diesel and its usage have been
encouraged by many countries. Transesterification reaction is the most common process to produce
biodiesel from variety of vegetable oils and animal fat. The process depends upon a number of process
parameters which are required to be optimized in order to maximize the biodiesel yield. Thumba oil is an
underutilized non-edible vegetable oil, available in large quantities in Rajasthan, India and its potential
suitability as a biodiesel feedstock is still not evaluated comprehensively. In this research paper, the
transesterification process for production of Thumba oil methyl ester has been analyzed and the various
process variables like temperature, catalyst concentration, amount of methanol and reaction time have been
optimized with the objective to maximize yield. The optimum conditions for transesterification of Thumba
oil with methanol and KOH as catalyst were found to be 60 C reaction temperature, 6:1 molar ratio of
Thumba oil to methanol, 0.75% catalyst (w/woil) and 1 hour reaction time. Thumba oil and its blends with
mineral diesel were tested in a medium capacity, single cylinder, direct injection, water-cooled diesel
engine. The performance tests were carried out at different loads and brake specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) and brake thermal efficiency (BTE) were calculated from the recorded data. The exhaust gas
temperature and exhaust emissions were also recorded. The highest BTE was achieved in case of B10 fuel
sample. As the concentration of biodiesel was increased in biodiesel/diesel blends, a reduction in BTE was
observed. The exhaust gas temperature was found minimum in case of B10 and maximum for B100. The
CO2, CO, HC and Smoke opacity were found lower for biodiesel based fuels than diesel. The NOx
emissions were found higher in case of Biodiesel based fuels. The results show that Thumba biodiesel can
be used as an extender to diesel fuel, which would results in better performance and emission
characteristics.
Speakers Profile
Dr. Rahul Chhibber
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT, Rajasthan
Dr. Rahul Chhibber obtained the undergraduate degree in Production Engineering from Punjab Technical
University Jalandhar in 2001. Subsequently, he joined IIT Roorkee in 2001 and obtained the masters degree
in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering with specialization in Industrial Metallurgy in 2003.
He then pursued his doctoral studies in the area of Fracture behavior of Bimetallic welds in the
department of mechanical and Industrial Engineering at IIT Roorkee.
He obtained his doctoral degree in 2008 and had been working with Thapar University Patiala as Assistant
Professor in Mechanical department till December 2011.
He joined IIT Rajasthan, Jodhpur in January 2012 in the Mechanical Engineering stream and is a core
member in the centre of excellence in Energy at IIT Rajasthan.
He has authored publications in reputed journals such as Proceedings of IMechE Part C Journal of
Mechanical Engineering Science, International Journal of Fracture, Materials and Design which have been
cited by various national and international researchers.
Topic:
Bimetallic welds: Structural Integrity Issues Related to Thermal Fatigue
Dr. Rahul Chhibber

Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT,
Rajasthan
Thermal fatigue is the process of progressive, localized, and permanent structural damage that occurs when
a material is subjected to cyclic thermal changes that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a
sufficient number of thermal fluctuations. Bimetallic welds (BMW) have been necessity within the
pressurized water reactor (PWR) and boiling water reactor (BWR) designs, where the heavy section low
alloy steel components are usually connected to stainless steel (SS) primary piping systems. Thermal
fatigue is an important aspect in assessing the structural integrity issues of bimetallic welds. The present
article is an effort towards understanding the phenomenon of thermal fatigue in bimetallic welds and
presenting the current research in this field.
Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century, 14th & 15th April, 2012, Ahmedabad
Futuristic Trends in Mechanical Engineering
Organized By:
Supported By:
INDEX
Thermal Engineering Group:
Sr.
No.
Name of the Paper
1.
Design Methodology & CFD analysis of Rich Burn Quick Mix Lean Burn
Micro Combustor
Prajapati Swati Vinodchandra,
Performance Evaluation of Cryogenic Oscillating Heat pipe
Kamlesh Kiritkumar Mehta, Prof.Nisha V Bora
Emission Improvement of Karanja Biodiesel Fueled Diesel Engine
A.J.Patel, B.S.Patil, D.C.Gosai
Emission Study of Biodiesel Compare to Conventional Diesel for Different
Load
Mr.Ankitkumar K. Patel, Dr.Pravin P.Rathod., Prof. Arvind S. Sorathiya.
Waste Heat Recovery from Diesel Genset to Run Air Conditioning Plant
Hirenkumar Thakorbhai Patel, Imran M. Molvi, Dr. Sonal Desai
Cryogenic Oscillating Heat Pipe: Progress and Prospects
Kamlesh Kiritkumar Mehta , Prof.Nisha V Bora
Heat Transfer Analysis of Automobile Radiator
Krunal Suryakant Kayastha, Avdhoot N Jejurkar
Trapped Vortex Combustor Design Methodology
Mr. Smit .V. Thakkar, Dr. Digvijay .B .Kulshreshtha, Mr. Brijesh Dharani
Modeling of Fuel Processing Unit for Hydrogen Production for PEM Fuel
Cell
Pritesh Kanaiyalal Jaradi, Dr. Chandramohan Somayaji
3D Computational Study of Heat Transfer through Tube Bundles with
Triangular Pitch of Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
Tejal M. Rana, Vivek C. Joshi, Avdhoot N. Jejurkar
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Study of the Effect of Coil Step on Heat Transfer Coefficient and CFD
Analysis Of Helical Coil Heat Exchanger
Jayesh B. Khunt, Prof.M.I.Vyas
Design Methodology of internally mixed Pressure Swirl Atomizer for Micro
Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber
Ashish A Prajapati, Digvijay B. Kulshreshtha, Brijesh P Dharani
Page
No
1
7
11
17
21
27
23
39
43
49
55
61
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Enhancement in the design of Combustion Chamber Swirler

Bhavin K Shah, Ashokkumar Kukabhai Dhakiya, Arvind.S.Mohite
Study of Performance Comparisons of Integrated Gasification Combined
Cycle Power Plant
Devang Thakar, Avdhoot Jejurkar, Dr.Nirvesh S. Mehta, Minesh Patel
A Review: Modeling and The Performance Of Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel
Cell
A. D. Patel, V. Y. Gajjar, Araniya K.K.
A Review of Stirling Engines and Low Temperature Differential Stirling
Engines
Mohsin J Dadi, Prof. Imran M Molvi, Prof. Alpesh V Mehta
Performance and Emission comparison of 4-Stroke Multi- Cylinder CIEngine using EGM-Diesel Blend and Diesel as fuel
Simit B. Prajapati, Pravin P. Rathod, Nikul K. Patel
Performance and Emission Characteristics of Four Cylinder Four Stroke
Compression Ignition Engine Fueled With Coconut Oil-Diesel Fuel Blend
Jujara Mohsin M, Dilip S Kanetkar
Analysis of Heat Transfer in Liquid Nitrogen Dewar Vessel with Vacuum
Insulation
Vimalkumar P. . Salot, Prof. R.K.Patel
Design of Lean Premixed Prevaporized Combustion Chamber Using
Kerosene as a Fuel
Patel Amir D. Gosai Dipak C., Dr. Digvijay Kulshreshtha
Reduction in Make-up water of Cooling Towers
Harshal T Shukla, Devesh A Vankar, Prof. Imran M Molvi
Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessel of Hemispherical and Ellipsoidal End
Connection Using Finite Element Analysis
Kamlesh R. Parmar, Adil A. Khan
Flow Induced Vibration in Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Chirag J. Patel, Adil A. Khan
Design Validation of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger by HTRI Xchanger
Software
Nirmal S. Parmar, Adil A. Khan
Design Methodology of Wiped Film Evaporator (WFE) For Herbal Products
Vijaykumar C Patel, Prof. Alkesh Mavani
Performance Comparison of 4-Stroke Multi- Cylinder CI-Engine Using
Neem Biodiesel and Diesel as Fuel
Nityam P. Oza, Dr. Pravin P. Rathod, Prof. Nikul K. Patel
67
73
79
87
93
99
103
109
113
121
125
129
135
143
Design Engineering Group
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
Single Fiber Friction and Strength Testing-Innovation and Challenges

G. A. Gandhi, P. B. Jhala
Comparative Investigation of the damped system natural frequency with
Bump test and FE modal analysis
Anant.J.Sheth, S.S.Pathan
A Review of Design and Development of Concrete Planetary Mixer
Amit Kumar S. Patel , Prof. Dhaval A. Patel
Development of Test Rig for Measurement of Friction Power - A Review
Ajaykumar Ukabhai Kanjhariya, Prof.D U Panchal
Application of Concurrent Engineering for Investment Casting Dies
Prof. Gunjan Bhatt
MMCs: A New Era of Advanced Materials A review
Hemant Panchal
Review Paper on use of Magnesium Alloy in Automobile Industries
Vandana J. Rao, Sonam M. Patel , Devang Mahant
Application of Condition Monitoring on Steam Turbine of Thermal Power
Plant A Case Study
Nilesh H. Pancholi, Ranvirgiri D. Goswami
Stress Variation in Gasketed Flange Joint during Bolt up and Operating
Condition
Pushpak M. Patel, Piyush P. Gohil
Design of Subsonic Wind Tunnel
Sharvil Shah, Mitul Patel, Dharmendra Dubey
Modeling of Defects Formation in HPDC Machine with a Neural Network
Sharvil. Shah, Mitul Patel, Dharmendra Dubey
Investigation of Springback Effect in Bottoming for U-Die Bending and VDie Bending Processes
J. R. Shah, S. K. Sharma, B. C. Patel
Finite element analysis on the static characteristics of Composite mono-leaf
spring
Vasava Naran B, Pravin k trivedi, Prof.R.I.Patel
149
153
157
165
171
179
187
191
197
201
207
213
221
Manufacturing Group
40.
Modeling Vendor Rating in Supplier Selection using Fuzzy Inference

System
Ketan S. Vaghosi , Dr. M.N.Qureshi
225
41.
Design and Comparative Analysis of Mathematical and Simulation Models

in Injection Molding Decision System
V.Seralathan, Dr C. Jegadheesan
A Parameter Affecting a Surface Roughness in Milling Machine
Keyur Patel, Mrs. VidyaNair
231
43.
Quality Function Deployment: Translating Voice of the Customers into

Technical Requirements for Product Development
Chirag Pravinchandra Vithalani, Dr. M. N. Qureshi
245
44.
Effect of process parameters on tensile shear strength of resistance spot

welding process- A review
Chetan R. Patel
Lean Manufacturing Initiatives to Ensure TQM
Binod Kumar Singh, Dr Chandan Bhar, Dr Visvesvaran Pandurangan
253
Facility Layout Analysis : A Case Study
265
42.
45.
46.
239
259
Mr. A. M. Patel, Mr. H. G. Shah

47.
A Review of Process Parameters of Hot Machining for Different Materials

Nirav M. Kamdar, Prof. Vipul K. Patel
273
48.
The Effect of Electrochemical Parameters on Corrosion Behaviour of

Electroslag Strip Cladded of Weld Overlays
Mr. Shailesh F. Parmar, Mr. Samarth Shelat
279
49.
An Application of Value Stream Mapping to Enhance the Runtime in the

machine shop
Mukhtar R Sama , Dr. M. N. Qureshi
283
50.
A Framework for Maintenance Performance Measurement and its Bench

Marking using Data Envelopment Analysis in Supply Chains
Georgy Kurien Powathilath , Dr. M. N. Qureshi
289
Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century
14th & 15th April 2012, Ahmedabad
Organized by
Supported by
DISCLAIMER
This views expressed in the texts by the Authors are their own and
Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad or Department of
Mechanical Engineering of Parul Institute of Engineering &
Technology does not take any responsibility for the same.
In this proceeding texts are copied from the CDs and softcopies
provided by the authors. Hence printing errors/omission, if any is
regretted.
NCEVT 2012 Committee
National Conference on Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century

FUTURISTIC TRENDS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (NCEVT12)
Design Methodology & CFD analysis of Rich

Burn Quick Mix Lean Burn Micro Combustor
Prajapati Swati Vinodchandra,
Assistant professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Limda, Vadodara.
swatisantur13@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The paper describes the two stage combustion technology by incorporating Rich Burn Quick Mix Lean Combustor (RQL)
Concept. The combustion chamber of gas turbine unit is one of the most critical components to be designed. Scanning through
literature reveals that the design methodologies for combustion chamber are available in a discrete manner and there exist a
need to compile this information and evolve a systematic design procedure for combustion chamber. The present paper is an
attempt towards presenting such a complete design methodology of combustion chamber for small gas turbine applications. The
numerical analysis is carried out using commercial CFD code and the results suggest the redesign of combustion chamber as
flame quenching effect is not witnessed in the quick mix zone. Formation of NOx in the rich zone advocates for redesign of this
zone.
KEY WORDS:
maPZ
Mass flow rate of air in primary zone
Gas turbine, Rich Burn Quick Mix Lean Burn Micro

Combustor, Design, CFD
maPZF
Mass flow rate of air in primary zone entering
from front
NOMENCLATURE
No. of holes
Pressure
Pdiff
Loss in total pressure across diffuser
PL
Liner pressure differential
Gas constant
Ti
Inlet temperature
To
Outlet temperature
Temperature rise due to combustion
Uj
Jet velocity
Ug
Gas velocity
Jet Penetration
Loading parameter
Area
Aref
Combustor reference area
Ah, eff
Total Effective liner hole area
AL
Effective liner area
AS
Snout area
CV
Calorific value of fuel
CD
Discharge co-efficient
CP
Specific heat at constant pressure
Diameter
diameter
DL
Liner diameter
Length
LD
Length of diffuser
LPZ
Length of primary zone
Density
LL
Length of liner
Density of jet air
Mass flow rate
Density of gas
ma
Mass flow rate of air
Equivalence ratio
mf
Mass flow rate of fuel
Diffusion angle
The Indian Journal of Technical Education, (Special Issue for NCEVT12) April 2012

PZ
Equivalent ratio for primary zone
INTRODUCTION
As gas turbine technology advances into 21st
century; combustion engineers are faced with the
challenges of achieving of higher compression
ratios higher turbine inlet temperature in aero gas
turbine engines. At the same time, as interest in
pollutant emissions from gas turbine increases,
combustion engineers are also required to consider
new means for pollutant reduction. To achieve this
reduction in NOx emissions, engine designers have
been challenged to evaluate various combustor
configurations. One promising configuration is
three stage RQL combustor. In the RQL (rich burnquick mix-lean burn) combustor, air is mixed with
fuel in two stages in the primary zone of the
combustor, a fraction of the total air is reacted with
the fuel to form a fuel rich combustion mixture. By
operating rich of stoichiometric, the flame
temperature is reduced and an active pool of
hydrocarbon is produced which can reduce NO
formed. Downstream, the remaining air is added to
fuel rich product mixture via dilution jets to form a
fuel lean mixture in the secondary zone.
Operating lean of stoichiometric keeps the
combustion temperature low and also eliminates
carbon monoxide (CO) and un burnt hydrocarbons
(UHC). The aero thermal design and development
of combustors for aircraft gas turbine engines poses
more hurdles to the application of numerical
simulation than other components, because of the
dominant influence of turbulence on combustor
aerodynamics and the coupling of the highly
nonlinear processes in combustion to the flow.
Hence in practice, a combined approach of CFD and
experimental tests with ascending complexity is
always used. The work was performed as a part of
the general effort of laying groundwork for the
practical design of low emission combustors, and is
attached to the work on Rich Quench Lean (RQL)
combustion. That concept has been successfully
applied in other applications for nitrogen oxide
reduction and is studied in research and technology
programs in the US and Europe [1] for supersonic
and subsonic civil transport. The basic idea is to
burn the fuel under rich conditions in the primary
zone, where nitrogen oxide formation is inhibited
by the lack of 0 atoms, and then quickly mix in the
remaining combustion air for lean combustion in the
secondary zone, proceeding at temperatures, that
keep thermal NOx production at low level. The
model combustion chamber was designed for a 25
kW micro gas turbine engine presently under

development at C. K. Pithawalla College of
Engineering and Technology, Surat.
DESIGN OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Fig 1 Terminology of [RQL] Combustor [7]

There is a need to discuss the combustor chamber
Terminology to understand the different
components of Combustion chamber. Figure 1 is a
cross-section of a generic diffusion flame RQL
combustion chamber. The main dimensions of the
combustion chamber are the liner, length of rich,
quick mix, lean zone, dilution zone, channel height.
The other dimensions are dependent accordingly the
design methodology is given in the following
section.
DESIGN OF RQL COMBUSTOR
The basic data for the design of combustion
chamber has been obtained from the actual cycle
analysis for micro gas turbine engine [2]. The basic
data are summarized in table 1.
Table 1 Design Data for Combustion Chamber
Sr. No
Parameter
Value
Net power output
25 kW
Turbine Inlet Temperature
1200 K,300K
Ambient Condition
1.0132 bar
Mass flow rate of air
0.1028 kg/s
Mass flow rate of fuel
9.10E-04
Calorific value of hydrogen
120000 kJ/kg
Air Distribution
For hydrogen fuel, the rich zone equivalence ratio is
selected as 1.4 and lean zone equivalence ratio is
selected as 0.5 [3, 4]. Considering these values, the
air distribution in the primary zone can be
calculated using the equivalence ratio correlation:

Mixing
mf
m
a actual
Equivalence ratio
mf
m stoic
a
2
J = Momentum Flux Ratio = jU j
gU g 2
C = Empirical Constant = 2.5
Channel Height
Orifice Size For a given momentum- flux ratio,
determined by the desired mass- flow ratio and the
optimum orifice spacing. For a rectangular duct the
number of orifices is infinite. For an annulus, the
number of orifices will depend on the diameter and
height of the mixing section
S
C
H
J
Where:
S = Orifice Spacing
H = Channel Height
The basic dimensions of liner diameter, liner length,
casing diameter are those selected as per the design
of tubular combustion chamber. The details are
given in [5,6]. Figure 2, 3 shows the drawing of
designed combustion chamber with RQL Concept
RESUTS DERIVES FROM DESIGN GUID
LINES
Table: 2 Dimension Detail of RQL
Types
Diameter of
liner
Length of
liner
RQL
46.93 mm
Length of
primary zone
Length of
dilution zone
Channel
height
Rich
zone
Quick
mix
Lean
zone
24
mm
15
mm
11
mm
30 mm
Table: 3 Dimensions & No. Of Air Admission Hole

No. of holes
(n)
4
RICH BURN ZONE
dh (mm)
6
No. of holes
(n)
15
QUIC MIX
dh (mm)
5
No. of holes
(n)
6
DILUTION ZONE
dh (mm)
6
Table: 4 Dimensions & No. Of Wall cooling Hole
No. of holes
(n)
15
RICH BURN ZONE
1.95
QUIC MIX
dh (mm)
No. of holes
(n)
2.32
DILUTION ZONE
dh (mm)
No. of holes
(n)
dh (mm)
Table: 5 Final air distributions
10
2.8
kg/s
0.0158
Wall
cooling kg/s
_
Rich zone
Quick mix
6.8 X 10-3
0.0408
7.32 X 10-3
_
Lean zone
3.36 X 10-3
0.02115
9.2 X 10-3
Swirler
Dilution
Fig 2 RQL drawing
17 mm
Quick Mix Zone

Numerous jet in cross flow studies have been
conducted under non-reacting conditions to yield
insight on such flow field characteristics as jet
structure and penetration, jet entrainment of cross
flow fluid, and the flow field distributions resulting
from jet mixing [1].
2J
C
Where,
n = Number of Circular Jet Orifices to Optimize
Fig 3 Combustion Chamber Model

they instantaneously form products. The model

assumes that the reaction rate may be related
directly to the time required to mix reactants at the
molecular level. In turbulent flows, this mixing time
is dominated by the eddy properties, and therefore,
the rate is proportional to a mixing time defined by
the turbulent kinetic energy, k and dissipation,
rate
CFD ANALYSIS
Combustor model
For the analysis of the combustion chamber, the
commercial code CFX has been used in order to
predict the centerline and the wall temperature
distribution as well as combustion phenomena. Grid
generation is very important and time consuming
part of the work that has to be done before starting
any CFD calculations. For this investigation, the
grid
generation has been done on CFX Mesh. The
mesh was composed primarily of tetrahedral mesh
elements. The number of elements was about 17,
00,000. The mesh size varies from 0.05 mm at the
air admission holes to 10 mm along the length. The
combustion chamber model specifying different
zones and boundary conditions are shown in figure
4. For the 3D calculations with CFX, the adiabatic
system model was used because of the well cooled
casing due to large air mass flow. As viscous model,
k with standard wall functions was used.
Fig 4 Combustion Chamber Model showing
Boundary Conditions and Different Zones
This concept of reaction control is applicable in

many industrial combustion problems where
reaction rates are fast compared to reactant mixing
rates. The boundary conditions are given at the inlet
of the diffuser and the fuel injector. The boundary
conditions are mass flow rate of air at diffuser inlet
as 0.1028 kg/s and mass flow rate of fuel at fuel
injection region as 9.1 x 10-4 kg/s. The other
boundary condition is pressure of 3 bar at inlet. The
computational time for this model is twenty seven
days. The time for solving was increased as the
whole model was analyzed and not a part.
Results and Discussions
CFD analysis was carried out on designed Rich
Burn Quick Mix Lean Combustor (RQL) using
Ansys CFX. Figure 5 shows the streamlines from
inlet diffuser section of the combustion chamber.
Mixing in the primary zone is evident from the
figure. Better mixing in the primary zone is
beneficial for better combustion and flame stability.
Similar,
mixing is evident in the quick mix zone with slight

rise in velocities of this zone. Higher velocities from
quick mix zone are required to quench the flame in
this zone. Some modifications are required at the
design stage of this zone.
Fig 5 Streamlines from Inlet Diffuser Section of
RQL Combustor.
The Eddy Dissipation Combustion Model is used to

study the combustion process. The eddy dissipation
model is based on the concept that chemical
reaction is fast relative to transport processes in the
flow. When reactants mix at the molecular level,

Fig 6 Temperature Profiles for RQL Combustor
advocates for redesign of primary zone of the

combustion chamber.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere thanks to Mechanical Engineering
Department, The Parul institute of engineering and
technology, for providing the facilities of working
on CFD software.
REFERENCES
1.
Figure 6. Shows the temperature profile generated
for RQL Combustor. The temperature levels in the
entrance region near the fuel nozzle are lower and
thereafter increases and reaches maxima. The
temperature levels along the length of the
combustor are nearly constant. The flame quenching
effect not witnessed in the quick mix zone,
advocating for redesign of this zone.
2.
3.
Figure 7 NO Mass Fractions

4.
5.
6.
Figure 7 shows the NO mass fractions in the RQL
combustors. The primary objective of RQL
combustor is satisfied, but NOx formations shall not
be initiated in the rich zone. This suggests that the
air distribution is not achieved as per the design and
advocates for redesign of combustion chamber.
CONCLUSION:
The numerical simulations carried out for RQL
combustion chamber advocates for redesign of the
combustion chamber for air flow distributions
through air admission holes. The temperature levels
are higher as one move away from fuel nozzle. But
flame quenching effect in not witnessed in the quick
mix zone. Also, NOx formation in the rich zone
7.
C. Hassa, C. E. Miguels & P. Voigt, Design

Principles for Quench Zone for Rich Quench
Lean Combustors, Paper Presented at RTO
AVT Symposium on Design Principles and
Methods for Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines,
held in Toulouse, France, May 11 15, 1998.
Cohen & Rogers, Gas Turbine Theory, Tata
McGraw Hill.
Hatch, M.S., Sowa, W.A., Samuelsen, G.S.,
And Holdeman, J.D., 1995,Jet Mixing Into A
Heated Cross Flow In A Cylindrical Duct:
Influence Of Geometry And Flow Variations,
Journal Of Propulsion And Power, Vol. 11, No.
3, May-June, Pp. 393400,1995.
Kroll, J.T., Sowa, W.A., Samuelsen, G.S., and
Holdeman, J. D, Optimization of Orifice
Geometry for Cross Flow Mixing in a
Cylindrical Duct, Journal of Propulsion and
Power, Vol. 16, No. 6, November-December, pp
929-936, 2000
Kulshrestha D. B. & Chaniwala S. A.
Simplified design concept of combustion
chamber, Proceedings of ASME International
Mechanical Engineering Congress& Exposition
[page 145-150], 2005
Kulshrestha D. B. & Chaniwala S. A, Keynote
Lecture, Design Optimization of Gas Turbine
Combustion Chambers using Numerical
Approach, at 10th ASME International
Congress on Fluid Dynamics, December 16
19, 2010, Ain Soukhna, Red Sea, Egypt.
Christopher O Peterson, William A.sowa,
G.S.samuelsen, performance of a model RQL
combustor at elevated temperature and
pressure, University of California, National
Aeronautics
and
space
administration
December 2002.


Performance Evaluation of Cryogenic

Oscillating Heat pipe
Kamlesh Kiritkumar Mehta
PG Student,Cryogenic,LDCE,Ahmedabad.
E-mail ID:Kamleshnit1@yahoo.com
Prof. Nisha V Bora

Asst. Professor, L D College of Engineering ,Ahmedabad.
E-mail ID:nvb_212@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
A novel cryogenic oscillating heat pipe (OHP), which consists of 40x200mm evaporator, a 60x200mm condenser, and 100mm
length of adiabatic section, has been developed and performance evaluation is conducted. Heat transport capability of the OHP
investigated up to 150W with average temperature difference of 29 C between the evaporator and condenser when the cryogenic
OHP was charged with liquid nitrogen and operated in a horizontal direction. The thermal resistance decreased from 0.320 to
0.19 while the heat load increased from 25 to 150 W.
KEY WORDS: Cryogenic Heat Pipes; Cryogenic

Oscillating Heat Pipe; Cooling of HTS magnets;
Cryobiology
INTRODUCTION
When systems operate in a cryogenic environment,
effective thermal management becomes one of the
most serious challenges. For example, the most
common
method
of
heat
transport
in
superconducting magnets is the heat conduction by
a copper block. However, with the development of
cryocooler-cooled superconducting magnets and
large magnets applications, where the heat transport
distance is large, the heat conduction by a copper
block will be constrained by its cross section
transport capacity [1]. In the cryobiology, the main
disadvantage of pool-boiling methods is that direct
plunging the sample into liquid nitrogen results in
strong nitrogen vaporization around the sample
surface, and this forms a vapor coat which acts as
a heat-insulation layer. As a result, the heat transfer
coefficient between the sample surface and liquid
nitrogen is quite limited due to poor thermal
conduction of the vapor in the vapor coat. This
limitation prevents a further increase of the cooling
rates. In addition, these pool-boiling methods, as
well as the cold surface solidification method,

produce an open system in which the samples are
vulnerable to contamination when coming in to
direct contact with cooling agents (liquid nitrogen,
cold metal surface, etc). Therefore, a completely
new approach is needed to achieve the required
cooling rate between the sample and coolant is the
use of heat pipes, which are a package of pipes
containing two-phase flows that continuously
remove the heat released from the sample through
phase change (evaporation and condensation)
[2].Heat pipes are effective two-phase heat transfer
devices, which can transport several orders of
magnitude greater heat loads than traditional singlephase techniques, and have been widely used in
electronics cooling, spacecraft design and other
thermal management systems [3]. Several types of
heat pipes, such as the loop heat pipe and the
oscillation heat pipe, have the ability to dissipate
large heat loads over long distances at low
temperatures. Cryogenic heat pipes reported in the
literature can be categorized into four types:
thermosyphons [6], wick-based heat pipes [79],
cryogenic capillary-pumped loops [10] and
cryogenic loop heat pipes. These previous results
showed that the heat transport capacity of the loop

heat pipe with liquid nitrogen as working fluid was

very low only 26W when it operated in a horizontal
direction and its lowest thermal resistance reached
1.3 K/W which is too high for most of cryogenic
heat transport systems.
Akachi pioneered a new device called the
oscillating heat pipe (OHP), which utilizes the
pressure change in volume expansion and
contraction during phase changes to excite the
oscillation motion of liquid plugs and vapor bubbles
between the evaporator and condenser. Comparing
OHP with other conventional heat pipes, the unique
feature of OHPs is that there is no wick structure to
return the condensate to the evaporator, and
therefore there is no countercurrent flow between
the liquid and the vapor flows because both operate
in the same direction [3]. Other features of OHPs
include: (1) the driving force mainly depends on the
rate of change in pressure with respect with
temperature of working fluid (dp/dT) sat and the
temperature difference between the condenser and
evaporator. (2) The oscillating motion in the
capillary tube significantly enhances forced
convection in addition to the phase change heat
transfer, the vapor bubbles and liquid slug formed in
capillary tube will effectively produce many thin
film surfaces to enhance the phase-change heat
transfer both in the evaporating and the condensing
heat transfer. Because of these unique features,
OHPs have been extensively theoretically and
experimentally analyzed investigated in the past
several years.
Experimental
Design
System and Cryogenic
OHP
Fig.1 and Fig.2 illustrates the Experimental system

and test section. As shown in Fig. 2, the 9-turn
open-loop OHP was developed and manufactured.
For a open-loop OHPs, there exists an oscillating
flow only exist between the evaporator and the
condenser. The OHP was fabricated from copper
tubing with an inner diameter of 1.68 mm and an
outer diameter of 3.18 mm, which can work very
well at 213 atm pressure with T = 37.8 C and with
the pressure change of the cryogenic working fluid
at different temperatures. In the design of the OHP,
the inner diameter must be small enough so that the
surface tension forces dominate gravitational forces
and distinct vapor bubbles and liquid slugs can
form. The theoretical maximum interior diameter
for a capillary tube occurs when the square of the
Bond number is less than 4, thus, the critical
diameter of the capillary tube can be expressed,
) 2
which can be rearranged to show that the maximum

inner diameter of a Cryogenic OHP is,
=
Where, = Surface Tension, =Gravitational Force

=Liquid Density,
=Vapor Density. Based on
this equation, the copper tubing inner diameter for
the current study is well within this constraint.
Fig.1. Experimental System
For the working fluid of OHP selection at saturated

conditions, a high value of surface tension
and
(dp/dT) sat to create high enough driving force at a
given temperature difference between the
evaporator and the condenser is important. On the
other hand, a low dynamic viscosity to reduce the
shear stress along the wall resulting in a low
pressure drop in the channel is also desirable. The
working fluid of the cryogenic OHP in the current
investigation was the liquid nitrogen. A photograph
of a test section (cryogenic OHP) is shown in Fig. 1.
The dimensions of the evaporator, where a uniform
heat flux was added, were 40x200 mm2. In order to
improve the heat transfer from the heater to the
evaporating section, a 40x200x 5-mm3 copper plate
was used. The semicircular grooves machined on
the plate created a good fit with the tubing for better
heat transfer. The dimensions of the condenser were
also 60x200 mm3 and it was fashioned in the same
manner as evaporator. The distance between the
evaporator and the condenser is 100 mm.
Fig.2. Test section

Fig. 1 displays the schematic experimental system,

which consisted of test section (OHP), data
acquisition system, heat input and measurement
system, liquid nitrogen pool, and liquid nitrogen
tank. The cryogenic OHP (test section), except the
bottom surface of condenser, was completely
covered by a thick foamed layer, as shown in Fig. 2.
The bottom surface of the condenser copper block
was directly exposed to the liquid nitrogen pool.
The data acquisition system included PT-100
Sensors, an RS 485 USB data acquisition system,
and a personal Laptop to record the temperature
response. The PT-100 Sensors were calibrated and
the total temperature measurement error is less than
0.1C. The heat input and measurement system was
composed of a heater, its power was supplied by a
voltage regulator. And the voltage was measured by
a voltmeter. The electronic resistance (R) of the
heater was measured by multimeter at near liquid
nitrogen temperatures, since the resistance of the
heater depends on the temperature. In the current
investigation, the liquid nitrogen pool was contained
in an insulated box, which connected with a liquid
nitrogen Dewar by a hose.
loads of the evaporator were changed from 25 to

150 W.The temperature difference is increased from
8C to 29C as heat load is increased from 25 to 150
W. The effective thermal resistance was defined as
Reff = T/Q herein and illustrated in the Fig. 4. As
shown in Fig. 4, the effective thermal resistance
decreases with the heat load input. For example, the
effective thermal resistances are 0.32 and 0.19 K/W
for Q = 25, 150 W, respectively. The main reason is
that the driven force of the oscillating flow in the
OHP is the temperature difference between the
evaporator and the condenser, the low head load
result in a low oscillating flow velocity (low
convection heat transfer coefficient).
Experiment Procedure
Before the start of experiments, the experimental
system was pre-cooled until the test section reached
the liquid nitrogen saturated temperature since there
was not any heat load input. In the pre-cooling
process, the insulated test section was immerged
into liquid nitrogen then valve of liquid nitrogen
tank is open to flow the liquid nitrogen in to the heat
pipe. The valves were closed after the heat pipe was
charged enough. The charge ratio is calculated by
the weight difference after the experiments. After
pre-cooling, the charge process was done until a
steady-state condition was reached; the heat load
was added to the evaporator by the heater. When the
desired steady state was reached at a given heat
load, the power was increased incrementally and the
operation of OHP was allowed to reach a new
equilibrium condition. During the tests, the thermal
power input and the temperature data were
simultaneously recorded using the data acquisition
system controlled by a personal computer.
Experiment Result and Discussion
The heat transport performance of the cryogenic
OHP with liquid nitrogen as the working fluid and a
charge ratio of 0.50 were illustrated in Fig. 3.The
temperature response of the evaporator and the
condenser were displayed in Fig. 3 while the heat
Fig.3. Performance of OHP
Fig.4. Thermal Resistance K/W
However, the faction of nitrogen gas increase too

much in the OHP will decrease the evaporation heat
transfer surface (dry out area will increase the
thermal resistance sharply) which will affect the
heat transfer performance of the OHP when the heat

load increment reach some value (limitation). When

the higher the heat load added to the evaporator, the
higher the temperature difference that will occur
between the evaporator and condenser.
CONCLUSIONS
A cryogenic oscillating heat pipe (OHP) has been
developed and experimentally characterized. When
the OHP is operated in a horizontal direction, the
experimental results show that the maximum heat
transport capability of the OHP reached 150W with
the average temperature difference of only 29C
between the evaporator and the condenser. The
thermal resistance decrease from 0.32 to 0.19 K/W.
REFERENCES
[1] Reay D.A and Kew P.A, Heat Pipes,Theory,Design
and Application,5th Edn,Butterworth Heinemann
Publishing Company,2006,pp.1-7
[2] Akachi H. Structure of heat pipe,US Patent 49 210
041, 1990.
[3] Jiao AJ, Ma HB and Critser JK Experimental
investigation of cryogenic oscillating heat pipes.
International Journal on Heat Mass Transfer 52,
2009, pp.35043509
[4] T. Mito, Natsume K, Yanagi N, Tamura H, Tamada
T and Shikimachi K,Development of highly
effective cooling technology for a superconducting
magnet using cryogenic OHP. IEEE Transaction on
Applied Superconductivity 20, 2010,pp.20232026.
[5] Faghri, A., Heat Pipe Science and Technology,
Taylor and Francis, Bristol, Pennsylvania, USA,
1995.
[6] R. Chandratilleke, H. Hatakeyama and H.
Nakagome, Development of cryogenic loop heat
pipes, Cryogenics 38,1998,pp. 263269.
[7] A. Jiao, X. Han, J.K. Critser and H.B. Ma,
Numerical investigations of transient heat transfer
characteristics and vitrification tendencies in ultrafast cell freezing processes, Cryobiology 52,
2006,pp.386392.
[8] Y.W. Zhang, A. Faghri, Advances and unsolved
issues in pulsating heat pipes, International Journal
on Heat Transfer Engineering 29, 2008, pp. 2044.
T and Shikimachi K, Achievement of high heat
removal characteristics of superconducting Magnets
with Imbedded oscillating heat pipes. IEEE
Transaction on Applied Superconductivity 21, 2011,
pp.24702473.
[10] A. Jiao , Ma HB, Critser JK and Xu Han
Investigations on the heat transport capability of a
cryogenic oscillating heat pipe and its application in
achieving ultra-fast cooling rates for cell vitrification
cryopreservation, Cryobiology 56 ,2008,pp. 195
203
10

Emission Improvement of Karanja

Biodiesel Fueled Diesel Engine
A.J.Patel
PG Student, Mechanical Engineering Department, SVM Institute of Technology, Bharuch-392001
E-mail ID:aniljpatel@in.com
B.S.Patil
E-mail ID: bspatil@in.com
D.C.Gosai
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, SVM Institute of Technology, Bharuch-392001
E-mail ID: dip_gosai@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Non-edible Karanja (Pongamia pinnata) oil based mono esters (biodiesel) produced and blended with diesel were tested for
their use as substitute fuels of diesel engines. The objective of the present investigation was to experimentally find out the
emissions exhausted by the engine and to minimize it with help of karanja biodiesel and its blends with diesel which can be
used in generating sets and the agricultural applications in India. Diesel; neat biodiesel from Karanja and their blends (25,
50,75 and 100 by volume) was used for conducting tests at varying load conditions and found that CO emission is low at
higher loads for biodiesel when compared with diesel. NOx increases with the increase in concentration of biodiesel in the
mixture of biodiesel and petro- diesel. Sulphur oxides emissions are reduced by as much as 80% or more which is another
important benefit of using biodiesel. The biodiesel contains very low sulphur, which can lower sulphur oxide emission even
more. There is a significant difference in smoke emissions when biodiesel is used.
KEYWORDS:
Biodiesel;
Transesterification;Methyl ester.
Non-edibleoils;
NOMENCLATURE
BP
HC
SO2
NOx
CO
SFC
RPM
KB25
Brake power
hydro carbon
sulphur dioxide
nitrogen oxide
carbon monoxide
Specific Fuel Consumption
Revolution per minute
Blend of 25% Karanja based Biodiesel with
75% of petroleum diesel
KB50 Blend of 50% Biodiesel with 50% of
Petroleum diesel
KB75 Blend of 75% Biodiesel with 25% of
Petroleum diesel
KB100 100% Biodiesel content, 0% PetroleumDiesel
INTRODUCTION
Fuels derived from renewable biological resources
for use in diesel engines are known as biodiesel.
Biodiesel is environmentally friendly liquid fuel
similar to petrol-diesel in combustion properties.
Increasing environmental concern, diminishing
petroleum reserves and agriculture based economy
of our country are the driving forces to promote
biodiesel as an alternate fuel. Biodiesel derived
from vegetable oil and animal fats is being used in
USA and Europe to reduce air pollution, to reduce
dependence on fossil fuel. In USA and Europe, their
surplus edible oils like soybean oil, sunflower oil
and rapeseed oil are being used as feed stock for the
production of biodiesel. Since India is net importer
of vegetable oils, edible oils cannot be used for
production of biodiesel. Blending, cracking/
pyrolysis, emulsification or transesterification of
vegetable oils may overcome these problems.
Heating and blending of vegetable oils may reduce
11

the viscosity and improve volatility of vegetable oils

but its molecular structure remains unchanged.
Hence, polyunsaturated character remains. Blending
of vegetable oils with diesel, however, reduces the
viscosity drastically and the fuel handling system of
the engine can handle vegetable oil-diesel blends
without any problems. On the basis of experimental
investigations, it is found that converting vegetable
oils into simple esters is an effective way to
overcome all the problems associated with the
vegetable oils (G Prabhakar rao and K Hema
Chandra Reddy, 2008). Previous studies have
shown that there is a substantial reduction of CO,
unburned hydrocarbons and particulate matter
emission, when they are used in conventional diesel
engines. Biodiesel is alkyl (e.g. Methyl, Ethyl) ester
of fatty acids made from a wide range of vegetable
oils, animal fat and used cooking oil via the
transesterification process. Moreover, biodiesel has
been used not only as an alternative for fossil diesel
(L.M.Das,P.K.Kumar and T.S.Varayani,2009).
Kusum (Schlechera trijuga), etc. Some of these oils

produced even now are not being properly utilized.
Out of these plants, India is focusing on Jatropha
Curcas and Pongamia Pinnata, which can grow in
arid and wastelands. Oil content in the Jatropha and
Pongamia seed is around 30-40 %. India has about
80-100 million hectares of wasteland, which can be
used for Jatropha and Pongamia plantation. It is an
untapped source in India. Implementation of
biodiesel in India will lead to many advantages like
green cover to wasteland, support to agriculture and
rural economy and reduction in dependence on
imported crude oil and reduction in air pollution.
However, long term engine test results showed that
durability problems were encountered with
vegetable oils because of deposit formation, carbon
buildup and lubricating oil contamination. Thus, it
was concluded that vegetable oils must either be
chemically altered or blended with diesel fuel to
prevent premature engine failure (G Prabhakar rao
and K Hema Chandra Reddy, 2008).
Table1.Properties of Karanja biodiesel
PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL
TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS
Characteristics
Specific
gravity
@ 15 c
(Kg/m3)
Net calorific
(heating
value)
(MJ/Kg)
Cetane
Number
Kinematic
viscosity
(Cp)
KB
25
KB
50
KB
75
kB
100
0.867
0.872
0.899
0.918
0.933
51.57
49.90
46.71
43.89
34.83
54.6
58.9
60.3
63.2
65.4
3.48
4.98
6.18
9.12
11.2
Diesel
Biodiesel is alkyl (e.g. Methyl, Ethyl) ester of fatty

acids made from a wide range of vegetable oils,
animal fat and used cooking oil via the
transesterification process (Poonam Singh and
Anoop Singh,2011). Additionally, the Cetane
number of the blend is low, making it difficult to
burn by the compression ignition technology
employed in diesel engines. As a result, a number of
studies have been carried out to improve the
solubility of ethanol in diesel, as well as to improve
the Cetane number of the blends (Saurabh
Srivastava,A.Rehman,Savita Dixit,Atul Lanjewar
and S. P.Chincholkar,2005). India has the potential
to be a leading world producer of biodiesel, as
biodiesel can be harvested and sourced from nonedible oils like Jatropha Curcus, Pongamia Pinnata,
Neem (Azadirachta indica), Mahua, castor, linseed,
BY
Vegetable oils have to undergo the process of

transesterication to be usable in internal
combustion engines. Biodiesel is the product of the
process of transesterication. Biodiesel is renewable
and can be produced from agriculture and plant
resources.
Fig. 1 Transesterification process
Biodiesel is commonly produced by the

transesterification of the vegetable oil feedstock.
There are several methods for carrying out this
transesterification reaction including the common
batch process, supercritical processes, ultrasonic
methods,
and even
microwave methods.
Chemically, transesterified fatty acid (biodiesel)
comprises a mix of mono-alkyl esters of long chain
12

fatty acids. The most common form uses methanol

(converted to sodium methoxide) to produce methyl
esters as it is the cheapest alcohol available, though
ethanol can be used to produce an ethyl ester
biodiesel and higher alcohols such as isopropanol
and butanol have also been used. Using alcohols of
higher molecular weights improves the cold flow
properties of the resulting ester at the cost of a less
efficient transesterification reaction. A lipid
transesterification production process is used to
convert the base oil to the desired esters. Any Free
fatty acids (FFAs) in the base oil are either
converted to soap, or removed from the process, or
they are esterified (yielding more biodiesel) using
an acidic catalyst. After this processing, unlike
straight vegetable oil, biodiesel has combustion
properties very similar to those of petroleum diesel
and can replace it in most current uses. A byproduct of the transesterification process is the
production of glycerol. For every 1 tone of biodiesel
that is manufactured, 100 kg of glycerol are
produced.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
Engine was connected with an electrical
dynamometer to measure the power output. The
engine was instrumented to measure the parameter
like fuel consumption, load, and speed of engine,
cooling water temperature, inlet air & exhaust gas
temperature with smoke density. The engine test
was carried out with the load variation from no load
to the maximum load conditions. At each operating
stage the observations of various parameters were
taken.
Type of engine
Bore and stroke

Compression ratio
Brake power and RPM
Specific fuel
consumption
Lubrication oil
Fuel
Governing
Dynamometer
road, Rajkot-3, Gujarat,

India
Dual cylinder
Vertical
four stroke cycle
Water cooled
Cold start oil
engine
Direct injection
80 mm 110mm
16:1
7.35 kw and 1500
RPM
250gm/kwhr
Servo 20W40
High speed diesel
Class B1
Electrical type
Measurement
Calibrated burette for fuel intake measurement.
Orifice meter Fitted to the air inlet tank with
water manometer for air intake measurement.
Multichannel digital temperature measurement
at various points.
Exhaust gas calorimeter to measure heat carried
away by exhaust gas.
Measure the water flow rate of engine jacket and
calorimeter.
At each operating condition, the emissions like CO,
NOX, SOX and HC were recorded after allowing
time for the engine to stabilize.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 3.Emission test results
Parameters
HC
SO2
at 7.8 amp.
unit
PPM
PPM
Diesel
267
2786
KB25
211
2453
KB50
169
2371
KB75
118
2143
KB100
82
951
NOX
CO
PPM
336
342
354
367
378
PPM
683
434
475
489
606
Carbon monoxide
Fig. 2 Experimental set up

Table 2. Apparatus specifications
Manufacturers name
Gangadhar industries,
Aji vashahat, 80-feet
13

Fig. 3 Variation in CO (PPM) with biodiesel blend
Hydro carbon
Fig. 6 Variation in SOx (ppm) with biodiesel blend
Fig. 4 Variation in HC (ppm) with biodiesel blend
The CO emission from the diesel engine with

biodiesel blended fuels and diesel is shown in the
Fig. 3. The amount of CO emission was lower in
case of biodiesel blended fuels and biodiesel than
diesel, because of the fact that biodiesel contains
11% oxygen molecules, this may lead to complete
combustion and reduction of CO emission in
biodiesel fuel.
The HC emission from the diesel engine with
biodiesel blended fuels and diesel is shown in the
Fig. 4. The amount of HC emission was lower in
case of biodiesel blended fuels and biodiesel than
diesel, because of the complete combustion of fuel.
Nitrogen oxide
The emission from the engine with different

biodiesel blended fuels NOx and diesel is shown in
Fig. 5. The NOx emission increases with the
increase in biodiesel amount in the blended fuel and
also found that NOx emission from the biodiesel
fuel was higher than that of diesel. Probable reason
for increase in NOx concentration by about 2-10 %
from fuelled engine was higher due to higher
oxygen level in the fuel and type of engine. The
NOx concentration depends on the size of orifice.
The NOx formation depends on the combustion
temperature and availability of oxygen. However
the increase in NOx concentration is the main
problem in biodiesel and it can be reduced by
making suitable change in the engine parameter.
Fig. 6 shows that Sulphur dioxide emission obtained
using diesel, KB25, KB50, KB75, KB100. As the %
of karanja biodiesel in the fuel blend increases,
there is decrease in SO2 emission was consistently
significant in karanja biodiesel blend of KB25 and
grater. The decrease in SO2 concentration range
from 10 % when using KB25 to 70% when using
KB100.The decrease in sulphur concentration in
fuel, there is decrease in SO2 emission was
expected.
It is observed that the fuel consumption of the
engine increases with the increase in amount of
biodiesel blends as shown in the fig. The fuel
consumption of biodiesel blends was about 22%
higher than that of diesel. The percent increase in
the fuel consumption of biodiesel blends (KB25 to
KB75) ranged from 4 to 17 percent than diesel fuel
due to decrease in the calorific value of these fuels.
CONCLUSION
Fig. 5 Variation in NOx (ppm) with biodiesel blend
Sulphur dioxide
The following conclusions could be arrived, based

on the experimental results:
The higher fuel consumption of karanja biodiesel
14

is due to higher flash point and viscosity than

petroleum diesel. The higher the flash point of the
biodiesel, the better atomization process will be
performed.
The karanja biodiesel produceses marginally
lower output characteristics, low performance in
terms of torque, effective power and thermal
efficiency than petroleum diesel.
CO2 emission is low with biodiesel.CO emission
is low at higher loads for biodiesel when
compared with diesel.
It is clear that NOx increases with the increase in
concentration of biodiesel in the mixture of
biodiesel and petro-diesel. Sulphur oxides
emissions are reduced by as much as 80% or
more which is another important benefit of using
biodiesel. The biodiesel contains very low
sulphur which can lower sulphur oxide emission
even more.
25% blends of bio-diesel (bio-diesel produced
from non edible sources like Karanja) have been
found to comply with all specification of diesel
fuel. The Cetane number, flash point, sulphur
content and lubricity of the blended fuel are
observed to be better than commercial diesel
fuel. Hence karanja biodiesel produces less
pollutant as compared to the conventional diesel
fuel and contributes to be an alternative source
of energy to meet the energy demands of the
future.
for
pollution control in diesel engine,Asian J.Exp.
Sci.,vol 19,pp 13-22,[2005]
Modi A.J. and Gosai D.C., Experimental analysis of
performance of Bio-fuels (Jatropha & Palm Bio-diesel)
on Thermal Barrier Coated (TBC) Diesel Engine,
Presented at The 3rd International conference of
Advances in Mechanical Engineering (ICAME - 2010),
January 4-6,[2010].
REFERENCES
L.M.Das and P.K. Sahoo Combustion analysis of
jatropha,Karanja and Polanga based biodiesel as fuel in
diesel engineFuel,vol.88,pp.994-999,[2009]
L.M.Das,P.K.Kumar and T.S.Varayani Comparative
evaluation of performance and emission characteristics
of jatropha,Karanja and polanga based biodiesel as a
fuel in tractor engine Fuel vol.88, pp.16981707,[2009].
Poonam Singh and Anoop Singh production of liquid bio
Fuels from renewable resources Production in energy
combustion science, vol.37, pp 52-68,[ 2011].
G. Prabhakar Rao and K. Hema Chandra Reddy
T.Venkateswara Rao, "Experimental investigation of
pongamia, jatropha and neem methyl esters as biodiesel
on C.I. Engine"," jordan journal of mechanical and
industrial engineeringl, vol. 2, pp.117-122,june,[2008]
Saroj K. Padhi and R. K. singh, "Non-edible oils as the
potential source for the production of biodiesel in India:
A review", Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Research, vol. 2, pp. 39-49, [2011].
Modi A.J.and Gosai D.C. Experimental study on
Thermal
barrier coated (TBC) Diesel Engine
Performance with blends
of diesel and palm
biodiesel SAE International,01-1519- [2010]
Saurabh Srivastava,A.Rehman,Savita Dixit,Atul Lanjewar
and S. P.Chincholkar, Biodiesel as a alternative fuel
15

16

Emission Study of Biodiesel Compare to

Conventional Diesel for Different Load
Mr.Ankitkumar K. Patel.
PG Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Govt. Engg. College, Bhuj-37001(Gujarat, India)
E-mail ID:ankit09mech@yahoo.com
Dr.Pravin P.Rathod.
Associate Prof. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Govt. Engg.College, Bhuj-37001(Gujarat, India)
E-mail ID:pravinprathod@gmail.com
Prof. Arvind S. Sorathiya.

Associate Prof. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Govt. Engg.College, Gan-37001(Gujarat, India)
ABSTRACT
Bio-diesels are promoted as alternative fuels and their applications in diesel engines have been investigated by many
researchers. The experimental results show emission like HC, NOX, CO CO2, Smoke is comparable to diesel when fuel used
biodiesel. The emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from biodiesel is lower than that of pure diesel fuel. This emission character
found in the tests is to so extent of significance for the practical application of biodiesel to replace ordinary diesel fuel.
KEY WORDS: biodiesel, exhaust emission, particulate

matter, diesel engine, alternative fuel
NOMENCLATURE:
HC-Hydro carbon
CO- Carbon Monoxide
CO2-Carbon Dioxide
NOX- Nitrogen Oxides
PM- Particulate Matter
SOX- Sulphure Oxides
CD-Conventional Diesel
B20-20%biodiesel+80%CD
INTRODUCTION:
In present day increasing price of diesel is very vital
problem in India. 70% of diesel vehicle are running on
the road. Emission from diesel vehicle creates
problem for human being living near road and
pedestrian. At traffic vehicle emits large amount of
exhaust smoke which includes metal, organic and non-
organic content. Thus breath taking air is polluted by

mixing such content in atmosphere. We need to solve
problem of emission from vehicle.
The rationale of taking up a research paper
for the production of bio-diesel in India lies in the
context of:
Bio-diesel being superior fuel from the environmental
point of view; Use of bio-diesel becomes compelling
in view of the tightening of automotive vehicle
emission standards and court interventions;
Addressing global concern relating to containing
Carbon emissions for mitigation of climate change;
Providing nutrients to soil, by using oil cake as
manure;
Reducing import of oil and consequentially reducing
import and improving energy security;
Greening the country through plantation, and
Generation of gainful employment to the
people.
Biodiesel is one of the renewable and clean alternative
fuels for motor vehicles. It can be derived from plants
fruit, seed, latex, animal fats, wasted oil, frying oil,
etc. by transesterification with methanol or ethanol.
Results from many studies have shown that compared
17

with CD(conventional diesel), B20 (20%biodiesel+

80%CD) has better degradation characteristic and
lower hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO),
particulate matter (PM), sculpture oxides (SOX)
emissions, CO2 emissions ,and nitrogen oxides (NOX)
emissions.
The series of tests are conducted using each of the
above fuel, with the engine working at different loads.
In each test, exhaust smokiness and exhaust regulated
gas emissions such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) are measured.
Fig.:1
A life cycle analysis of biodiesel showed that overall

CO2 emissions were reduced by 78% compared with
petroleum-based diesel fuel.
Diesel engines are most preferred power plants due to
their excellent drivability and higher thermal
efficiency. Despite their advantages they emit high
levels of NOx and smoke which will have an effect on
human health. Hence stringent emission norms and
also the depletion of petroleum fuels necessitated a
search of alternate fuels for diesel engine.
TABLE 1: FUEL PROPERTY
PROPERTY
UNIT
B20
Kg/m3
DIESEL
(OD)
832
Density
Kinematic
viscosity at
400C
Cetane no.
cSt
2.59
2.63
Flash point
Fire point
Boiling point
Pour point
853
During the tests, the parameters were recorded such as

engine power output, fuel consumption, engine
exhaust temperature and emissions, etc. here only
emission data take.
TABLE 2: ENGINE SPECIFICATION
Engine name
Kirlosker
Engine no.
19.8004/9074
Cylinder number
Rpm
1500
Bhp
10
Kw
7.4
Common rail
55
56
Fuel injection
system
Valve no.
64
61
Bore x stroke
80mm X 101mm
75
71
Displacement
1004 cc
94
93
+4
+4
EXPERIMENTAL PLAN:
A plan was designed for the experimental
investigation. The tests were conducted with
conventional diesel and biodiesel. For each of the
fuels, the engine ran on five different loads, i.e. idle
(0%), 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of engine full loads.
The engine load was controlled by the control panel.
2/cylinder
TEST PROCEDURE:
The performance and emission from the engine
running on diesel blended with biodiesel were
evaluated and compared with diesel fuel. The
properties of diesel fuel are given in table. fuel cost
will be increased; therefore, only experimental results
obtained up to this percentage of biodiesel will be
presented. The biodiesel blends were prepared just
before starting the experiment to ensure that the fuel
mixture was homogenous and to avoid the reaction. A
series of experiments were carried out using diesel,
and the biodiesel blends. All the blends were tested
under constant engine speed conditions. The engine
was started using diesel fuel and it was operated until
it reached the steady state condition. The engine
speed, fuel consumption, and load were measured,
while the brake power, brake specific fuel
18

consumption (BSFC), brake thermal efficiency and

volumetric efficiency were computed. After the engine
reached the stabilized working condition, emission
parameters such as CO, CO2, HC, NOx and the
exhaust gas temperature from an online and accurately
calibrated exhaust gas analyzer were recorded. All
experiments have been carried out at full throttle
setting. Before obtaining data from the engine
operated with a new blended fuel, the engine was
operated using the new fuel for sufficient time to clean
out the remaining fuel from the previous blend. Fuel
properties were determined at the laboratories of
Petroleum Industry in Vapi. In this paper, the quantity
AO represents the ordinary diesel and B20 represents
the biodiesel. Here
B20 means mixture of
80%ordinary diesel with 20% biodiesel.
EMISSIONS STUDY:
is slightly decreased for B20 than CD. It is nearly

equal with CD at partial load and at full load 0.02 to
0.03% decrease for B20 than CD.
HYDROCARBON (HC) EMISSION:
Fig.5 shows the variation of hydrocarbon (HC)
emissions for the tested fuels at different loads. HC
emissions for CD are higher than B20 at full load. HC
emissions vary from 140 to 250 ppm for CD while its
vary from 120 to 150 foe B20. Higher HC emissions
are probably due to higher viscosity, density, poor
volatility, and rich fuel mixtures at higher loads. B20
is aromatic in nature and indeed results in higher
unburned hydrocarbon emissions. 75% load values for
B20 are marginally closer to CD. At low loads, locally
over-lean mixtures are produced during the longer
ignition delay period, leading to incomplete
combustion and hence higher HC emissions.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) EMISSION:
SMOKE:
CO emissions are higher for the CD, as shown in

Fig.2. CD increase the CO concentration by an
average of 12% over B20. Diesel engines generally
produce lower emissions of CO as they always run at
lean mixtures compared with gasoline engines, which
operate nearer to stoichiometrically mixtures. During
the combustion process, the presence of low molecular
weight compounds that affect the atomization process
result in local rich mixtures that produce higher CO
emissions. At higher temperatures, radicals generated
by the decomposition of high molecular weight
compounds contained in oil react with each other and
form polymers by condensation. These polymers,
which exhibit coke-like structures, deposit onto the
combustion system of the engine.
Smoke is composed of solid soot particles suspended

in exhaust gas. Fig.6 shows the variation of smoke
level with brake power at various loads for the
different tested loads. It is observed that smoke is
higher with B20 at full load. At the same time, as the
aromatic content increases with constant cetane
number, particulate emissions increase at high load.
From the figure, it can also be observed that the smoke
emission is similar for B20 and CD.
CO %
0.1
0.05
B20
0
25
50
75
100
ENGINE LOAD %
NOX EMISSIONS:
Fig.2
1000
B20
0
0
25
50
75
100
NOXPPM
NOx emissions are compared and depicted in Fig.3.

The NOx emissions are higher for CD than B20. The
NOx emissions are significantly influenced by two
parameters, cylinder gas temperature and residence
time. Fuels with longer ignition delays exhibit higher
maximum rates of heat release, resulting in higher
cylinder temperatures. Thus, NOx is produced in the
local high temperature region. It was also reported that
fuel with higher aromatic content produces higher
NOx values, NOx values for CD are higher than B20,
which is probably due to the longer ignition delay and
higher aromatic content. This is evident from the
higher exhaust gas temperatures from the CD fueled
engine.
CD
CD
ENGINE LOAD %
Fig.3
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EMISSION:
As shown in fig.4, As the load increase, CO2 emission
19

in the future. The carbon monoxide (CO) emissions

from the biodiesel are lower than that of the diesel fuel
at the engine full load; but in the cases of 75% loads,
the CO emissions are both equally.
CO2 %
10
5
B20
0
CD
0 25 50 75 100
ENGINE LOAD %
Fig.4
HC PPM
300
200
100
B20
CD
0
25
50
75
100
ENGINE LOAD %
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
B20
0
25
50
75
100
SMOKE BSU
Fig.5
CD
ENGINE LOAD %
Fig.6
CONCLUSIONS:
Hydrocarbon emissions are higher for biodiesel than
for conventional Diesel at full load. B20 exhibits an
approximately 3% decrease in HC at peak load.
Carbon monoxide emissions are also higher for CD
than for B20, but the values are less than 0.01 to
0.03%. NOx emissions are higher for CD than for
B20. B20 exhibits an approximately 25% Decrease in
NOx at full load.
Smoke is about 7% higher for B20 operation at full
load compared with CD.
The emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from
biodiesel, at the range of tests, are lower than that of
pure diesel fuel. This is the most important gaseous
emission characteristic of biodiesel. This emission
character found in the tests is of significance to some
extent for replacing ordinary diesel fuel with biodiesel
REFERENCES:
[1]Abhay Srivastava, Comparative analysis of
particulate emission from Diesel engine using Diesel
&Biodiesel blends, September 2006.
[2]J.Van Gerpen, B.Shanks, Biodiesel Analytical
Methods,Lowa state University, January 2004.
[3]VikashKatiyar, Experimental investigations of Bioorigin Emulsified fuels; Performance and Emission
Analysis in a Single Cylinder Diesel Engine, August
2006.
[4]Report of the committee on development of Biofuel, Planning Commission Government of India, New
Delhi, April 2003.
[5]S.Murugan, M.C.Ramaswamy, A comparative
study in the performance, emission and combustion
studies of a DI diesel engine using distilled
Tyrepyrolysis oil-Diesel blends, science direct, Fuel
(87), pp 2111-2121, February 2008.
[6]S.Murugan, M.C.Ramaswamy,A comparative study
in the performance, emission and combustion studies
of a DI diesel engine using distilled Tyre pyrolysis oilDiesel blends. Fuel processing Technology
89(2008)152-159,August 2007.
[7]S.Murugan, M.C.Ramaswamy, The use of Tyre
pyrolysis oil in diesel Engine, Waste Management
28(2008) pp-2743-2749.
[8]AyhanDemirbas, Relationships derived from
physical properties of Vegetable oil and bio diesel
fuels. Science Direct fuel87 (2008)1743-1748,
September 2007.
[9]YuangchungLin, Chia-FonLee, Characterization of
particle size distribution from diesel engines fueled
with palm biodiesel blends and paraffinic fuel blends.
Science
direct,
Atmospheric
Environment
42(2008)pp1133-1143.
[10]Zhiyuan Hu, Piqiang Tan, Life cycle energy,
environment and economic assessment of soybeanbased biodiesel as an alternative automotive fuel in
China, Energy 33 (2008) 16541658, August 2007.
20

Waste Heat Recovery from Diesel Genset to

Run Air Conditioning Plant
Hirenkumar Thakorbhai Patel
Mechanical Department, PIET, Limda, Vadodara
hirenhany@gmail.com
Imran M. Molvi
Mechanical Department, PIET, Limda, Vadodara
imranmolvi@gmail.com
Dr. Sonal Desai

Mechanical Department, C.K.P.C.E.T., Surat
ergoeng@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Load shedding is a common practice everywhere due to increased load on power stations. Industries depending heavily on
electrical energy are the most affected ones. Industries are using their own power stations to overcome the overload. Diesel
generating sets are the most common power stations. The exhaust gases of these gensets have a very large amount of heat
(about 700 degrees Celsius at full load), which is wasted. The waste heat of the exhaust gases can run a central air
conditioning plant based on vapour absorption system. The present paper shows that a 126 TR vapour absorption system
based central air conditioning plant can be run by tapping waste heat of the exhaust gases of 1100 HP genset. The practical
implementations of such vapour absorption system are there by number of Industries. Such system with combined heating
power & cooling (CHPC) is the need of time for conservation of the energy.
KEY WORDS: Waste Heat Recovery, Vapour

Absorption System, Gensets, Air conditioner, CHPC
(combined heating power & cooling)
NOMENCLATURE
D = mass of vapour distilled from generator
f = Specific rich solution circulation
h = Specific enthalpy
P = Pressure
q = Heat transfer per unit mass
t = Temperature
= Concentration by weight
INTRODUCTION
Waste heat is a type of heat, which is generated in a
process by way of fuel combustion or chemical
reaction, and then dumped into the environment
even though it could still be reused for some useful
and economic purpose. The essential quality of heat
is not the amount but rather its value. The strategy

of how to recover this heat depends on the
temperature and quality of the waste heat gases and
the economics involved. Large quantity of hot flue
gases is generated from Boilers, Kilns, Ovens and
Furnaces. If some of this waste heat could be
recovered, a considerable amount of primary fuel
could be saved.
Utilization of Waste Heat
There are many methods through which waste heat
energy can be recovered and utilized. Depending on
the temperature level of the wasted heat and the
proposed application, different heat exchanger
devices can be employed to facilitate the use of the
recovered heat. Figure 1 shows a schematic of one
of the possible energy utilization schemes which is
vapour absorption system.
21

pressure drop that reduces the pressure of the

refrigerant to that of the evaporator. The resulting
mixture of liquid and vapour refrigerant is travel to
the evaporator to repeat the cycle.
Water boils and evaporates at 100 C at standard
atmospheric pressure (14.7psi/101.3kPa). When the
pressure is reduced, water boils at a lower
temperature. The following table gives the total
pressure in inches of mercury and the corresponding
approximate water boiling temperature at different
pressures:
Fig 1 Schematic of waste heat utilization
Table 1 Boiling Temperature of Water at Different

Pressure
Vapour Absorption System

Comparing the vapour absorption cycle with the
more familiar vapour compression refrigeration
cycle is often an easy way to introduce it. The
standard vapour compression refrigeration system is
a condenser, evaporator, throttling valve, and a
compressor.
Fig 2 Vapour absorption system

Absorption refrigeration systems replace the
compressor with a generator and an absorber.
Refrigerant enters the evaporator in the form of a
cool, low-pressure mixture of liquid and vapour.
Heat is transferred from the relatively warm water
to the refrigerant, causing the liquid refrigerant to
boil. Using an analogy of the vapour compression
cycle, the absorber acts like the suction side of the
compressorit draws in the refrigerant vapour to
mix with the absorbent. The pump acts like the
compression process itselfit pushes the mixture of
refrigerant and absorbent up to the high-pressure
side of the system. The generator acts like the
discharge of the compressorit delivers the
refrigerant vapour to the rest of the system.
The refrigerant vapour leaving the generator enters
the condenser, where heat is transferred to water at a
lower temperature, causing the refrigerant vapour to
condense into a liquid. This liquid refrigerant then
flows to the expansion device, which creates a
Absolute pressure
Water boiling point (C)
760 mm-Hg (1 atm)
100C
76 mm-Hg (0.1 atm)
46C
25.6 mm-Hg (0.34 atm)
27C
Most commercial absorption chillers use pure water

as refrigerant and lithium bromide (LiBr) as
absorbent salt which is used for cooling temperature
above 0C. Another common refrigerantabsorbent
pair is ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the
absorbent which is normally used for cooling
temperature below 0C. There are other refrigerant
absorbent combinations are also used as per the
requirements.
Applications of Absorption Systems
The main advantage of absorption chillers is their
ability to utilize waste heat streams that would be
otherwise discarded. In terms of energy
performance, motor-driven vapour compression
chillers will beat absorption chillers every time. Still
there are specific applications where absorption
chillers have a substantial advantage over motordriven vapour compression chillers. Some of those
applications include:
For facilities that use lot of thermal energy for
their processes, a large chunk of heat is usually
discarded to the surrounding as waste. This
waste heat can be converted to useful
refrigeration by using a VAS.
22

For facilities that have a simultaneous need for

heat and power (cogeneration system),
absorption system can utilize the thermal energy
to produce cooling effect.
For facilities that have high electrical demand
charges. Absorption system minimize or flatten
the sharp spikes in a buildings electric load
profile can be used as part of a peak shaving
strategy.
For facilities where the electrical supply is not
robust, expensive, unreliable, or unavailable, it
is easier to achieve heat input with a flame than
with electricity. Absorption systems uses very
little electricity compared to an electric motor
driven compression systems.
Absorption systems provide economic benefit in
most geographical areas, due to the differential
in the cost between gas and electric energy.
For facilities wanting to use a natural
refrigerant and aspiring for LEED certification
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design) absorption systems are a good choice.
Absorption systems do not use CFCs or HCFCs
- the compounds known for causing Ozone
depletion.
For facilities implementing clean development
mechanism (CDM) and accumulating carbon
credits, the absorption use coupled to waste heat
recovery and cogeneration system help reduce
problems related to greenhouse effect from CO
2
emission.
Vapour absorption system allows use of variable
heat sources: directly using a gas burner, recovering
waste heat in the form of hot water or low-pressure
steam, or boiler-generated hot water or steam.
Components of Vapour Absorption System
Absorption system employs heat and a concentrated
salt solution (lithium bromide) to produce chilled
water. In its simplest design the absorption machine
consists of 4 basic components:
Generator:
The purpose of the generator is to deliver the
refrigerant vapour to the rest of the system. It
accomplishes this by separating the water
(refrigerant) from the lithium bromide-and-water
solution. In the generator, a high-temperature
energy source, typically steam or hot water, flows
through tubes that are immersed in a dilute solution
of refrigerant and absorbent. The solution absorbs
heat from the warmer steam or water, causing the

refrigerant to boil (vaporize) and separate from the
absorbent solution. As the refrigerant is boiled
away, the absorbent solution becomes more
concentrated. The concentrated absorbent solution
returns to the absorber and the refrigerant vapour
migrates to the condenser.
Condenser:
The purpose of condenser is to condense the
refrigerant vapours. Inside the condenser, cooling
water flows through tubes and the hot refrigerant
vapour fills the surrounding space. As heat transfers
from the refrigerant vapour to the water, refrigerant
condenses on the tube surfaces. The condensed
liquid refrigerant collects in the bottom of the
condenser before travelling to the expansion device.
The cooling water system is typically connected to a
cooling tower. Generally, the generator and
condenser are contained inside of the same shell.
Expansion Device:
From the condenser, the liquid refrigerant flows
through an expansion device into the evaporator.
The expansion device is used to maintain the
pressure difference between the high-pressure
(condenser) and low-pressure (evaporator) sides of
the refrigeration system by creating a liquid seal that
separates the high-pressure and low pressure sides
of the cycle. As the high-pressure liquid refrigerant
flows through the expansion device, it causes a
pressure drop that reduces the refrigerant pressure to
that of the evaporator. This pressure reduction
causes a small portion of the liquid refrigerant to
boil off, cooling the remaining refrigerant to the
desired evaporator temperature. The cooled mixture
of liquid and vapour refrigerant then flows into the
evaporator.
Evaporator:
The purpose of evaporator is to cool the circulating
water. The evaporator contains a bundle of tubes
that carry the system water to be cooled / chilled.
High pressure liquid condensate (refrigerant) is
throttled down to the evaporator pressure (typically
around 6.5 mm Hg absolute). At this low pressure,
the refrigerant absorbs heat from the circulating
water and evaporates. The refrigerant vapours thus
formed tend to increase the pressure in the vessel.
This will in turn increase the boiling temperature
and the desired cooling effect will not be obtained.
So, it is necessary to remove the refrigerant vapours
from the vessel into the lower pressure absorber.
Physically, the evaporator and absorber are
contained inside the same shell, allowing refrigerant
23

vapours generated in the evaporator to migrate

continuously to the absorber.
Absorber:
Inside the absorber, the refrigerant vapour is
absorbed by the lithium bromide solution. As the
refrigerant vapour is absorbed, it condenses from a
vapour to a liquid, releasing the heat it acquired in
the evaporator. The absorption process creates a
lower pressure within the absorber. This lower
pressure, along with the absorbents affinity for
water, induces a continuous flow of refrigerant
vapour from the evaporator. In addition, the
absorption process condenses the refrigerant
vapours and releases the heat removed from the
evaporator by the refrigerant. The heat released
from the condensation of refrigerant vapours and
their absorption in the solution is removed to the
cooling water that is circulated through the absorber
tube bundle.
As the concentrated solution absorbs more and more
refrigerant; its absorption ability decreases. The
weak absorbent solution is then pumped to the
generator where heat is used to drive off the
refrigerant. The hot refrigerant vapours created in
the generator migrate to the condenser. The cooling
tower water circulating through the condenser turns
the refrigerant vapour to a liquid state and picks up
the heat of condensation, which it rejects to the
cooling tower. The liquid refrigerant returns to the
evaporator and completes the cycle.
Analysis of Performance of the Vapour Absorption
Chiller System
Diesel Genset Details:
1) Rated power output of engine considered = 1200
Hp
2) Break hp of engine (35-40% of indicated power)
= 3/4 X 1200 = (0.75 X 1200)
= 900 kW
3) Heat Lost Along with Exhaust (32% of indicated
power)
= 800 kW
Vapour Absorption Chiller Details:
Operating Conditions for a water-lithium bromide
chilled-water plant for air-conditioning are as
follows:
Generator temperature = 105 deg Celsius.
Condenser temperature = 45 deg Celsius.
Chilled-water temperature = 5 deg Celsius.
Absorber temperature = 45 deg Celsius.
Temperature of solution entering generator = 95 deg
Celsius (saturated)
Thermodynamic Calculations:
Condenser & generator pressure
Pk = 71.9 mm Hg (At 45 deg Celsius)
Flash chamber & absorber pressure
Po = 6.54 mm Hg (At 5 deg Celsius)
(A) Thermodynamic Conditions
1. Saturated condition state at
P = 71.9 mm Hg & t = 91 deg Celsius. )
Li-Br2 =0.63 ( from h- diagram )
h1 = -50 kJ/ kg
Rich solution concentration of water
= 1- Li-Br2 =1 - 0.63 = 0.37
2. Saturated condition state at
P = 71.9 mm Hg & t = 105 deg Celsius. )
Li-Br2 =0.67 ( from h- diagram )
h2 = -22kJ/ kg
Poor solution concentration of water
= 1- Li-Br2 =1 - 0.67 = 0.33
3. t = 45 deg Celsius and Li-Br2 = 0.63
h4 = -140 kJ/ kg
The enthalpy is read against temperature and
composition. It may be noted that point 4 represents
a sub cooled state at 6.54 mm Hg pressures.
4. Assume the same as 3

Specific solution circulation rates
f = 1 0.33 / 0.37 0.33 = 16.75 kg / kg of vapour
f -1 = 15.75 kg / kg of vapour
5. Energy balance of liquid-liquid heat exchanger
Specific solution circulation rates
f ( h1 h4) = ( f -1 ) ( h2 h3 )
hence,
h3 = h2 - [f (h1 h4) / (f -1)]
= -22 16.75 (-50 + 140) /15.75
= -118 kJ / kg.
6. It is that water vapour at 71.9 mm Hg pressure
and 105 deg Celsius temp. At these conditions it
represents a superheated state. The enthalpy of
water vapour above the reference state of saturated
water at 0 deg Celsius can be found either from
steam tables or from the empirical relation.
h = (2501 + 1.88t) kJ / kg
Using the latter procedure
h = 2501 + 1.88(105) = 2698 kJ / kg
7. Saturated water at 45 deg Celsius.
h6 =4.1868 (45) = 188.4 kJ / kg
24

8. P = 6.54 mm Hg & t = 5 deg Celsius (liquid +

water)
h7 = h6 = 188.4 kJ / kg
9. P = 6.54 mm Hg & t = 5 deg Celsius (saturated
vapour)
h8 = 2501 + 1.88(5) = 2510 kJ / kg
(B) Refrigerating effect:
qo = h8 h7 = 2510 188.4 = 2321.6 kJ / kg.
Heat added in the generator per unit mass of vapour
distilled
qb = h5 h2 + f (h2 h1 )
= 2698 - 22 + 16.75 (-22 + 50)
= 3189 kJ / kg of vapour.
Coefficient of performance,
COP qo / qb = 2321.6 / 3189 = 0.728
(C) Water vapour distilled, D:
Heat available for vapour generation from exhaust
system of Diesel Genset = 0.75 x 800
= 600 kW.
D = [600 kJ / s] / [3189 kJ / kg of vapour]
D = 600 / 3189 kg of vapour/ s
Cooling effect = D x qo
= 600 / 3189 x 2321.6 k J/ s
= 436.80 kW
= 436.80 / 3.516 = 126TR
Data Available From Industries for Co-Generation
The commercial data available from various
industries shows clearly that engine gensets
normally have about 40 % overall electrical
efficiency, the balance 60 % is wasted to the
atmosphere. The conventional method is to recover
the waste heat through individual recovery
equipment
to
cater
to
Heating/Cooling
requirements. With CHPC Systems the overall
efficiency is doubled to 80 %. The data for different
capacity of diesel genset engines of different
manufacturer is easily available, such as Caterpillar,
Deutz, Man B & W, & Cummins etc. With
increased natural gas availability and ever widening
demand supply gap for power, commercial/
industrial users are shifting towards self- generation
to meet their ever increasing power needs.
Industries are utilizing the tri-generation system
which utilizes the waste heat from the engine
Exhaust directly along with the jacket water to
generate Chilled/ Hot water to cater to the Airconditioning
/
Process
cooling
/heating
requirements.
Fig 3 Sankey diagram for IC engine with & without

heat recovery
Application Areas for Cogeneration
As Diesel Engines are the leading prime movers in
the world in the range up to 5 MW, with the use of
CHPC systems following will be the advantages
Peak Electric power reduction
High Efficiency of 80 %
Power Reliability & Quality
Significant emission reduction
By taking into above considerations following will
be the best application areas for implementation of
cogeneration
Hospitals
Hotel
High Schools,
Supermarkets
Software Parks
Shopping malls/Multiplexes,
Process industries
Conclusion
The analysis shows that such an air-conditioning
plant would take the load of 126 TR. Thus CHPC
system provides an impressive operating savings.
The energy cost may reduce approximately by 3540 %. Thus energy generated can be used as an
option to the electrical board. Naturally the
organization can use this waste energy and its costeffective performance with 80 % efficiency which
in turn gives lower energy cost. The implementation
of CHPC will surely help in lowering the fuel and
25

electricity consumption in the industry. This

certainly will help in reducing the present problem
of load shedding.
References
Agnewa B., Combined power and cooling, an
analysis of the combined Diesel-absorption
cycle, Applied Thermal Engineering, 19
(1999), 1097-1105
Asdrubali F., Experimental evaluation of the
performances of a H2OLiBr absorption
refrigerator under different service conditions,
International Journal of Refrigeration, 28
(2005), 489497
Bureau of energy efficiency, Introduction to DG set
System
Kaynakli Omer, Thermodynamic analysis of
absorption refrigeration system based on entropy
Generation, Current science, February 2007,
Vol.92 No.4.
Khaliq Abdul, First and second law investigation
of waste heat based combined power and
ejector-absorption
refrigeration
cycle,
International journal of refrigeration, Vol.30,
(2011), pp.110
Lorton R., Development and operation of a high
performance
10kw
absorption
chiller,
International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol.23,
(2000), pp.572-576
Mostafavi M., Thermodynamic analysis of
combined diesel engine refrigeration unitnaturally aspirated diesel engine, Applied
thermal engineering, 17, 1997, 471-478
Shah Alam, A proposed Model for Utilizing
Exhaust Heat to run Automobile Airconditioner International Conference on
Sustainable Energy and Environment (SEE
2006)
Tiangco Cindy C. Waste Heat Recovery from Flue
Gases of Diesel Generating Sets, National
Technical Experts, Philippines, May 2005
Yadav R. J. and R. S. Verma, Effective Utilization
Of Waste Heat From Diesel Genset To Run Air
Conditioning Plant, Advances in Energy
Research (AER 2006)
26

Cryogenic Oscillating Heat Pipe: Progress

and Prospects
Kamlesh Kiritkumar Mehta
PG Student,Cryogenic, L D College of Engineering,Ahmedabad.
E-mail ID:Kamleshnit1@yahoo.com
Prof.Nisha V Bora
Asst. Professor Mechanical Engineering ,L D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad.
E-mail ID:nvb_212@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Cryogenic Oscillating heat pipes are new two-phase heat transfer devices that rely on the oscillatory flow of liquid slug and
vapor plug in a long miniature tube bent into many turns. The unique feature of Cryogenic OHPs, compared with conventional
heat pipes, is that there is no wick structure to return the condensate to the heating section; thus, there is no countercurrent flow
between the liquid and vapor. Significant experimental and theoretical efforts have been made related to Cryogenic OHPs in the
last decade. While experimental studies have focused on either visualizing the flow pattern in Cryogenic OHPs or characterizing
the heat transfer capability of Cryogenic OHPs.In this study, important features and parameters that effect the performance of
cryogenic OHPs and its application are discussed.
KEY WORDS: Cryogenic Heat Pipes; Cryogenic

Oscillating Heat Pipe; Cooling of HTS magnets;
Cryobiology
INTRODUCTION
Evolution in the design of the heat pipe a type of
passive two-phase thermal control device has
accelerated in the past decade due to continuous
demands for faster and smaller microelectronic
systems. As modern computer chips and power
electronics become smaller and more densely
packed the need for more efficient cooling systems
increases. The new design of a computer chip at
Intel, for instance, will produce localized heat flux
over 100 W/cm2, with the total power exceeding
300W. In addition to the limitations on maximum
chip temperature, further constraints may be
imposed on the level of temperature uniformity in
electronic components. Heat pipes are a very
promising technology for achieving high local heatremoval rates and uniform temperatures on
computer chips. True development of conventional
heat pipes (CHP) began in the 1960s; since then,
various geometries, working fluids, and wick
structures have been proposed [1]. In the last 20
years, new types of heat pipes such as capillary

pumped loops and loop heat pipes were introduced,
seeking to separate the liquid and vapor flows to
overcome
certain limitations inherent
in
conventional heat pipes. In the 1990s, Akachi et al.
[2] invented a new type of heat pipe known as the
pulsating or oscillating heat pipe (PHP or OHP).
The most popular applications of OHP are found in
electronics cooling because it may be capable of
dissipating the high heat fluxes required by next
generation electronics. Other proposed applications
include using OHPs to preheat air or pump water.
This review article will describe the operation of
oscillating heat pipes, summarize the research and
development over the past decade, and discuss the
issues surrounding them that have yet to be
resolved. Oscillating heat pipes, like conventional
heat pipes, are closed, two-phase systems capable of
transporting heat without any additional power
input, but they differ from conventional heat pipes
in several major ways. A typical OHP is a small
meandering tube that is partially filled with a
working fluid, as seen in Figure 1 [3]. The tube is
bent back and forth parallel to itself, and the ends of
the tube may be connected to one another in a
27

closed loop, or pinched off and welded shut in an

open loop (see Figure 1a and 1b). It is generally
agreed by researchers that the closed-loop OHP has
better heat transfer performance [4]. For this reason,
most experimental work is done with closed loop
OHPs. In addition to the oscillatory flow, the
working fluid can also be circulated in the closedloop OHP, resulting in heat transfer enhancement.
Fig.1. (a) Closed-end
(b) Closed-loop
thermodynamic cycle are still unknown, Groll and

Khandekar described it in general terms using a
pressure enthalpy diagram as seen in Figure 2. The
temperature and vapor quality in the evaporator and
condenser are known, or can be assumed, so the
state at the outlets of the evaporator and condenser
are known. Starting at the evaporator inlet, point A
on the P-h diagram, the processes required to get to
point B on the diagram can be simplified to heat
input at a constant pressure combined with
isentropic pressure increase due to bubble
expansion. As one travels through the adiabatic
section from the evaporator to the condenser, the
pressure
decreases
isenthalpically.The
thermodynamic process between the condensers
inlet and outlet are complicated, but can be
simplified to constant pressure condensation with
negative isentropic work. An isenthalpic pressure
drop in the adiabatic section completes the cycle.
Because of the numerous assumptions made in this
description, thermodynamic analysis is insufficient
to study OHPs. [6] [7]
PRICIPLE OF OPERATION
A OHP must be heated in at least one section and
cooled in another. Often the evaporators and
condensers are located at the bends of the capillary
tube. The tube is evacuated and then partially filled
with a working fluid. The liquid and its vapor will
become distributed throughout the pipe as liquid
slugs and vapor bubbles. As the evaporator section
of the OHP is heated, the vapor pressure of the
bubbles located in that section will increase. This
forces the liquid slug toward the condenser section
of the heat pipe. When the vapor bubbles reach the
condenser, it will begin to condense. As the vapor
changes phase, the vapor pressure decreases, and
the liquid flows back toward the condenser end. In
this way, a steady oscillating flow is set up in the
OHP. Boiling the working fluid will also cause new
vapor bubbles to form. The unique feature of OHPs,
compared with conventional heat pipes, is that there
is no wick structure to return the condensate to the
heating section, and therefore there is no
countercurrent flow between the liquid and the
vapor. Due to the simplicity of the structure of a
OHP, its weight is lower than that of conventional
heat pipe, which makes OHP an ideal candidate for
space application.[5]
THERMODYNAMIC PRINCIPLE
Fig.2. Thermodynamics of OHP
PHYSICAL PARAMETER AFFECTING OHP

PERFORMANCE
The parameters that affect OHP performance are
numerous and include the following. [8]
Geometric Parameters of the Flow Channel
The inner diameter must be small enough that
surface tension
forces dominate gravitational
forces and distinct liquid slug and vapor plugs can
form. The theoretical maximum inner diameter for a
capillary tube occurs when the square of the Bond
number equals 4. The ratio between gravitational
force and surface tension force is known as the
Bond number, which is defined as:
Heat addition and rejection and the growth and

extinction of vapor bubbles drive the flow in a OHP.
Even though the exact features of the
28

where, is the surface tension, pl is the liquid

density, pv is the vapor density, and g is the
gravitational acceleration.
which can be rearranged to show that the maximum
inner diameter
of a OHP is:
Cross-sectional geometry can affect flow patterns.
Sharp edges can create capillary channels that
disrupt the normal slug flow and cause stratified or
annular flow. Stratified flow causes the OHP to act
as a series of interconnected gravity-driven
thermosyphons, and the fluid flow will not pulsate.
This greatly decreases the heat transfer capability of
the OHP. Circular cross- sections do not pose any
such challenges to flow in the OHP.
Working Fluid Properties
Surface tension. Higher surface tensions will
increase the maximum allowable diameter and also
the pressure drop in the tube. Larger diameter will
allow improved performance, but an increased
pressure drop will require greater bubble pumping
and thus a higher heat input to maintain oscillating
flow.
Latent heat. A low latent heat will cause the liquid
to evaporate more quickly at a given temperature
and a higher vapor pressure; the liquid slug
oscillating velocities will be increased and the heat
transfer performance of the OHP will be improved.
Specific heat. A high specific heat will increase
the amount of sensible heat transferred. Because the
majority of the total heat transfer in a OHP is due to
sensible heat, a fluid with a high specific heat is
desirable.
Viscosity. A low dynamic viscosity will reduce
shear stress along the wall and will consequently
reduce pressure drop in the tube. This will reduce
the heat input required to maintain a oscillating
flow.
The rate of change in pressure with respect to
temperature at saturated conditions (dp/dT)sat. This
property affects the rate at which bubbles grow and
collapse with respect to changes in temperature. At
a high value of (dp/dT)sat, the difference between
vapor pressures in the evaporator and condenser
will be increased and the performance of a OHP
will be improved by enhanced oscillatory motion of
liquid slugs.
Charge Ratio
The charge ratio is the volume of the working fluid
divided by the total internal volume of the OHP. If

the charge ratio is too low, there is not enough
liquid to perpetuate oscillating slug flow and the
evaporator may dry out. If the charge ratio is too
high, there will not be enough bubbles to pump the
liquid, and the device will act as a single phase
thermosyphon. Charge ratios ranging from 20% to
80% will allow the device to operate as a true
oscillating heat pipe. An optimal charge ratio exists
for each particular OHP setup; for many typical
experiments (circular cross-section in a planar array
with less than 20 parallel channels), the optimum
charge ratio is around 40%.
Number of Turns
The number of turns in the OHP may affect thermal
performance and may negate the effect of gravity.
By increasing the number of turns, there are more
distinct locations for heat to be applied. The fluid
within each turn may be either liquid or vapor, the
heating of which creates differences in pressure at
each turn. It is these pressure differences that drive
the oscillating flow. If a OHP only has a few turns,
it may not operate in the horizontal or top heat
modes, but a OHP with many turns can operate at
any orientation because of the perturbations in each
turn.
OHP Configuration
A OHP may have open loop, closed loop, or openended configurations. An open loop OHP has both
ends sealed off. The ends of a closed loop OHP are
connected to one another, such that the working
fluid can circulate. An open-ended OHP has one or
both ends unsealed (see Figure 1). In general, closed
loop OHP offer the best performance because
circulation of the working fluid increases the fluid
velocity and likewise the sensible heat transferred.
Size and Capacity of Evaporator and Condenser
These parameters can affect the overall heat
transfer of the OHP and could change the flow
patterns within the heat pipe. Below a particular
onset heat flux from the evaporator, the fluid in the
OHP will not pulsate. Also, if the condenser can not
dissipate enough heat, it will limit the maximum
heat transfer from the OHP.
COMMERCIAL AVAILABILITY AND
APPLICATION
It has been expected that the superconductivity
application would be dramatically accelerated by
29

the
discovery
of
the
high-temperature
superconductors (HTS). Though there have been
tremendous developments in the application of
HTS, such as for power transmission cables,
transformers and motors, intense efforts are still
needed for large-scale applications, such as
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
and fusion devices. In HTS magnets, the stability of
winding conductors are assured by the rise of
operating temperatures. However, when a part of
the windings turns into the normal-conducting state,
the protection of magnets becomes much more
difficult than the case for low-temperature
superconductors (LTS), and it is one of the most
important issues for developing HTS magnets. It is
generally difficult to remove the heat generated in
HTS magnets, because the thermal diffusivities of
component materials decrease with an increase of
the operating temperature. Therefore, a local hotspot can be rather easily generated in HTS magnets,
and there are possibilities of observing degradation
of superconducting properties and/or mechanical
damages by thermal stresses. As shown in the Fig.3
the temperature dependence of the thermal
diffusivities of magnet component materials. It is
noted that the thermal diffusivities at 4 K are
substantially higher than those at 20 K. Therefore,
LTS magnets can be protected safely due to the
shorter thermal time constant in the windings. Here,
we should also note that the thermal time constant
plays a crucial role for cooling as well as for
detection of anomalies and protection of magnets.
On the other hand, HTS magnets, which can operate
at 20 K or higher, have longer thermal time constant
due to the decrease of thermal diffusivities, and they
need special improvement to enhance the cooling
capabilities.
large operating temperature margin and high heat

capacity of component materials of magnet at the
temperature. The conduction cooling method is
applicable to HTS magnets: the cryocooler directly
connects to the magnet without using any cryogen
such as liquid helium. That simplifies the cooling
system and releases users from the bothersome
handling. However, it is actually difficult to remove
local heat from the magnet due to the fact that
thermal diffusivities of substances in the magnet
decrease with the temperature increasing.
In order to cool the conduction cooling magnets
efficiently, a new methodology in which the thin
cryogenic oscillating heat pipes (OHPs) are
included into the inter-space of turns of magnet as
cooling devices has been suggested. Fig. 4 shows a
conceptual
design
configuration
of
the
superconducting
magnet
incorporating
the
cryogenic OHPs as cooling panels in the coil
windings. The magnet consists of coil windings,
cooling panels, side end plates, an inner bobbin, and
an outer bobbin as an example of the
conduction/indirect cooling HTS magnet. A coil
winding is composed of a double pancake coil
wound with HTS tape conductors. The OHP
consists of many parallel channels connected in
series at both ends, and composes a flat-shaped
cooling panel. The cooling panels that imbed the
OHPs are inserted between each coil winding. The
heat generation in the magnet can be effectively
removed by the above-mentioned structure. [9]
In the cryobiology, the main disadvantage of poolboiling methods is that direct plunging the sample
into liquid nitrogen results in strong nitrogen
vaporization around the sample surface, and this
forms a vapor coat which acts as a heat-insulation
layer. As a result, the heat transfer coefficient
between the sample surface and liquid nitrogen is
quite limited due to poor thermal conduction of the
vapor in the vapor coat.
Fig.3.Temperature dependence of the thermal diffusivity

of magnet component material
It is supposed that ranges of operating temperature

of HTS magnets are about 2070 K. HTS magnets
are indeed very stable against quench, because of
Fig.4.Conceptual design configuration of OHP imbedded HTS

magnet, Where, 1: Cooling Panel, 1A: OHP, 2: Coil winding, 3:
Cooling channels of refrigerant, 4: Inner bobbin, 5: Outer bobbin,
6: end plate
30

This limitation prevents a further increase of the

cooling rates. In addition, these pool-boiling
methods, as well as the cold surface solidification
method, produce an open system in which the
samples are vulnerable to contamination when
coming in to direct contact with cooling agents
(liquid nitrogen, cold metal surface, etc). Therefore,
a completely new approach is needed to achieve the
required cooling rate between the sample and
coolant is the use of heat pipes, which are a package
of pipes containing two-phase flows that
continuously remove the heat released from the
sample through phase change (evaporation and
condensation) .[10] Although OHPs are being
studied mostly in the academic community, as
indicated in this review, the commercial availability
of oscillating heat pipes is limited. Thermacore, Inc.
and the Rockwell Scientific Co. have done research
regarding oscillating heat pipes, but do not currently
manufacture OHPs as standard items. Two
companies that do offer OHPs for sale are
TSHeatronics Co., Ltd. of Japan and Advanced
Cooling Technologies, Inc. (ACT) in the United
States. TSHeatronics calls their technology
Heatlane. Heatlane AL-EX is an aluminum flat plate
OHP that can be formed in different configurations.
The working fluids used are butane and HFC-134a.
The Heatlane AL-EX can be combined with
aluminum fins and used as a heat sink to cool power
semiconductors, laser generators, and CPUs. A
similarly finned OHP can be used as a heat
absorber. Applications for aluminum Heatlanes
without fins include cooling plasma screens and
LCD monitors. TSHeatronics also makes a stainless
steel version of their product with water as the
working fluid. This style OHP has found uses in the
food service industry. Applications include a rice
cooker and a Sushi display case. Stainless steel
Heatlanes have also been used in fluid to fluid heat
exchangers.
REFERENCES
[1] Reay D.A and Kew P.A, Heat Pipes,Theory,Design
and Application,5th Edn,Butterworth Heinemann
Publishing Company,2006,pp.1-7
[2] Akachi H. Structure of heat pipe,US Patent 49 210
041, 1990.
[3] Jiao AJ, Ma HB and Critser JK Experimental
investigation of cryogenic oscillating heat pipes.
International Journal on Heat Mass Transfer 52,
2009, pp.35043509
T and Shikimachi K,Development of highly
effective cooling technology for a superconducting
magnet using cryogenic OHP. IEEE Transaction on
Applied Superconductivity 20, 2010,pp.20232026.
[5] Faghri, A., Heat Pipe Science and Technology,
Taylor and Francis, Bristol, Pennsylvania, USA,
1995.
[6] R. Chandratilleke, H. Hatakeyama and H.
Nakagome, Development of cryogenic loop heat
pipes, Cryogenics 38,1998,pp. 263269.
[7] A. Jiao, X. Han, J.K. Critser and H.B. Ma,
Numerical investigations of transient heat transfer
characteristics and vitrification tendencies in ultrafast cell freezing processes, Cryobiology 52,
2006,pp.386392.
[8] Y.W. Zhang, A. Faghri, Advances and unsolved
issues in pulsating heat pipes, International Journal
on Heat Transfer Engineering 29, 2008, pp. 2044.
T and Shikimachi K, Achievement of high heat
removal characteristics of superconducting Magnets
with Imbedded oscillating heat pipes. IEEE
Transaction on Applied Superconductivity 21, 2011,
pp.24702473.
[10] A. Jiao , Ma HB, Critser JK and Xu Han
Investigations on the heat transport capability of a
cryogenic oscillating heat pipe and its application in
achieving ultra-fast cooling rates for cell vitrification
cryopreservation, Cryobiology 56 ,2008,pp. 195
203
CONCLUSIONS
Since their invention, there have been a
considerable number of studies relating to
oscillating heat pipes, and their ability to transfer
heat at very low effective thermal resistances has
been proven. The work compiled here significantly
increases the understanding of the phenomena and
parameters that govern the thermal performance of
oscillating heat pipes. Many unresolved issues still
exist, but continued exploration should be able to
overcome these challenges. The development of
comprehensive design tools for the prediction of
oscillating heat pipe performance is still lacking.
31

32

Heat Transfer Analysis of Automobile

Radiator
Krunal Suryakant Kayastha
Parul Institute Engineering & Technology, PG Student, Mechanical Engineering Department
E-mail ID: krunalkayastha91@yahoo.in
Avdhoot N Jejurkar
Parul Institute Engineering & Technology, Asst. Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department
E-mail ID: avdhootjejurkar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Power plants in the automobiles are becoming highly power-packed with increasing power to weight and/or volume ratio.
Further, the space available under the bonnet is also decreasing due to the ever increasing demand of small cars by the
customers. This has lead to the increased demand on the power packed radiators, which can dissipate maximum amount of
heat for any given space. The flow behaviour and temperature profile prediction in the radiator tubes are very useful
information and is of great importance to the designer. The geometry of the finned-tube heat exchanger is an intricate one
and there are no analytical optimization schemes available to optimize their design, while experimental trial and error is far
too time consuming. The radiator designs at present depend on the empirical methods, wherein existing experimental data is
used as the thumb rules for the design process. However, for any preliminary design the performance of the radiator can be
accessed through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in priori to the fabrication and testing. In the current study a tube
fin arrangement of an existing radiator is analyzed for evaluating the fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics. There is
study to the literature, analysis like, numerically, experimentally & cfd analyses are done. There are design parameters of
the radiator effect to the radiator performance.
KEY WORDS: CFD, radiator design, Fin-tube

convective heat transfer, Shape Optimization, Numerical
Simulations, Cross flow heat exchanger, Fin.
INTRODUCTION
The thrust on automobile manufacturers for
developing compact and energy efficient cars
warrants a thorough optimization process in the
design of all engine components, including
radiators. Radiators are installed in automobiles to
remove heat from the under hood which include
engine cooling and heat removal during airconditioning process. The use of higher output
engines with tightly packed under hood packaging,
the addition of new emission control components
and the requirement of aerodynamic front end
styling with narrower openings are decreasing the
space available for circulation of under-hood
cooling air. These conditions demand a better
understanding of the complex cooling fluid flow

characteristics and resulting thermal performance of
the radiator. About 30% of the thermal energy
generated due to combustion of fuel is dissipated to
the coolant that circulates in the engine-cooling
jacket. The hot coolant coming out of engine
cooling jacket is to be cooled in a radiator and
circulated again in the jacket. In an automobile,
energy dissipated from the engine through radiator
is not utilized but lost to the atmosphere. The engine
performance, safety and engine life depends on
effective engine cooling. CFD Analysis of the
radiator as a whole is seldom reported in the
literature. However, the technical information about
fin-tube heat exchangers are available in bits and
pieces as individual analysis carried out
experimentally and/or numerically.
Hilde Van Der Vyer et al. (2003) conducted a CFD
simulation of a three dimensional tube-in-tube heat
exchanger using Star-CD CFD software and made a
33

validation test with the experimental work. The

authors were fairly successful to simulate the heat
transfer characteristics of the tube-in-tube heat
exchanger. This has been used as the base for the
procedures of CFD code validation of a heat
exchanger.
Figure 1: Engine cooling radiator structure (Seth Daniel

Oduro 2009)
Witry et. al.,(2003) carried out CFD analysis of

fluid flow and heat transfer in patterned roll bonded
aluminium radiator, in which FLUENTs segregated
implicit 3-Dsteady solver with incompressible heat
transfer is used as the tool. In this study, shell side
airflow pattern and tube side water flow pattern are
studied. The authors presented the variation of
overall heat transfer coefficients across the radiator
ranging from 75 to 560 W/m2-K. This study
established the capability of FLUENT code to
handle such problems.
Chen et al, (2001) made an experimental
investigation of the heat transfer characteristics of a
tube-and-fin radiator for vehicles using an
experimental optimization design technique on a
wind tunnel test rig of the radiator. The authors have
developed the regression equations of heat
dissipation rate, coolant pressure drop and air
pressure drop. The influences of the air velocity,
inlet coolant temperature and volume flow rate of
coolant on heat dissipation rate, coolant pressure
drop and air pressure drop have been discussed in
detail by means of the numerical analyses. The
results published in this paper provide a basis for
the theoretical analysis of heat performances and
structural refinement of the tube-and-fin radiator.
Coupling of CFD and shape optimization for
radiator design, a paper by Sridhar Maddipatla,
(2001) forms the benchmark for the present work.
This paper presents a method to design automobile
radiator by coupling CFD with a shape optimization
algorithm on a simplified 2D model. It includes
automated mesh generation using Gambit, CFD
analysis using Fluent and an in-house C-code
implementing a numerical shape optimization

algorithm are discussed. All of the flow simulations
reported in this paper were performed using the
classical simple algorithm with a k- turbulent
model and second order upwind scheme. Despite
the developments reported in the literature a clear
gap of basic understanding of the adoption of CFD
procedure to the analysis of fluid flow and heat
transfer mechanisms in a complex fin-tube radiator
is unattended. The present work is an attempt to fill
this gap and get an insight on this complex
phenomenon. The study is aimed to analyze the
fluid flow characteristics in a commercially existing
radiator and understand the flow phenomenon to
establish better design. It involves calculating the
overall pressure drop and mass flow rate
distribution of the coolant and air in and around the
single tube arrangement of an automotive radiator.
The fluid flow simulation is conducted using
commercial software FLUENT.
Yiding Cao et al. (1992) introduce heat pipe in
radiator. Heat pipes including two-phase closed
thermosyphons are two-phase heat transfer devices
with an effective thermal conductance hundreds of
times higher than that of copper. For the terrestrial
applications, gravity is often used to assistant the
return of the liquid condensate and no wick
structure is needed inside the heat pipe, and this
type of heat pipes is often referred to as two-phase
closed thermosyphons. Since heat pipes are very
efficient two-phase heat transfer devices, a radiator
using heat pipes will have a much higher cooling
efficiency compared to the conventional singlephase automotive radiators. The higher cooling
efficiency of the heat pipe radiator will reduce the
engine temperature in a hot environment and the
power consumption of the engine cooling system,
and consequently increase the thermal efficiency of
the automotive engine. It will also increase
performance reliability and increase the operational
life of the radiator.
Below figure show the conventional radiator design,
there are no heat pipes used in this radiator design.
34

the radiator resulted in an increase of about 20C of

the outlet temperature of the radiator coolant.
Statistical analysis pointed to the fact that the result
obtained for clay, silt and the mathematical model
were not significantly different. Thus, irrespective
of the type of material that blocks the radiator
surface area, the coolant rises with proportion of the
radiator covered.
Figure 2: Schematic of a conventional radiator design &

the cooling fins (Yiding Cao, 1992)
Used heat pipes in automotive radiator, they found

benefits
- Higher effectiveness of heat exchange due to the
counter-flow mode.
- Increasing the reliability of radiators.
- Increasing the overall heat transfer coefficient
between air flow and coolant.
- Reducing the coolant pressure drop and power
consumption of the coolant pump.
MATHEMATICAL CALCULATION
(Seth Daniel Oduro, 2009)
Parameters for the radiator heat transfer area
The fin length, Fl is given by;
Ft=Rf+Fh2Rf/cos
(1)
The radiator core frontal area, Afr is given by;
Afr=BHBw
(2)
Coolant tube frontal area, Afr,t is given by;
Afr.t=YcwYlNct
(3)
Fin heat transfer area, Af, is given by;
Af=2.BTFTNfYlNp
(4)
The total heat transfer area on air side, Aa is given

by;
Aa=Af+2NctYctNf[(Ycl2Rt)+(2Rt)]
(5)
The total heat transfer area on coolant side, Ac is

given by;
Ac=[2(Rt-Yt)+2(Ycl2Rt)]YlNctNr
(6)
The total coolant pass area, Ap,c is given by;

Apc=[(Rt-Yt)2+2(Ycw2Yt)(Ycl2Rt)]NctNf (7)
Figure 3: Schematic of proposed heat pipe automotive
radiator (Yiding Cao, 1992)
Seth Daniel Oduro (2009) looked at the effect of

sand blocking the heat transfer area of the radiator
and its effect on the engine coolant through the
conduct of experiments and a mathematical model
developed. The results indicated that the percentage
area covered resulted in a proportional increase of
the inlet and outlet temperatures of the coolant in
the radiator. The mathematically model developed
also predicted the experimental data very well.
Regression analysis pointed out that every 10%
increase area of the radiator covered with silt soil
resulted in an increase of about 1.70C of the outlet
temperature of the radiator coolant. Similarly, using
clay as a cover material, 10% of the area covered of
The following dimensionless groups for convective

heat transfer were used;
Reynolds number which may be defined as ratio
of flow momentum rate (inertia force) to viscous
force for a particular geometry. It is given by;
Re=vl/
(8)
Nusselt number which is defined as the ratio of

the convective heat transfer coefficient (h) to the
pure molecular thermal conductance (k/L), thus,
Nu=hL/k
(9)
Prandtl number It is defined as the ratio of
momentum heat diffusivity to thermal diffusivity of
the fluid. It is solely a fluid property modulus
Pr=/=cpk
(10)
35

Where = density of the fluid, kg/m3

V = velocity of the fluid, m/s
L = length of tube, m
k = thermal conductivity of the fluid, W/m.k
Cp = Specific heat capacity of the fluid, kJ/kg.K
h = heat transfer coefficient, J/m2.K
= thermal diffusivity of the fluid, m2/s
= viscosity of the fluid, centipoise
= kinematic viscosity of the fluid, m2/s
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
The overall heat transfer resistance for radiators can
be considered to be due to;
Wall conductance
Fouling on the air side
Air side convection
Fouling on the coolant side
Coolant-side convection
Mathematically, it can be defined as;
1/UA = 1/(OhA)a + Rfa + x/ (kA )w + 1/ (ohA )c .
(11)
Where U = the overall heat transfer coefficient
h = heat transfer coefficient
o = total surface efficiency of an extended fin
surface
Rf = fouling factor
Subscript a, c and w refer to air side, coolant side
and coolant wall respectively.
For purposes of simplicity, the fouling factor on
both the air side and the coolant side was assumed
to be negligible. Also, the thermal resistance due to
the coolant wall was assumed to be negligible as
compared with the other terms because the coolant
tube is most often made with either copper or
aluminium both of which have large thermal
conductivities whilst the thickness of the tube is
usually small. The total surface efficiency of the fin
was also assumed to be unity for purpose of
simplicity.
When all these assumption are taken into effect the
corrected equation becomes;
1/UAfr,r=1/haAa+1/hcAc
(12)
ha
=
[0.249Reli-0.42Lh0.33
2/3
]VaCp,a/Pr (13)
Where Lh = louver height
Ll = louver length
Fh = Fin height
(Lh/Fh)1.1
Fh0.26
Other parameters retain their meaning as already

defined above.
The coolant side Nusselt number was taken from
Holman is given by;
Nuc=3.66+0.0668(Dh,c/Yl)RePr/1+0.04[(Dh,c/YlRePr]2/
3
(14)
This equation was employed because of the laminar
nature of the fluid flow in our radiator. Other
correlations may be applicable depending on the
nature of fluid flow transition or turbulent.
THE -NTU METHOD
The heat transfer rate in the radiator is given by;
Q= Cmin (Tci-Tai)
(15)
Where Cm
in = minimum heat capacity rate
The radiator thermal efficiency ( ) is defined as the
ratio of the actual transfer rate from the hot fluid
(coolant) to the cold fluid (air) in a given radiator to
the maximum possible heat transfer rate. It is
expressed as;
=Q/Qmax
(16)
The actual heat transfer balance equation at steady
state which is defined in terms of energy lost on
coolant side and energy gained on the air side is
given by;
Q=Cc(Tci-Tco)=Ca(Tao-Tai)
(17)
Where Ca = heat capacity of air
Cc = heat capacity of coolant
Tci = Coolant inlet temperature
Tco = Coolant outlet temperature
Tao = Air outlet temperature
Tai = Air inlet temperature
The heat capacity ratio is defined as the product of
the mass flow rate and the specific heat of the fluid;
For air: Ca = maxCp,a = Aa cVcCp,a
(18)
For coolant: Cc =mcxCp,c=AccVcCp,c
(19)
Where Afr,r = radiator core frontal area

Aa = total heat transfer area on air side
Ac = total heat transfer area on coolant side
ha = heat transfer coefficient on air side
hc = heat transfer coefficient on coolant side
The heat capacity ratio is defined as the ratio of the

smaller to the larger capacity rate for the two fluid
streams and is expressed as;
Cr = Cmin/Cmax
(20)
The air side heat transfer coefficient was taken from

Davenport [16] and is given by;
Where Cmin is the smaller of Ca and Cc. According

to SAE JI393 (1996), the minimum capacity rate
Cmin is always on the air side. Hence
36

Cmin = Ca and Cmax = Cc.
(21)
It follows therefore that the heat transfer rate is

given by;
Q = Ca(Tci - Tai )
(22)
The number of heat transfer units (NTU) is the ratio
of overall conductance UA to the smaller capacity
rate Cmin;
NTU = UAfr,r/Cmin= 1/CminA U.dAfr,r
(23)
The radiator effectiveness is defined as a function of
both the NTU and the Cr by Kays and London
(1998) and is given by;
= 1 - exp { NTU0.22/Cr [exp(-Cr.NTU0.78 ) -1] }
(24)
Where Dh = hydraulic diameter
Y1 = coolant tube length
CONCLUSION
From study of the literature review,
Yielding Cao.et (1992) al used heat pipes in
automotive radiator which has thermal efficiency
five times more than copper, flow has occurs two
phase with used heat pipe in radiator tube, so heat
transfer area increase & so overall efficiency is
increased.
There are cfd tool very useful for prediction of the
flow & analysis of the fluid property along with
respect to the time.
Seth Daniel Oduro (2009) looked at the effect of
sand blocking the heat transfer area of the radiator
and its effect on the engine coolant through the
conduct of experiments and a mathematical model
developed. The results indicated that the percentage
area covered resulted in a proportional increase of
the inlet and outlet temperatures of the coolant in
the radiator. There are dirt which has attached into
the radiator fin which has effect on radiator
efficiency, so there are need to clean radiator device
for given to the maximum efficiency.
and-fin radiator for vehicles, Proceedings of Institution

of Mechanical Engineers, Republic of China, 215: pp. 28.
Changhua Lin and Jeffrey Saunders, (2000), The Effect
of Changes in Ambient and Coolant Radiator Inlet
Temperatures and Coolant Flowrate on Specific
Dissipation, SAE Technical Papers, 2000-01-0579.
Sridhar Maddipatla, (2001), Coupling of CFD and shape
optimization for radiator design, Oakland University.
Ph.D. thesis.
J.P.Holman, (2002), Heat transfer, Tata-McGraw-Hill
Publications.
Changhua Lin and Jeffrey Saunders, (2000), The Effect
of Changes in Ambient and Coolant Radiator Inlet
Temperatures and Coolant Flowrate on Specific
Dissipation, SAE Technical Papers, 2000-01-0579.
Seth Daniel Oduro, (2009), Assessing the effect of dirt
on the performance of an engine cooling system, Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, PG
thesis.
Beard, R. A. and Smith, G. J., (1971), "A Method of
Calculating the Heat Dissipation from Radiators to Cool
Vehicle Engines", SAE Technical Paper 710208
Salvio Chacko, (2003) Numerical Simulation for
Improving Radiator Efficiency by Air Flow
Optimization Engineering Automation Group, Tata
Technologies Limited, Pune, India, Technical paper.
S.N Sridhara, S.R. Shankapal and V Umesh Babu, (2005)
CFD analysis of Fluid Flow & Heat Transfer in a Single
Tube-Fin Arrangement of an Automotive Radiator
International Conference on Mechanical Engineering
2005,Dhaka, Bangladesh, Conference Paper.
Yiding Cao and Khokiat Kengskool,(1992), An
Automotive Radiator Employing Wickless Heat Pipes
Florida International University, Miami,Conference Paper
REFERENCES
A.Witry M.H. Al-Hajeri and Ali A. Bondac, (2003),
CFD analysis of fluid flow and heat transfer in patterned
roll bonded aluminium radiator, 3rd International
conference on CFD, CSIRO, Melborne, Australia, pp. 1219.
Hilde Van Der Vyer, Jaco Dirker and Jousoa P Meyer,
(2003), Validation of a CFD model of a three
dimensional tube-in-tube heat exchanger, Third
International Conference on CFD in the Minerals and
Process Industry, CSIRO, Melborne, Australia. pp. 25-32.
J A Chen, D F Wang and L Z Zheng, (2001),
Experimental study of operating performance of a tube-
37

38

Trapped Vortex Combustor Design

Methodology
Mr. Smit .V. Thakkar
PG student
Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Baroda
E-mail id: sportysmit@rediffmail.com
Dr. Digvijay .B .Kulshreshtha

Associate professor
C.K.Pitawalla College of Engineering & Technology, Surat
Mr. Brijesh .P. Dharani

Assistant professor
Parul Institute of Engineering &Technology, Baroda
ABSTRACT
In the past it has been demonstrated that combustion technology based on premixing reactants with combustion product may
improve both combustion efficiency and emissions for some industrial application. The challenge is to invent new class of
combustors performing on high combustion efficiency and low emission indices together with multi fuel capabilities and low
pressure drop. In conventional combustors, flame stabilization is achieved through the introduction of swirler, which leads to
combustion instabilities at different inlet air conditions. The swirlers in the conventional chambers are replaced by a cavity
which forms the low velocity region and helps in stable combustion. This strategy is based on mixing hot combustion products
and reactants at high rate. Turbulence occurring in TVC combustion chamber is trapped within the cavity where reactants are
injected and efficiently mixed. The present paper discusses the concept of trapped vortex and summarizes the issues related with
this technology.
.
KEY
WORDS:
combustor,
trapped
vortex
combustors, cavity
INTRODUCTION
The trapped vortex combustor (TVC) is a novel
design concept radically departing from the
conventional swirl stabilized gas turbine combustor
design approach that has been in use for the past 40
years [5]. Trapped vortex combustor (TVC) is a
new conceptual gas turbine combustor which
utilizes cavity stabilization rather than swirl
stabilization.Combustion takes place in cavity and
plays an important role in developing lowemission,

high-performance combustion systems in aircraft
and ground power gas turbine engines [2]. The
flame is stabilized by a vortex that is virtually
independent of the main stream. The mixture of the
fuel and air is injected directly into the cavities to
enhance stable recirculation zone [3].
The trapped vortex combustor concept was firstly
introduced in 1990 developed by the Air Force
Research Laboratory and General Electric Aircraft
Engines in the U.S. and has been widely studied for
aircraft engine and gas turbine application. (Hsu
and strugess1998) [4] studied and suggested that
39

5% of main stream air is required to drive the

vortex. ( Xing, Wang, et,al 2010) [3] investigated
the lean blow-out (LBO) performance of several
combustors which utilized trapped vortex in the
cavity to improve the flame stability. Experiments
and simulation study had been performed for
various height to length (Hf/L) ratios of the cavity.
The experiment results showed that the minimum
pressure drop across the combustor occurred when
the Hf/L ratio was 0.8; and that very low overall
LBO equivalence ratios were observed over a wide
range of primary air flows at the same Hf/L ratio. (
Ezhil Kumar, Mishra [9] studied Reacting and nonreacting flow structure in a three dimensional (3D)
trapped vortex combustor (TVC) cavity was
investigated numerically by using shear stress
transport (SST) k model and eddy dissipation
combustion model.
(Hendricks, Shouse et.al 2001) [5] describes the

operational principles of the TVC, and extends
diffuser velocities toward choked flow and provides
system performance data. Performance data include
EINOx results for various fuel-air ratios and
combustor residence times, combustion efficiency
as a function of combustor residence time, and
combustor lean blow-out (LBO) performance.
(Singhal, Shetty and
Ravikrishna 2007) [1]
describes unsteady non-reacting and reacting flow
simulations of Trapped Vortex Combustion. (Robert
Charles Steele2005)[10] he has described the
trapped
vortexcombuustion
technology
for
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). (
Ebrahimi and Ryder Jr.1999) [6] they describes the
development and surveys liquid fuel spray droplet
modeling methods as used in the simulation of
Trapped Vortex Cavity (TVC) combustors and
afterburners. TVCs have demonstrated exceptional
engineering performance characteristics in tests,
including high combustion efficiency, low pollutant
emissions, and lean blowout performance. (Wu,
Che, et.al 2009 [7] experiment the trapped vortex
combustor using pure hydrogen. Combustion
performances of pure hydrogen in an experimental
trapped vortex combustor have been tested under
different
operating
conditions.
Pressure
fluctuations, NOx emissions, OH distributions, and
LBO (Lean Blow Out) were measured in their
tests.(Bruno And Losurdo2007)[8] investigated
the pressure drop, emission and combustion
efficiencies all these aspects and done the cfd
analysis of trapped vortex combustor.
TRAPPED
CONCEPT
VORTEX
COMBUSTOR
The Trapped Vortex Combustor was pioneered by

Wright Aeronautical Research Laboratories. It is
mainly seen as a means to create relatively simple,
compact combustors for supersonic military aircraft,
but efforts have been made to introduce the concept
in industrial gas turbines. From the introduction it is
clear that the trapped vortex combustor is the
concept different from the conventional combustors.
This concept is of a cavity in a combustion zone. In
which combustion takes place. The trapped vortex
combustor (TVC) may be considered a very
promising form of technology for both pollutant
emissions and pressure drop reduction. This strategy
is based on mixing hot combustion products and
reactants at a highrate.Turbulence occurring in a
TVC combustion. chamber is trapped within a
cavity where reactants are injected and efficiently
mixed. Stable combustion is achieved by the use of
low velocity recirculation zones to provide
continuous source of ignition by mixing hot
products with the incoming fuel and air. Fuels like
hydrogen and gaseous propane is used for the
testing of trapped vortex combustor.and trapped
combustor combustion takes place inside the cavity
and flameless combustion. And it increases the
flame stabilization.
Fig 1 Sketch Of TVC Strategy (8)

Fig 1 showing sketch of trapped vortex combustor
strategy. The desgin consists of a forebody disk and
an afterbody disk connected along their centerline
by means of a spindle. From fig1 the mainstream air
and fuel& air mixture are in opposite directions.
fuel is supplied in the cavity and there is no fuel
injection to the main air and this way it create the
vortex there in cavity [8].This type of arrangment
gives high degree of flame stability because the
vortex trapped in a cavity provides a stable
recirculation zone that is protected from the main
flow of the combustor. The cavity serves as a pilot
40

flame and provides a continuous ignition source for

the main combustor, helping to keep the flame lit
throughout the operating envelope. This interaction
between the cavities and main combustor
significantly enhances mixing, allowing for a
shortlength, compact combustor. The low NOX
emissions are primarily the result of improved fuel
and air mixing in the cavity at the front end of the
main combustion zone .
GUIDELINES
The design of TVC combustor is carried out using

the following data calculated using cycle analysis
for 20kw gas turbine with hydrogen as a fuel.
Table 1
Sr
Parameter
No
1
2
3
4
5
Fig. 2 Schematic Diagrams of the TVC structure

(left)
and the injection surface of the
afterbody(righ).
Value
ma(mass flow rate of air

mf (mass flow rate of
hydrogen)
Inlet temp
Inlet pressure
Overall equivalence ratio
0.1 kg/s
0.0008
kg/s
300 k
2.95 bar
0.271
The reactants are directly injected into the cavity.

As low entrainment is required in the cavity region,
only 3-5% of total air flow is selected[8].The value
of 5% is selected from the published results[4].
Total 40% of total air flow will be required for
wall cooling and dilution holes.
Total air flow is 0.06 kg/s of which 5% enters the
cavity.
m cavity = 3 10-3kg/s=m.2
m1= 0.06kg/s
m3 = 0.04 kg/s.
Using the air distribution and pressure laws factors
the linear and casing area are calculated as.
T
2
Aref = Reference area.
Fig 3 Flow field of air in TVC
In fig 2 shows the TVC structure and injection
surface. The spindle is composed of two concentric
tubes where air and fuel flow and are eventually
delivered into the cavity from injectors within the
after body disk facing the cavity itself. In right side
fig injecting holes of primary air and fuel are
shown. This way vortex in cavity is created. In fig.
3 the flow field of air in trapped vortex combustor is
shown.The formation of vortex is clearly seen in
the cavity [2].
TRAPPED VORTEX COMBUSTOR DESIGN
... Aref = 9.702 10-4m2

AL = 0.7 Aref
Where K = 0.7, AL = Linear area.
... AL= 6.79 10-4
.
. . Diameter of linear is DL= 30mm.
Height of the afterbody
The height of afterbody is equal to the height of
annular space[2].
.
..
Height of afterbody = 15mm
Ratio of height of forebody to afterbody is taken

1.36[2].
41

.
..
Height of the forebody = 21mm.

REFRENCES
Ratio of cavity length to afterbody is taken 1.64[2].

.
. . The length of the cavity= 25mm.
Length of linear =
.
..
1.
Combustion. 20-23 May 2007.
LL = 70mm.
2.
Fei Xing , Shuai Zhang , Peiyong Wang , Weijun

fan Experimental investigation of a single trappedvortex combustor with a slight temperature raise
Aerospace And Science technology August 2009
3.
Fei Xing , Peiyong Wang b, Shuai Zhang, Jianfeng

Zoua, Yao Zhenga, Rongchun Zhang , Weijun Fanc
Experiment and simulation study on lean blow-out
of trapped vortex combustorwith various aspect
ratios. Aerospace and science technology August
2010
4.
Houshang. B Ebrahimi and R. Ryder jr

Numerical Investigation of Multi-Phase Trapped
Vortex Combustor
and Afterburner with Pulse
Injection
Using Jet-A FuelATA / Arnold AFB;
Flow Parametrics.
5.
Hui Wu, Qin Chen1, Weiwei Shao, Yongliang

Zhang, Yue Wang, Yunhan Xiao Combustion of
Hydrogen in an Experimental Trapped Vortex
Combustor Journal of Thermal Science Vol.18,
No.3 (2009) 256261.
6.
Losurdo M. and Bruno C., The Trapped Vortex

Combustor:An Advanced Combustion Technology
for Aerospace And gas turbine applications.,
presented at the Italian Section of the Combustion
Institute (ISCI 2002) as paper II 13, 35June 2002,
Rome.
7.
P.K.EzhilKumar,
D.P.Mishra.,
Numerical
simulation of cavity flow structure in an
axisymmetric trapped vortex combustor, aerospace
and
science
technology
doi:10.1016/j.ast.2011.04.007.
8.
Robert Charles steele trapped vortex combustion.
Fig 4 Sketch of design
Fig 5 Isometric View Of Design

CONCLUSION
The Trapped Vortex Combustor is a new conceptual
gas turbine combustor which utilizes cavity
stabilization rather than swirl stabilization. The
flame is stabilized by a vortex that is virtually
independent of the main stream. Trapped Vortex
Combustion has evolved as a promising technology
from the view point of low NOx emissions and
combustion efficiency. Design of a cavity is the
challenge in the Trapped Vortex Combustion
Technology. Vortex stabilization is also the major
challenge in TVC. Also the use of hydrogen as a
fuel in TVC Technology has been carried out as
laboratory levels.
A.Singhal, D.A.Shetty and R.V.Ravikrishna

Unsteady Simulations of Single-Cavity Trapped
Vortex combustion6th Asia-Pacific Conference on
42

Modeling of Fuel Processing Unit for

Hydrogen Production for PEM Fuel Cell
Pritesh Kanaiyalal Jaradi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
E-mail: k.jaradi@iitg.ernet.in
Dr. Chandramohan Somayaji

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
E-mail: cmsomayaji@iitg.ernet.in
ABSTRACT
This paper presents study for a fuel processor for PEM fuel cell system. The major system components are an auto-thermal
reformer, shift reactors and preferential oxidation reactor. The process simulation package ASPEN-HYSYS V7.3 has been
used. The operation conditions of the auto-thermal reformer have been studied in detail to determine the values, which lead
to the production of a hydrogen rich gas mixture with CO concentration at ppm level. Hydrocarbon fuel ethanol has been
studied as the source for hydrogen production. The chemical composition of the hydrocarbon fuel affects the favorable
operation conditions of auto-thermal reforming and fuel purification.
KEY WORDS: Hydrogen; carbon monoxide; autothermal reformer; water gas shift reactor; preferential
oxidation reactor; ethanol; fuel cell.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, increasing environmental concerns
over vehicle-generated pollution and increasing
demand for energy sources have generated interest in
alternative fuels and energy sources. The high
efficiency and near-zero emissions of fuel cells make
it a potential alternative energy source for both
automotive and stationary power applications. Fuel
cell energy is anticipated to replace traditional power
sources in the future. One of the most critical
challenges facing the world is the development of
clean, reliable, and efficient energy conversion
processes. As the demand for energy will inevitably
increase, at the same time, it is widely accepted that
this increasing demand for energy must not
compromise the environment (i.e. pollution, CO
emission, greenhouse effect & global warming).
Advanced technologies designed to meet this
challenge include processes as wind, solar,
hydroelectric, photovoltaic, and others. Among the
most promising technologies are those based on fuel

cells, which convert chemical energy into electrical
energy with higher efficiencies and far fewer
environmental effects than other options.
Since most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, the
most likely solution to generate hydrogen is by
extracting it from hydrocarbon fuels such as natural
gas, methanol, gasoline or ethanol. There are mainly
three types of reforming technologies available,
namely steam reforming (SR), partial oxidation
reforming (POX) and auto-thermal reforming
(ATR) (Shekhawat, Spivey and Berry 2010). Autothermal reforming is the combination of steamreforming (SR) and partial-oxidation (POX), in
order to achieve a minimum energy input necessary
to maintain the required reformer temperature.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
It is desired to construct a simulation model of an
ethanol fuel processor to identify potential design
issues and obtain a preliminary estimate of the
variation of species concentration and temperature.
Significant variation in output can be identified and
43

their effect on the overall system performance can

be evaluated.
Objective of Study
The objective of this study is to develop and study a
steady state model of hydrogen production for fuel
cell applications from ethanol.
Scopes for this study are:
1.
2.
3.
To develop steady state base case study

model using simulation tool Aspen
HYSYS V7.3.
Heat integration between three material
streams i.e. ethanol, air and water
Perform clean-up process to reduce carbon
monoxide (CO) concentration.
MODELLING
been chosen as the process simulator for this

research, since it offers two important advantages
over the other software packages. It can
interactively interpret commands as they are entered
one at a time. Other software packages need the
execution step after new entries. HYSYS has the
unique feature that information propagates both in
forward and reverse directions, performing backcalculation in a non-sequential manner. The bidirectionality often makes iterative calculations
unnecessary and the solution is fast. HYSYS
simulator is made up of four major parts to form a
rigorous modelling and simulation environment.
A component library consisting of pure
component physical properties.
Thermodynamic packages for transport and
physical properties prediction.
Integrator for dynamic simulation or solver
for steady-state simulation
Mathematical modelling of unit operation
Assumption
Process Description
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In the modeling of fuel processing unit, it

is assumed that there are no piping losses
and frictional losses.
Reformer is modeled under steady state
condition, i.e. hydrogen rich gas is
generated at steady state.
All the reactors are assumed to be
homogeneous
Ethanol is assumed to be fully converted in
the reformer reactor.
Effect of Nitrogen is not considered.
Fuel Processing Unit

Modelling is carried out using process simulation
package ASPEN HYSIS V7.3. HYSYS was a
product of AEA Technology, which is now part of
Aspen Tech Engineering Suite (AES). HYSYS has
A fuel processing unit is divided into three section

auto-thermal reactor (ATR), Water-gas-shift (WGS)
and Preferential Oxidation (PROX) reactor
(Rabenstein and Hacker 2008). The selection of
operating conditions are based on theoretical studies
aiming at producing hydrogen rich and less carbon
monoxide mixtures in an efficient manner at
acceptable conversions. The simulation starts from
feeding the stream comprising of ethanol, air and
steam at 1 atm to ATR reactor. Then the outlet
stream enters WGS reactor. WGS contains two
reactors: High Temperature Shift reactor (HTS) and
Low Temperature Shift reactor (LTS). Finally, the
product gases from WGS enter into the PROX
reactor and the product is ready to enter the fuel
cell.
44

Conversion Process
Mixture of ethanol, air and water are fed into a
single auto-thermal reactor (ATR) in vapor phase.
The reaction that occurs inside the ATR is as
follows.
It has a conversion reactor and a heater as shown in.

In the PROX reactor extra stream of air is supplied
for reaction. The PROX air is at room temperature.
1
CO O2 CO2
2
Eq. (3)
1
H 2 O2 H 2O
2
Eq. (4)
7CH3CH2OH 5.5O2 2H2O 6CO2 8CO 23H2

Eq. (1)
Ethanol (boiling point 78.4 C) and water (boiling
point 100 C) are heated to 100 C to convert them
into gas phase. Air was heated up to 100 C to
increase the rate of reaction. Pressure for the system
is maintained at 1 atm. The molar flow rate of the
raw materials is being evaluated from the total
reactions of all reactions that occur in the reactor
with a basis of 1 kgmole/hr (22.414 m3/hr) of
ethanol. Since the output from the reactor is at a
very high temperature, we can use the generated
heat for the heating purpose of other streams. For
this purpose, network of heat exchangers are
connected in line with these streams. Thus required
temperature for the streams at the inlet to the ATR
can be obtained. The addition of heaters could also
help in reducing the temperature of the ATR
effluent gases for further reaction.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Initially ethanol molar flow rate and air molar flow
rate is kept constant. By varying supply of water
molar flow rate effect on temperature, H2
concentration and CO concentration is studied.
Water molar flow rate is supplied at rate of 2

kgmole/hr (44.828 m3/hr), 2.857 kgmole/hr (64.036
m3/hr), 5 kgmole/hr (112.07 m3/hr), 10 kgmole/hr
(224.14 m3/hr) and 15 kgmole/hr (336.21 m3/hr).
Optimum value is taken based on low CO
concentration, maximum hydrogen yield and
moderate temperature at PROX outlet.
Water Gas Shift (WGS) reactor

Variation of H2 Concentration
The CO is produced as a by-product in ATR along
with H2. Water gas shift reaction (WGS) and
Preferential oxidation (PROX) reactions are used
for reducing the percentage of CO in the output
stream of ATR. The output from the ATR is cooled
down to a suitable temperature in the cooler and
then supplied to the HTS. In the HTS, CO reacts
with H2O to form hydrogen and CO2. This reaction
is an exothermic reaction. Because of exothermic
reaction temperature of the effluent from HTS is
increased. The outlet from the HTS is passed
through a cooler before entering to LTS. In LTS,
some amount of CO reacted with water.
Eq. (2)
C O H 2 O C O 2 H 2
From Fig. 2 it is observed that at PROX outlet H2

concentration is 0.4196, 0.4098, 0.3784, 0.3637 and
0.2952 for 15 kgmole/hr (336.21 m3/hr), 10
kgmole/hr (224.14 m3/hr), 5 kgmole/hr (112.07
m3/hr), 2.857 kgmole/hr (64.036 m3/hr) and 2
kgmole/hr (44.828 m3/hr) respectively.
As we increase water flow rate amount in hydrogen
is also increase because of reforming reaction in
ATR and shift reactions in WGS.
Preferential Oxidation Reactor

The next stage CO cleans up was preferential
oxidation reactions. The PROX is attached after the
WGS unit. It is required in order to reduce the CO
concentration to permissible levels. The PROX
reactor is modeled as a conversion reactor based on
two reactions to oxidize CO.
Fig. 2 Variation of Hydrogen concentration
45

Variation of CO Concentration
From Fig. 3 it is observed that at PROX outlet CO
concentration is 0.0000, 0.0014, 0.0551, 0.08 and
0.0000 for 15 kgmole/hr (336.21 m3/hr), 10
kgmole/hr (224.14 m3/hr), 5 kgmole/hr (112.07
m3/hr), 2.857 kgmole/hr
(64.036 m3/hr) and 2 kgmole/hr (44.828 m3/hr)
respectively.
This type of trend is observed mainly because of
CO oxidation in PROX reactor and equilibrium
reaction taken place in Water gas shift reactor.
water flow rate but after PROX there is vast

difference in temperature variation. This occurs
mainly because of water content present in reactor.
Since water flow rate is increased, it is getting
accumulated and carries most of
heat which is generated during PROX conversion
reaction.
From above analysis we can say that when molar
flow rate of water is 10 kgmole/hr (224.14 m3/hr),
temperature at PROX outlet is 440.6 C. When
supply of water in 15 kgmole/hr (336.21 m3/hr) we
get maximum hydrogen and low CO but meanwhile
temperature at PROX outlet is 112.1 C, which is
very less. Hence we have to add heater before fuel
cell.
Conversion Process
The conversion process takes place in ATR. In ATR
ethanol reacts with water and air to form hydrogen
along with it some amount of CO and CO2 is also
formed. In the ATR reactor ethanol is completely
converted. After conversion process hydrogen
concentration is 4.098 Kgmole/hr (91.85 m3/hr).
Some amount of water molecule also formed during
this process. This will be used for WGS reaction.
Water gas shift reaction
Fig. 3 Variation of Carbon monoxide

Temperature Variation
From Fig. 4 it is observed that at PROX outlet
temperature is 112.1 C, 440.6 C, 466.6 C, 479
C and 847.1 C for 15 kgmole/hr (336.21 m3/hr),
10 kgmole/hr (224.14 m3/hr), 5 kgmole/hr (112.07
m3/hr), 2.857 kgmole/hr (64.036 m3/hr) and 2
kgmole/hr (44.828 m3/hr) respectively.
The molar flow of CO in the feed to the WGS is

1.276 Kgmole/hr (28.60 m3/hr). In the first reactor
(HTS) of WGS section, molar flow is 0.652
Kgmole/hr (14.613 m3/hr) due to water gas shift
reaction and this process is repeated up to LTS.
Finally, the molar flow of CO will reduce to 0.485
Kgmole/hr (10.87 m3/hr), correspondingly mole
fraction of water will also reduce and hydrogen
production will increase due to this reaction.
Preferential oxidation reactor
Fig. 4 temperature variation

Up to LTS out temperature is almost same for all
The mole fraction of CO in the PROX inlet was

0.485 Kgmole/hr (10.87 m3/hr). Due to the
oxidization reaction in PROX the mole fraction of
CO is reduced from 0.485 Kgmole/hr (10.87 m3/hr)
to 0.014 Kgmole/hr (0.318 m3/hr). In PROX, the
hydrogen will be oxidized and it is reduced from
4.460 Kgmole/hr (99.96 m3/hr) to 4.098 Kgmole/hr
(91.85 m3/hr) and correspondingly water mole
fraction increases from 0.0006 Kgmole/hr (0.013
m3/hr) to 0.0008 Kgmole/hr (0.018 m3/hr).
ADVANTAGES OF REFORMING
SUPPLYING FUEL CELLS
FOR
46

REFERENCES
Steam reforming of gaseous hydrocarbons is seen as
a potential way to provide fuel for fuel cells. The
basic idea for vehicle on-board reforming is that for
example a methanol tank and a steam reforming unit
would replace the bulky pressurized hydrogen tanks
that would otherwise be necessary. This might
mitigate the distribution problems associated with
hydrogen vehicles, however the major market
players discarded the approach of on-board
reforming as unpractical.
Aspen HYSYS V7.3, Aspen Technology Inc., Ten Canal

Park Cambridge, MA 02141-2201, USA.
Rabenstein G. and Hacker V., (2008), Hydrogen for fuel
cells from ethanol by steam-reforming, partial-oxidation
and
combined
auto-thermal
reforming:
A
thermodynamic analysis, Journal of Power Sources, 185,
pp. 12931304
Shekhawat D., Spivey J. J. and Berry D. A., (2010), Fuel
Cells: Technologies for fuel processing, Elsevier, pp. 2-4
DISADVANTAGES OF REFORMING FOR

SUPPLYING FUEL CELLS
The reformerfuel-cell system is still being
researched but in the near term, systems would
continue to run on existing fuels, such as natural gas
or gasoline or diesel. However, here is an active
debate about whether using these fuels to make
hydrogen is beneficial while global warming is an
issue. Fossil fuel reforming does not eliminate
carbon dioxide release into the atmosphere but
reduces the carbon dioxide emissions as compared
to the burning of conventional fuels due to increased
efficiency. However, by turning the release of
carbon dioxide into a point source rather than
distributed release, carbon capture and storage
becomes a possibility, which would prevent the
carbon dioxide's release to the atmosphere, while
adding to the cost of the process.
The cost of hydrogen production by reforming fossil
fuels depends on the scale at which it is done, the
capital cost of the reformer and the efficiency of the
unit, so that whilst it may cost only a few dollars per
kilogram of hydrogen at industrial scale, it could be
more expensive at the smaller scale needed for fuel
cells.
CONCLUSION
Analysis of a fuel processor for PEMFC systems is
performed, considering ethanol as fuel in the auto
thermal reformer. In the present paper, auto thermal
reforming of ethanol for H2 production is discussed
in-depth. Maximum hydrogen efficiency and low
carbon monoxide content is possible for reforming
operation. Waste heat released from fuel processing
unit can be used for heating purpose.
47

48

3D Computational Study of Heat Transfer

through Tube Bundles with Triangular Pitch
of Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
Tejal M. Rana
Post Graduate Student, Mechanical Engineering Department, Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Vadodara
E-mail ID: tejal_mechanical@yahoo.com
Vivek C. Joshi
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Vadodara.
E-mail ID: vivekcjoshi@gmail.com
Avdhoot N. Jejurkar
Assistant Professor , Mechanical Engineering Department, Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Vadodara
E-mail ID: avdhootjejurkar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Cross-flow over tube bundle is generally encountered in practice in heat transfer equipments such as evaporators and condensers
of power plants, air conditioners, refrigerators. In such equipment, one fluid moves through the tubes while the other moves over
the tubes in a perpendicular direction. Steady state Navier-stokes and the energy equations are applied for cylinders having pitch
to diameter ratios of 1, 1.25, and 1.5, for staggered tube layout to obtain the numerical solutions of governing equations using
Finite Element Method. .The effect of change of Pitch to diameter ratio of the tube bundle on heat transfer co-efficient and
pressure drop has been analyzed using CFD tool. The contours of streamlines, pressure, velocity and temperature are generated
to study the effect of pitch to diameter ratio. The purpose of this study is to investigate the heat transfer and pressure
characteristics at various pitch to diameter ratio for staggered tube bundle layouts in cross-flow. The result shows that as the p/d
ratio increases the heat transfer also increases.
KEY WORDS:
U-tube bundle; Triangular pitch,

staggered layout; Heat transfer co-efficient; Pressure
drop.
Xt
Xl
Transverse Pitch length

Longitudinal Pitch length
Dynamic viscosity of shell side fluid
NOMENCLATURE
Re
Nu
Prb
Prw
L
V
F
h
P
Eu
Do
uo
Reynold Number
Nusselt Number
Prandtl Number (Bulk Temperature)
Prandtl Number (Wall Temperature)
Tube length
Fluid Density
Average fluid velocity
Friction factor
Heat transfer co-efficient
Pressure drop
Euler number
Tube diameter
Mean Velocity
INTRODUCTION
In practice, all chemical processes involve the
production or absorption of energy in the form of
heat. Heat exchanger is device, commonly used in
industrial chemical processes to transfer heat from a
hot liquid through a solid wall to a cooler fluid. A
heat exchanger is used to transfer thermal energy
(enthalpy) between two or more fluids, between a
solid surface and a fluid, or between solid
particulates and a fluid, at different temperatures
and in thermal contact.
Circular tube bundles are probably the most
49

common heat transfer surfaces; particularly in shelland-tube heat exchanger which is one of the most
widely used heat exchanger. The fluid flow through
shell-and-tube heat exchanger is normal to the tube
cross-sectional area. The most usual tube arrays are
staggered and inline. The flow converging in the
rear of an inner tube is smaller than in a single tube.
The geometric arrangements of tubes are governed
by the relative pitches and the bundle geometry. The
more compact a bundle is, the larger is the
temperature difference & pressure drop from the
single-tube situation. Such differences depend on
the number of longitudinal pitch because of the
inlet-outlet effects on heat transfer coefficient and
pressure drop which mainly governed/altered by
mass flow rate of flowing fluid through tubes.
Various scientists and academicians carried out
theoretical,
experimental
and
numerical
investigations to investigate the effect of mass flow
rate on heat transfer for a single tube or tube
bundles. An experimental investigation for the
arrangement of tube bundle and various pitches (viz.
square, rotated square, triangular & rotated
triangular pitch array) was carried out by A. A.
Zukauskas (1987).
It is observed that with
triangular pitch, the tubes are more closely packed
in the bundle, which translates to more heat transfer
surface in a given shell and somewhat higher
pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient.
However, the clearance between tubes is typically
the larger of 0.00635m and 0.025Do. Two-phase
flow over tube bundles is commonly observed in
shell and tube type heat exchangers. Ceong et al.
(2000) studied to clarify the two-phase structure of
cross-flow in tube bundles by PIV. J. Fillich (1969)
carried out investigations on the flow through a
staggered heat exchanger model consisting of five
rows for the range of Reynolds number
105<Re<107. The distribution of the local static
pressure & skin friction was experimentally
determined around the tubes in several positions of
the bundle. Khairun Othma (2009) simulated the
heat transfer in shell and tube heat exchanger model
and validated heat transfer in Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger Studies Unit (Model HE 667) in
Chemical Engineering laboratory using CFD within
15% error. A numerical calculation procedure based
on the least-squares finite element method (LSFEM)
was employed to study the fluid flow and heat
transfer in 3-D heat exchangers with in-line and
staggered multiplerow (4 rows) tubes by Jyh-Haw
Tang (2006). The results show that the average heat
transfer coefficient of staggered arrangement is
10%-30% higher than that of the in-line one at Re =
200 & the distribution of pressure drop is also
higher. A 3-D numerical simulation study was
carried out by Vikas Kumar (2003) to predict the air

flow and temperature distribution in the tube type
heat exchanger associated with large electrical
motor. Due to symmetry in geometrical
construction, a section of heat exchanger was
considered for CFD analysis by using PHOENICS
software. The k - turbulence model was used to
solve the transport equations for turbulent flow
energy and the dissipation rate. The outlet
temperature of cold & hot air predicted by the CFD
simulation was in close agreement with
experimental results. M. H. Alhajeri (2010)
numerically investigated the cross flow past in a
tube bank for a wide range of Reynolds number,
ranging from 380 to 99000 and which are equivalent
to a range of inlet velocities from very low (0.072
m/s) to very high (60 m/s). It was suggested that as
the velocity increased, the drag co-efficient
decreased until the velocity exceeded 45 m/s, after
which it increased. Furthermore, the pressure drag
and skin friction drag depended on the velocity.
EQUATIONS AND CORRELATIONS
As per A. A. Zukauskas the average heat transfer
from staggered bundles in cross flow is presented
as:
Eq.(1)
.
= 1.04
Eq. (2)
for Reb= 1 - 500

.
= 0.71
Eq. (3)
for Reb= 500 - 10

.
= 0.35
Eq. (4)
for Reb= 10 - 2 x105
=
0.031
Eq. (5)
for Reb= 2 x 105 - 2 x
106
50

Eq. (6)
Pressure drop of multi row bundle,
Eq. (7)
CASE III: p/d = 1.5

Fig. 2 shows the p/d ratio is 1.5 for the third case &
like that there are two other cases having p/d ratio is
1 & 1.25. For all the cases the Longitudinal &
Transverse pitches are the same (40, 50 and 60 mm)
& the diameter of tube is 0.04m.
Heat Transfer in Laminar flow,
Eq. (8)
Heat Transfer in Turbulent flow,
Eq. (9)
PROBLEM STATEMENT
To study the effect of variation in Pitch to diameter
ratio on heat transfer co-efficient & pressure drop of
U- tube heat exchanger under staggered
configuration. ANSYS- CFX 12.1 is used to solve
the problem by generating the contours of
streamlines, pressure plots & temperature plots.
GEOMETRY
Fig. 2 Tube layout showing 3-D geometry for Case-I
Fig. 2 shows the 3-D tube layout geometry in

staggered condition. The cavity model shown in fig.
1 is imported in ANSYS CFX 12.1 Workbench
Mesh module for meshing.
Fig. 1 Cavity Model of a Heat Exchanger generated in

Solid Works
Fig. 1 shows the Cavity model of a heat exchanger,

which is to be drawn in Solid Works 2009 X64
edition SPO. The tube bundle consists of uniformly
spaced tubes and following cases were thought of
for the analysis. The Heat exchanger have Shell
Diameter of 0.55m and tube diameter of 0.04m
having length of 1.25m & thickness of 0.005m..
CASE I: p/d = 1
CASE II: p/d = 1.25
Fig. 3 Meshing of Staggered Configuration
Fig. 3 shown above indicates the mesh generation in

control volume. Here 3-D tetrahedral and
hexahedral unstructured meshing elements have
been used in order to get the fully developed dense
mesh. The numbers of nodes generated were
51

162694 and numbers of elements of tetrahedral

shape were 695961.
ASSUMPTIONS
The Tube material Copper.
Thermal condition tube wall temperature is
constant.
The inlet and outlet boundaries are periodic.
The same region is repeated consecutively.
The working fluid is water and its density is
constant.
Mass flow rate is constant.
Finite Element method is use.
Steady state isothermal condition is applied.
The shell side inlet temperature is 300C & the
velocity is 2 m/s.
The tube side inlet temperature is 450C & the
velocity is 1m/s.
Single phase fluid is in the whole region.
Momentum condition : Tube wall is stationary.
Shear condition : No Slip
Fluid does not flow across symmetric
boundaries.
Flow is subsonic and occurs at high values of
Reynolds number.
Fig. 5 Temperateure & Pressure contours of Case-II
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Fig. 6 Temperateure & Pressure contours of Case-III
RESULT TABLE
Table 1. Effect of p/d ratio on temperature at variable
distance along flow direction
Fig. 4 Temperateure & Pressure contours of Case-I
Sr
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Diameter
(m)
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
Axial
Distance
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.04
Temperature at different P/d

ratio (K)
p/d =
p/d =
p/d =
1
1.25
1.5
318
318
318
317.2
317.54
317.23
316.8
316.52
316.89
314.2
315.75
316.25
312.5
315.24
315.46
312.05
314.89
314.52
311.12
314.56
314.25
310.95
314.01
313.89
310.65
313.85
313.75
52

Table 2. Effect of p/d ratio on Heat Transfer at variable
Heat Transfer at different
P/d ratio (W)
p/d =
p/d =
p/d =
1
1.25
1.5
Sr
No
.
Diamete
r (m)
Axial
Distanc
e
0.04
0.04
7698
7878
9309
0.04
11534
15377
19468
0.04
18187
23386
35497
0.04
26440
32728
52247
0.04
36204
39374
61937
0.04
39005
43813
70625
0.04
42801
48543
73417
0.04
43305
54305
76697
REFERENCES
A. Zukauskas and J. Ziugzda (1985), Heat Transfer of a
Cylinder in Cross Flow. Washinton D.C.
A Zukauskas (1987), Heat transfer from tubes in crossflow,
Adv. Heat Transfer 18,87-159.
Kakac, R. K. Shah, and W. Aung. (1987), Canada: Ottawa;
Wiley-Interscience Publication.
C. Iwaki, K.H. Ceong, H. Monji, G. Matsui (2000),PIV
measurement of vertical cross-flow structure over tube
bundles, Springerlink.
Khairun Hasmadi Othma (2009),CFD Simulation of Heat
Transfer in Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger .
GRAPH
C. Iwaki, K.H. Ceong, H. Monji, G. Matsui, (2000), PIV

measurement of vertical cross-flow structure over tube
bundles Springerlink.
Effect of p/d ratio on Tem perature

320
Tem perature (K)
maximum heat transfer related to the other two

cases.
318
p/d=1
316
p/d=1.25
314
p/d=1.5
312
C. Iwaki / E.K.H. Cheong / E.H. Monji G.Matsui, (2005),

Vertical, Bubbly, Cross-flow Characteristics over Tube
Bundles Springerlink.
310
0
10
Distance along flow direction (m )
Fig. 7 Effect of p/d ratio on temperature at variable

Effect of p/d ratio on Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer (W)
100000
80000
p/d=1.5
60000
p/d=1.25
40000
p/d=1
20000
0
0
10
Distance along flow direction (m )
Fig. 8 Effect of p/d ratio on Heat Transfer at variable

CONCLUSION
From the above graph it can be conclude that as the
p/d ratio increases Heat Transfer from hot to cold
fluid and cold to hot fluid increases in Shell side and
in Tube side both. From the analysis of above cases
it can be conclude that for p/d ratio=1.5, it has
53

54

Study of the Effect of Coil Step on Heat

Transfer Coefficient and CFD Analysis Of
Helical Coil Heat Exchenger
Jayesh B. Khunt
PG Student, M.E. Cryogenics, L.D.College of Engineering, Ahmedabad
Email ID:jayesh.khunt5@gmail.com
Prof. M.I.Vyas
APME, Mech. Engg. Dept, L.D.College of Engineering, Ahmedabad
Email ID:mivyas25@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Helically coiled tubes can be found in many applications including food processing, nuclear reactors, compact heat
exchangers, heat recovery systems, chemical processing, low value heat exchange, and medical equipment. Curved tubes
are of interest to the medical community as blood flow occurs in many arteries that are curved. Helical coils are very
alluring for various processes such as heat exchangers. Due to the extensive use of helical coils in these applications,
knowledge about the pressure drop, coil step, and heat transfer characteristics are very important. The heat transfer and
hydrodynamic characteristics need to be known for Heat transfers characteristics of helical heat exchangers is the subject
of this work.
Keywords: Helical Coil Heat Exchanger, Coil

pitch,Reynolds number,Heat transfer
INTRODUCTION
A heat exchanger is a device that is used to
transfer thermal energy (enthalpy) between two or
more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid, or
between solid particulates and a fluid, at different
temperatures and in thermal contact. In heat
exchangers, there are usually no external heat and
work interactions. A trend toward the helical coil
heat exchanger is increased due to continuous
demands of effective and compact design of
processing unit. Helically coiled tubes can be
found in many applications including food
processing,
nuclear reactors, compact heat
exchangers, heat recovery systems, chemical
processing, low value heat exchange, and medical
equipment. Curved tubes are of interest to the
medical community as blood flow occurs in many
arteries that are curved [1]. These pressure drops

are also functions of the curvature of the tube. The
curvature induces secondary flow patterns
perpendicular to the main axial flow direction.
Typically, fluid in the core of the tube moves
towards the outer wall, then returns to the inner
portion of tube by flowing back along the wall, as
shown in Figure-1.
As can be seen in Figure-1, a solid baffle is
placed at the core of the heat exchanger. In this
configuration the baffle is needed so that the fluid
will not flow straight through the shell with
minimal interaction with the coil [3].This baffle
changes the flow velocity around the coil and it is
expected that there would be possible dead-zones in
55

1.
The length of coil ,L, needed to make N

turns:
(1)
(Fig. 1) Helical Pipe Heat Exchanger

The area between the coils where the fluid would
not be flowing. The heat would then have to
conduct through the fluid in these zones, Reducing
the heat transfer effectiveness on the outside of the
coil.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
An HCHE consists of a helical coil fabricated
out of a metal pipe that is fitted in the annular
Portion of two concentric cylinders, as shown in
Fig. 6. The fluids flow inside the coil and the
annulus, with heat transfer taking place across the
coil wall. The dimensions of both cylinders are
determined by the velocity of the fluid in the
annulus needed to meet heat-transfer requirements.
Fig.6 is a schematic cut away view of the HCHE.
The minimum clearances between the annulus
walls and the coil and between two consecutive
turns of the coil must be equal. In this case, both
clearances are taken as d0/2. The pitch, p, which is
the spacing between consecutive coil turns
(measured from centre to centre), is 1.5d0 [4].
Assuming that the average fluid velocity is
uniform, the mass velocity of the fluid, Gs, is
computed based on the minimum clearance
between the helix and the cylinder wall.
To calculate the heat-transfer coefficients in the
coil and the heat-transfer coefficients in the coil
and the annulus, the following parameters must be
known [4]:
Determination
coefficients.
of
heat
transfer
2.
The volume occupied by the coil, Ve :
3.
(2)
The volume of the annulus, V a :
...............(3)
4.
The volume available for the flow of fluid

in the annulus, Vf :
......................(4)
5.
The shell- side equivalent diameter of the

coiled tube, De:
.(5)
The heat transfer coefficient in the annulus, ho, can

now be calculated using one of the following two
equations. For Reynolds numbers, NRe, in the range
of 50-10,000, Eq. (6) [5] is recommended:
(6)
for NRe over 10,000, Eq. (7) should be used :
..(7)
The heat-transfer coefficient of the fluid flowing

inside the coil, hio, can be determined using
conventional methods [4] inside coil diameter must
be corrected for a coiled tube by multiplying hi by
[1+3.5(D/DH)] to get hic. The coefficient based on
the outside diameter of the coil, hio, is then
obtained by:
..(8)
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is given
by:
(9)
Determine the required area.
56

The area needed for heat transfer is determine by :

=
(10)
Mean temperature difference, tm, must be

corrected to take in account the fact that the fluids
are following perpendicular to each other [4] ,
which is done by applying the standard correlation
factor for perpendicular flow.
the shell is investigated. In Figure 3 shell side heat

transfer coefficient
in relation to heat flux rate for a fixed pipe
diameter is drawn in two different steps.
(Fig. 3) Heat transfer coefficient in relation to heat
flux rate for pipe diameter
Determine the number of turns of coil.

Since A= d0 L, and L is expressed in terms of N,
the number of turns of coil needed can be
calculated by:
=
....(11)
PHYSICAL PARAMETER THAT

AFFECTING THE HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT :
The parameters that affect the heat transfer
coefficient are numerous and include the following
[5].
(1) Coil pitch
(2) Coil radius
(3) Ratio of tube to coil radius
(4) Configurations of the coil
(5) Reynolds and prandtl numbers
Coil - 1
Coil - 2
Mean
Dia.
60mm
60mm
Coil tube Pitch

Dia.
8mm
1.5mm
8mm
1.0mm
(Fig.5.) Meshing of Helical Coil Heat Exchanger

Cavity
Heat transfer coefficient for different coil step

and mass flow rate
For determining the heat flux rate, we assumed that
the thermal resistance of the copper tube wall was
negligible. The values of heat transfer rate and ho,
were calculated by using equations. (12) to (13).
All these properties were averaged over inlet and
outlet of the fluid in each side. The values of
Reynolds, Rayleigh and Nusselt numbers will be
obtained from above equations [6].
=
(12)
According to the figure.3, it is clear that with the

increase in coil step and fixed tube diameter, the
increase in h0 is resulted and it is concluded that in
a particular heat flux rate and fixed tube diameter,
with the increase in coil step, a higher heat transfer
coefficient can be obtained [5].
CFD ANALYSIS
Solid modeling
=
(
) (
..(1
3)
In this research the influence of the coil step, as a
geometric parameter of heat transfer coefficient of
The design parts are modeled by using ProEngineering wildfire 5.0. The important point
while modeling the parts is working clearly in
order not to face with any problems during the
CFD analyses. The problems may occur during the
57

grid generation if any unwanted surfaces or solid

parts left during the solid modeling.
Meshing
The fluid structure which is formed by
placing the extensions to the inlet and outlet of the
HCHE is divided into finite elements. Prior to
running a ANSYS CFX analysis, the geometry has
to be broken up into small, manageable pieces
called elements.
Outlet Boundary Condition:

An outlet boundary condition is used
where the flow is predominantly directed out of the
domain. The hydrodynamic boundary condition
specification (that is, those for mass and
momentum) for a subsonic outlet involves some
constraint on the boundary static pressure, velocity
or mass flow. For all other transport equations, the
outlet value of the variable is part of the solution.
Output parameters to define the inlet
boundary condition for CFD analysis
Coil side
Shell side
mass
rate
mass
rate
flow
0.01 x 10-3 kg/s
flow
0.01 10-3 kg/s
Results and discussion

A results generated at various inlet and outlet
conditions are as shown below
(Fig.6) CFD post result indicate coil side outlet

temperature
The corner of each element is called a
node, and it is at each node that a calculation is
performed. All together these elements and nodes
comprise the mesh (also known as the finite
element mesh). In order to achieve reliable
solutions in CFD analyses the number of elements
should be increased as much as possible. However
when the total number of elements increased, the
solution periods become longer.
Boundary Conditions
Inlet Boundary Condition:
An inlet boundary condition is used where

the flow is predominantly directed into the domain.
The boundary condition can be set in a number of
ways depending on how you want to specify the
conditions, and what particular physical models
you are using for the simulation. Input
parameters to define the inlet boundary
condition for CFD analysis
Temperature
300K
Coil side
pressure
15 bar
Temperature
177 K
Shell side
mass flow rate
0.01 x 10-3
kg/s
Comparison of results
Table
Results
Temperature
obtained by
(K)
Ansys CFX
Shell side outlet 279.71
Coil side outlet
217.6
Analytical
Results
280
233
COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS
Helically coiled tubes can be found in many
applications including food processing, nuclear
reactors, compact heat exchangers, heat recovery
systems, chemical processing, low value heat
exchange, and medical equipment. Curved tubes
are of interest to the medical community as
blood flow occurs in many arteries that are
(Fig.7) CFD post result indicate shell side outlet
temperature
curved [2]. Helical coils are very alluring for
various processes such as heat exchangers Due to
58

the extensive use of helical coils in these

applications, knowledge about the pressure drop,
flow patterns, and heat transfer characteristics
CONCLUSIONS:
For various flow amounts for shell and coil and
also at different inlet temperatures were considered
and the effect of coil step on shell-side heat transfer
in different mass flow rates was investigated.
Results represent that with the enhancement of coil
step in a fixed tube diameter, shell-side heat
transfer coefficient increases.
It is to be noted that by comparison of Analytical
and CFD model it can be found that the results are
almost same for shell side flow but there is 5
percent variation in coil side flow. It is observed
that the use of constant values for the thermal and
transport properties of the heat transport medium
results in prediction of heat transfer coefficients.
It is observed that the use of constant values for the
thermal and transport properties of the heat
transport medium results in prediction of heat
transfer coefficients.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
G. yang and M. A. Ebadian, Turbulent forced

convection in a helicoidal pipe with substantial
pitch. Heat and mass transfer, 2015-2022, pp.
23-30, 1995
J.S. Jayakumar, S.M. Mahajani, J.C. Mandal,
Kannan N. Iyer, P.K. Vijayan(2009), Thermal
hydraulic characteristics of airwater twophase flows in helical pipes.Chem Eng,88,
pp. 501-512, 2009
Yasutaka hayamizu, Kyoji yamamoto,
Shinichiro yanase, Toru hyakutake, Toru
shinohara and Shinichi morita, Experimental
Study of the Flow in Helical Circular Pipes:
Torsion Effect on the Flow Velocity and
Turbulence. Journal of Thermal Science
Vol.17, No.3, pp. 193198, 2003
Ramchandra
K.Patil,
B.W
Sheende,
P.K.Ghosh, Designing a Helical- coil heat
exchanger.H.E. research volume 1, pp. 85-88,
1982
Mofid Gorji Bandpy, Hasan Sajjadi., World
Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology, 71, 2010
D. G. Prabhanjan, T. J. Rennie, and G. S. V.
Raghavan, Natural Convection Heat Transfer
from Helical Coiled Tubes . Int. J. Thermal
Sciences, Vol. 43, pp. 359 365, 2004.
59

60

Design Methodology of Internally Mixed

Pressure Swirl Atomizer for Micro Gas
Turbine Combustion Chamber
Ashish A Prajapati
P.G Student, Mechanical Engineering Department Parul Institute of Engineering &Technology
Email:ashish21986@gmail.com
Digvijay B. Kulshreshtha
Associate Professor Mechanical Engineering Department C. K. Pithawalla College of Engineering and Technology,
Email: casanovicdigs@hotmail.com
Brijesh P Dharani
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department Parul Institute of Engineering &Technology
Email: brijesh.dharani4@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Significant improvement in the performance of liquid fuelled combustors can be achieved by controlled atomization however,
there does not exist atomizer that can provide controlled sprays for a range of operating condition. With advent of micro
combustor, spray characteristic plays a very important role in combustion efficiency and emission A method to design a
internally mixed pressure swirl atomizer is presented considering the ideal flow and viscous flow. The need to minimize the
combustor length usually leads to a spray angle of around 900. The designed methodology of combining the theoretical and
empirical approach is presented and from that the internally mixed pressure swirl atomizes with spray cone angle of 90 is
developed for application in tubular type combustion chamber of micro gas turbine.
KEY WORDS:
Internally mixed pressure swirl

atomizer; spray cone angle; penetration length;
injection pressure
NOMENCLATURE
Ap
Ap
B
CD
d
do
dp
p d
Ds
i
K
l
ls
m
P
Area of Tangential Port

Area of Jet
Ratio of Radius of Swirl Chamber to
Radius of Tangential Port
Coefficient of Discharge
Diameter of Equivalent Orfice
Diameter of Discharge orifice
Diameter of Tangential Port
Diameter of Jet
Diameter of Swirl Chamber
Number of Tangential Port
Geometric Constant
Length of Orifice
Length of Swirl Chamber
Mass Flow Rate of Atomizing Liquid
Injection Pressure
R
ro
rp
Re
vp
Radius of Swirl Chamber

Radius of Discharge Orifice
Radius of Tangential Port
Reynolds Number
Velocity in Tangential Port
Ratio of Discharge Coefficient for Viscous
and Ideal Liquid
Cone Angle
Friction Coefficient
Kinematic Viscosity
Density
Contraction Coefficient
INTRODUCTION
Liquid atomization, the process of producing a large
number of droplets from bulk liquid, is used in a
variety
of
engineering
applications,
in
pharmaceutical industries, process industries, fuel
injection in combustion applications, and in
agricultural sprays, among others. A number of
61

spray devices have been developed for this purpose,

and they are generally designated as atomizers or
nozzles (Lefebvre, 1989).
In gas turbine combustor, the performance of liquid
fuel atomizer has direct effects on flame stability,
combustion efficiency, and pollutant emissions;
therefore, understanding of the underlying physics
of these atomizers is one of the primary
requirements for micro gas turbine combustor
design. Pressure-swirl atomizers produce hollow
cone fuel sprays and are commonly used in airbreathing gas turbine engines because they produce
good atomization characteristics and are relatively
simple and inexpensive to manufacture. To reduce
NOx emissions, it is critical to design fuel nozzles
that can produce sprays with a predetermined
droplet size distribution at the desired combustor
locations, such as small SMD and uniform local
fuel/air ratios (Benjamin 1998).
The
influence
of
spray
quality
on
combustion/ignition performance and efficiency is
well depicted in various works of Lefebvre (1985),
Rink and Lefebvre (1987), and Reeves and Lefebvre
(1986).
Various spraying devices operating on different
principles and varied geometry have been developed
with time signifying the importance and high
dependence of spray characteristics on both the
abovementioned factors. Detailed descriptions of
such devices can be found in Giffen and Muraszew
(1953), Lefebvre (1983, 1989), and Bayvel &
Orzechowski (1993).
This paper describes the design methodology for
internally mixed pressure swirl atomizer of tubular
type combustion chamber for micro gas turbine. The
design procedure available in the literature is in
discrete manner. An attempt is made to streamline
the design procedure for pressure swirl atomizer and
thereafter design and develop internally mixed
pressure swirl atomizer for tubular type combustion
chamber for micro gas turbine engine.
mixed pressure swirl atomizer. The first part

includes the design of simplex pressure swirl
atomizer for given mass flow rate, injection pressure
and spray cone angle. The second part includes
design of needle for supplying air at the center of
the atomizer. This air mixed within the atomizer and
becoming simplex pressure swirl atomizer to
internally mixed pressure swirl atomizer.
Fig.1 Basic dimensions of a Simplex Swirl Atomizer
In first part of design the aim is to determine the

dimensions of a simplex swirl atomizer for the
given flow rate, (m) injection pressure (P), nozzle
angle () and fuel properties fuel density and
kinematic viscosity ). The basic dimensions of
pressure swirl atomizer are given in Figure 1. The
discharge orifice diameter is calculated by relation
the mass flow rate through the nozzle as given in
equation 1.
4
.1
The first phase of calculations refers to an ideal

liquid. For given angle from figure.2, geometric
constant K and subsequently discharge coefficient
CD are determined. The geometric constant
contains three unknown quantities, R, I, dp
=
.2
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Extensive literature is devoted to design methods
for pressure swirl atomizer. There are two main
approaches to this calculation. The first approach
uses the principle of the maximum mass flow and
the second uses the equation of conservation of
momentum. Both the approaches differ with respect
to the methodology used, but they consider the
establishment of relationships between the same
characteristic dimensions of an atomizer, geometric
constant K, as well as spray parameters i.e.
coefficient of discharge CD, nozzle angle .
There are mainly two parts in design of internally
Fig.2 Dependence of the , , and on geometric constant

of a swirl atomizer (K).
62

From the unknown quantities listed above, two of

which have to be assumed. It is most convenient to
assume the number of orifices and radius of swirl
chamber. Most commonly, I = 2 to 4 and R = (2 to
5) ro are used. From the equation3 the diameter of
tangential inlet orifice can be calculated as
.3
In the case of orifice with a shape other then

circular, area of inlet port is calculated instead of
diameter of tangential port
The second phase of calculations refers to the
assessment of viscosity effect. The Reynolds
number at the inlet to the atomizer is given by
=
.4
Where d is the equivalent diameter of the orifice
required. The radius of swirl chamber should be

small for lower flow rate and higher liquid
viscosity.
Hence the following condition should be satisfied to
neglect the viscosity effects:
< 5 10
10
If the values of B (ratio of radius of swirl chamber
to radius of inlet port) and R (Radius of swirl
Chamber) are assumed very small, the overall
atomizer dimensions would become too small.
In tangential inlet orifice, liquid contraction occurs
due to liquid inertia and therefore the actual area of
cross section p A of each inlet orifice should be
increased in such a way that jet has cross section
area Ap. The contraction coefficient is defined as
the ratio of area of contracted jet to the area of
tangential port. The contraction coefficient is
assumed to be = 0.85 -0.90 (Pazhi et. al. 1984).
=
4
=
=
Therefore, equation (4) can be reformed as

4
.7
Friction coefficient follows from the formula

=
25.8
)
.
(
2
.8
Values of determined from equation (8) are
significantly larger than would follow from well
known equations used in hydraulics. This is due to
high transverse pressure gradient in the wall
boundary (Bayvel & Orzechowski, 1993). The
effect of liquid viscosity can be neglected when the
following inequality is satisfied (Roesler &
Lefebvre, 1989):
2
(
. 11
1)
.9
Where = ratio of discharge coefficient CD for a

viscous and an ideal liquid. Considering the
selection of the value of radius of swirl chamber
should be small and simultaneously the area of the
inlet orifice should be small in order to overcome
the viscosity barrier. The higher geometric constant
K means larger value of spray cone angle is
12
The third phase of the calculation concerns the

determination of the remaining dimensions of the
atomizer. The diameter of the swirl chamber is
given by (Ranganadha 1985)
=2 +
The length of the swirl chamber ls should be
slightly larger than that of the inlet orifice. It
suffices for a liquid to make one fourth to one third
of rotations, since a long chamber determines the
atomization condition.
The inlet orifice should have the proper length ls so
that jets entering the swirl chamber are not deflected
from the tangential direction. The length of the swirl
chamber is taken as (1.5 to 3) (Ranganadha
1985).
The discharge orifice should not be too long in
order not to decrease angle . For K < 4 5, l =
(0.5 to1.0) d0 and for K > 4 -5, l = (0.25 to 0.5) d0
is recommended by Beyvel & Orzechowski (1993).
The calculation method presented here is also
applicable to atomizers with a swirling insert. In
that case the radius of swirling R is equal to the
radius of swirling grooves. Ap is a cross section of
an individual groove and I is the number of groove.
The fuel chosen for the engine is kerosene and for
the purposes of the analysis is taken to have the
chemical formula C12H24. Other assumed properties
63

of kerosene are
Density = 780 kg/m3
Kinematic Viscosity = 2 E-06 m/s2
Balancing the chemical combustion equation is the
first step in determining the fuel/air ratio for the fuel
and for calculating the equivalence ratios required
in the design of combustion chamber. The equation
is balanced by considering the amount of air
required to completely combust the fuel into water
(H2O), the balanced equation is as shown below:
C12H24 +18O2=12CO2+12H2O
The fuel/air ratio is found from the exact amount of
air required to burn the fuel. In this case, it is found
to be:
C12H24 +18O2=12CO2+12H2O
1
13
14.73
This ratio is referred to as the stoichiometric fuel/air
ratio. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio defines the
perfect combustion situation. A measure of the
nature of combustion is the equivalence ratio, . An
equivalence ratio of less than 1 represents a lean
combustion process (excess air) and a ratio of
greater than 1 represents a rich combustion process
(excess fuel). The equivalence ratio is defined as:
DESIGN
OF
INTERNALLY
MIXED
PRESSURE SWIRL ATOMIZER
The design of internally mixed pressure swirl
atomizer is carried out as per the design
methodology presented in the previous section. The
input variables to the design are summarized in
Table 1 while Table 2 gives the primary
dimensions of designed nozzles. The dimensional
drawings of designed nozzles are given in Figures 3
Table 3.1: Input Variable to Design of pressure
swirl atomizer
Sr.
Parameter
Value
No.
1
Fuel Mass Flow Rate
9.0 E-04 kg/s
2
Injection Pressure
18 bar
3
Spray Angle
90o
4
Density of Atomizing Liquid
780 kg/m3
5
Kinematic Viscosity of
2 E-06 m/s2
Atomizing Liquid
Table 3.2 Summary of Designed Pressure Swirl
Atomizer
Sr. No
Design data
Value
1
2
3
14
In the calculations for combustor properties the

overall equivalence ratio for the chamber is used
where, f is the actual fuel/air ratio calculated during
the cycle analysis. For present case the equivalent
ratio is taken as 2 and mass of air (ma) required for
internal mixing to fuel is given by
9 10
5
6
7
8
9
10
Discharge orifice diameter.

d0
Distance of Tangential Inlet
Port from Central Axis, R
Number of Tangential Inlet
Ports, i
Tangential Inlet Port
Diameter, dp
Swirl Chamber Diameter, Ds
Length of Swirl Chamber, ls
Diameter of needle dn
Length of Inlet Port, lp
Length of Discharge Orifice,
l
Air Mass Flow Rate
0.0678
= 6.62 10
0.3 mm
1.6 mm
4
0.2 mm
2.414 mm
2.828 mm
1.00 mm
0.428 mm
0.15 mm
6.62E-3
kg/s
64

(a) Swirl
(b) Needle
(c) Cover
Fig.3Detailed dimensional drawing of internally mixed pressure swirl atomizer (All dimensions are in mm)
CONCLUSIONS
The design methodology is developed from the
theoretical and empirical relations available in a
discrete manner in the literature. The design process
for pressure swirl atomizer is streamlined and using
the design methodology presented herein, the
pressure swirl atomizer is designed and developed
for tubular combustion chamber of micro gas
turbine engine with spray cone angle of 90.
Because of the complexity of the over-all process
involved in atomizers, it would appear unlikely that
this simplified theoretical treatment would be
adequate for different applications of pressure swirl
atomizer. Consequently, the design methodology
derived in this paper must be applied judiciously
and with due regard for its limitations.
REFERENCES
Beyvel L & Orzechowski Z (1993), Liquid
Atomization, Taylor and Francis,Philadelphia, PA
Chigier N A (1993), Spray Science and Technology,
Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in Sprays,
ASME Fluid Eng Div Publ FED 178:118.
Griffen E & Maraszew A (1953), The Atomization
of Liquid Fuels, Chapman and Hall Ltd., London
Kulshreshtha DB, Dikshit SB and Channiwala SA
(2009) Design methodology and development of
pressure swirl atomizer for micro gas turbine
combustion chamber. Int. J. applied engineering
research vol 4, 1921-1929
Lefevbre A H (1983), Gas Turbine Combustion,

Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington,
DC, USA
Lefevbre A H (1985), Fuel Effects on Gas Turbine
CombustionIgnition, Stability and Combustion
Efficiency, ASME J Eng Gas Turbine Power
107:2437
Lefevbre A H (1989), Atomization and Spray,
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York
Nieuwkamp W. C. (1985), Flow Analysis of Hollow
Cone Nozzle with Potential Flow Theory, Proc.
ICLASS -85, London, Vol. 1, III C/1/1 -9
Pazhi D L & Galustov V S (1984), Fundamentals of
Liquid Atomization, Khimiya, Moscow
Ramamurthi K, Tharakan TJ (1995) Experimental
Study of Liquid Sheets formed in Coaxial Swirl
Injectors, AIAA J Propulsion Power 11(6):1103
1109.
Ramamurthi K, Tharakan TJ (1998) Flow
Transition in Swirled Liquid Sheets
AIAA J 36(3):420427.
Ranganadha Babu K, Narasimhan M. V.,
Narayanaswamy K. (1982), Correlations for
Prediction of Discharge Rate, Cone Angle and Air
Core Diameter of Swirl Atomizers, Proc. ICLASS 82, Wisconsin, 3-3, 91-97
Ranganadha Babu K, Narasimhan M. V.,
Narayanaswamy K. (1985), Design of Swirl
Chamber Atomizer, Proc. ICLASS -85, London,
Vol. 1, III C/3/1 -7
Reeves C M, Lefebvre A H (1986), Fuel Effects on
65

Aircraft Combustor Emissions, ASME paper 86GT-212

Rink KK, Lefebvre AH (1987) Pollutant Formation
in Heterogeneous Mixtures of Fuel Drops and Air,
AIAA J Propulsion Power 3(1):510.
Rizk N. K. and Lefebvre A.H.(1985) Prediction of
Velocity Coefficient and Spray Cone Angle for
Simplex Swirl Atomizer, Proc. ICLASS -85,
London,
Vol. 1, III C/2/1 -16.
Rizk N. K. and Lefebvre A.H. (1986) Influence of
Liquid Properties on the Internal Flow
Characteristics of Simplex Swirl Atomizers,
Atomizers and Spray Technology, Vol. 2, No.3, pp
219 233.
Roesler T C and Lefebvre A. H. (1989) Studies on
Aerated Liquid Atomization, Int J. of Turbo and Jet
Engines, Vol. 6, 3 4, 221 230.
66

Enhancement in the Design of Combustion

Chamber Swirler
Bhavin Kanubhai Shah
Faculty of technology & engineering, M.S. University, mechanical department
bhavin1985.2009@gmail.com
Ashokkumar Kukabhai Dhakiya

ashokdhakiya@yahoo.com
Arvind.S.Mohite
asmohite@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Swirling flow generates rotating flows, turbulence and free jet wakes at the downstream of swirler in combustion chamber.
So there is complex interaction between pressure gradients and fluid flow. After the experimental validation, it has found
that some efficient design is require for controlling the length and stability of the flame. This work presents the design of
combustion chamber swirler applicable for producing the CRZ (central recirculation zone) to control the length & stability
of the flame. The whole assembly is design which includes inlet pipe, swirler, diffuser, expansion chamber, tail pipe.
Axisymmetric Swirler model is designed with 8 blades keeping at 45o which can create optimum CRZ to obtain efficient
combustion. The overlap angle of 30o is provided between the blades for the proper guidance of the flow through swirler. In
designing care has been taken at upstream and downstream of flow, so hemispherical bluff body at hub, Dump diffuser and
Tail pipe is provided to avoid the disturbances in the development of the flow.
KEY WORDS: Vane swirler; central recirculation

zone; Overlap angle; Dump diffuser; Tail pipe.
NOMENCLATURE
B.R. blockage ratio = (d/D) 2
CRZ central recirculation zone
d hub diameter (swirler inner diameter, 40mm)
D nozzle diameter (swirler outlet diameter, 120mm)
h vane height = (D-d)/2
R nozzle radius = D/2
S swirl number
Z hub to tip ratio = d/D
vane outlet angle
vane overlap angle
INTRODUCTION
Swirling flows offer an interesting field of study for
aero space and mechanical engineers in general and
for combustion engineers in particular since it
involves complex interaction of recirculation and

turbulent mixing which aid flame stabilization in
combustion systems. Swirling ows have practical
applications in many combustion systems, such as
industrial furnaces and gas turbine combustors.
Swirling ows in both reacting and non-reacting
conditions occur in a wide range of applications
such as gas turbines, marine combustors, burners
chemical processing plants, rotary kilns and spray
dryers. Swirling jets are used as a means of
controlling ames in combustion chambers.
The presence of swirl results in setting up of radial

and axial pressure gradients, which in turn inuence
the ow elds. In case of strong swirl the adverse
axial pressure gradient is sufficiently large to result
in reverse ow along the axis and generating an
internal circulation zone. In the present study, the
design of vane swirler is based on the design
procedure of (Mathur and Macallum, 1967). The
67

energy spent in swirl generation and the velocity

and static pressure distributions in the jets issuing
into the atmosphere are reported with reference to
the central recirculation zone. Swirl ows can be
characterized by means of a non-dimensional
number called the swirl number S, which is the
ratio of axial ux of swirl momentum (G) divided
by axial ux of axial momentum (Gx ) times the
equivalent nozzle radius (R).
The basic characteristic of a weak swirl (S< 0.3) is
just to increase the width of a free or conned jet
ow but not to develop any axial recirculation. This
is due to low axial pressure gradient, whereas strong
swirl (S> 0.6) develops strong axial and radial
pressure gradient, which aids to form a central
toroidal recirculation zone. The central toroidal
recirculation zone (CTRZ) is due to the imbalance
between adverse pressure gradient along the jet axis
and the kinetic energy of the uid particles owing
in the axial direction. This is due to dissipation and
diffusion of swirl and also by ow divergence (Vu
and Goulding, 1982). we have observe in the
experiment that adverse pressure gradient plays very
important role as shown in Fig: 3.
As already mentioned, based on swirl number, the
swirl ows are classied into weak, medium and
strong swirl. If swirl number is less than 0.3 it is
usually classied as weak swirl and if it is between
0.3 and 0.6 it is called medium swirl and if the swirl
number is greater than 0.6, it is called strong swirl
(Ganesan, 1974). The recirculation zone geometry is
a direct function of swirl number. (Huang and Tsai,
2001). In combustors, the central recirculation zone
acts as an aerodynamic blockage or a threedimensional bluff body.
This helps in ame stabilization by providing a hot
ow of recirculated combustion products and a
reduced velocity region where ame speed and ow
velocity can be matched. Swirling jets are used in
furnaces as a means of controlling the length and
stability of the ame. A common method of
generating a swirling ow is by employing a vane
swirler. Experimentally it has found that, if diameter
ration and velocity does not match then possibility
of reversal of flow is there as shown in Fig: 1.
Fig. 3 Recirculation zone

PURPOSE OF THE DESIGN
The combustion chamber should have optimum
efficiency to meet the desired need of the industrial
application. For efficient combustion vane swirler is
induced into the combustion chamber which will
reverse the flow of air & creates recirculation region
and control the length and provides the stability to
the flame.
This combustion swirler is designed with the
compact assembly of diffuser (dump), expansion
chamber, and tailpipe.
SWIRLER
There are mainly two types of swirlers in practical
cases and modifications are made in them to
improve the performance of the swirler
A. Axial swirler
B. Radial swirler
Axial swirlers tend to have higher pressure losses

than the radial type but are much simpler to
manufacture. Parameters of interest to axial swirler
designers are depicted by Figure 1. They include the
vane angle v, the inner hub radius Rhub, the outer
swirler radius Rsw, the vane thickness tv, the vane
length cv, and the number of vanes nv.
Typical axial swirler designs have vane angle 45o,
vane thickness between 2mm, and 8 vanes. In this
design curved vanes are used to obtain better
results.
A useful parameter for design is the Swirl number,
Sn. The swirl number is measure of the ratio of
angular momentum ux to axial momentum ux
and dened by (Chigier & Beer, 1964).
68

vanes do not lie in the plane of the hub exit. The

angle subtended by a vane at the axis, when viewed
in the axial direction (), is 75, giving an overlap
of 30 between adjacent vanes.
Fig. 2 Axial swirler

The swirl number determines the criterion for
recirculation. The recirculation zone increases in
length and diameter as the swirl number is increased
to a value of 1.5. The zone continues to increase in
diameter beyond this value; however, its length
begins to decrease.
The length of the hub is 175 mm and a

hemispherical bluff body is attached upstream of the
hub in order to smoothly guide the fluid particle
circumferentially, impinging on the hub. The threedimensional swirler geometry is made from
transparent Perspex material and it consists of an
inlet pipe of length 350 mm, outer diameter 120mm
and hub diameter of 40mm. The vane swirler is
placed in the inlet pipe with vane tip made to
coincide with the exit plane of inlet pipe. Hub to tip
ratio is 0.3.
The inlet pipe is followed by a sudden expansion
chamber of 250mm diameter of length 1100 mm.
Holes of 10mm diameter are drilled downstream of
the swirler at various stations (G to M) shown in
Fig. 3. The circular chamber is followed by a tail
end pipe of length 1300 mm and diameter of
120mm. The tail end pipe is provided to prevent the
back flow of fluid affecting the swirl flow
development in the circular chamber.
Fig. 3 Design parameters of axial swirler
FLATE VANES VERSUS CURVED VANES

Curved vanes are more efficient aerodynamically
than flat vanes. This is because they allow the
incoming axial flow to gradually turn, which
inhibits flow separation on the suction side of the
vane. Thus more complete turning and higher swirl
and radial velocity components are generated at the
swirler exit, which results in a larger recirculation
zone and a higher reverse flow rate. When air
swirlers are incorporated into air blast atomizers,
curved vanes should always be used because the
wakes produced downstream of flat vanes could
adversely affect the quality of atomization. (E.Kilik)
DESIGN DETAIL OF 45o AXIAL VANE
SWIRLER
The design of vane swirler is based on Mathur and
Macallum. The design of 45 vane swirler is shown
in Fig. 2. There are eight vanes 2 mm in thick. The
vanes are symmetrical, and the trailing edges of the
Fig. 4 Axial swirler with inlet pipe
69

DIFFUSER DESIGN
Many processes benet from low ow velocities in
addition to ame stabilization. Lower annulus
velocities promote ow uniformity, improved jet
penetration at steeper angles, lower skin-friction
losses, and lower sudden-expansion losses
downstream. The goal of diuser design is to
minimize the total pressure loss incurred while
recovering as much dynamic velocity head as
possible.
A good design achieves a high static pressure
recovery with low pressure losses, is stable,
insensitive to uctuation in inlet conditions or
manufacturing tolerances, and short in length.
Diffusers must also discharge to provide the
necessary airow distributions without an adverse
eects from changes in mass ow splits, ow
asymmetry, or wakes produced by objects in the
ow path (injector fuel lines, struts, etc).
The two main types that are used in gas turbines are
faired and dump diusers. The dump diuser is
much simpler than faired types and provides a larger
degree of diusion over a shorter distance. Dump
diusers consist of two sections: a faired prediuser
and a step region.
The prediuser reduces the velocity of the ow by
approximately 60 percent before the ow is dumped
into the highly separated step region. Design
involves optimizing the division of diusion
between the two sections to accomplish a suitable
compromise between pressure loss and overall
diuser length. (Charest, 2005)
Fig. 5 Dump diffuser

The prediffuser is designed is 120mm and 155mm
as inlet and outlet diameter respectively and length
is 166mm.The divergence angle 2 is 12o. The
outlet diameter of step region is 250mm having
length of 48mm and divergence angle is 45o to
prevent the corner recirculation. Holes of 10mm
diameter are drilled downstream of the swirler at
various stations (A to Q) shown in Fig. 6.
The diffuser is followed by expansion chamber
where size of recirculation zone and amount of air
recirculated is measured. The diameter and length of
the chamber is designed 250mm and 1100mm
respectively. The tailpipe of 120mm diameter and
1300mm length is provided to avoid the
atmospheric disturbance.
Fig. 6 Expansion chamber
Fig. 7 Tail pipe
70

COMPARISION
This design of combustion swirler set up is modified

from the (Pawar and Mohite, 2010) in which 6
blades swirler, conical diffuser and expansion
chamber with 550mm diameter was used. Due to
this design there was corner recirculation taking
place and flow of air was disturbed. Tailpipe was
also not used so high pressure loss was there at the
downstream side of flow. Here in this modified
design care has been taken at upstream and
downstream of flow, so hemispherical bluff body at
hub, Dump diffuser and Tail pipe is provided to
avoid the disturbances in the development of the
flow.
stabilization. Better length and width of the CRZ

with minimized pressure loss to obtain proper and
efficient combustion. After experimental validation,
design with flow characteristic can be interface to
get optimal results. By considering all above
conditions for Enhancement in design methodology,
we can get optimal results.
REFERENCES
B.T. Vu, C. Goulding (1982). Flow measurements

in a model swirl combustor, AIAA Journal 20,
pp 642651.
E.Kilik, Better Swirl Generation by using curved
vanes, California state university, Long Beach,
California.
H.S.Choksi & Ambalal Patil (2002). Design
Aspect & performance analysis of Gas Turbine
Combustion Chamber, Faculty of Technology &
engineering, M.S.University, Vadodara, pp 28-41.
M.L.Mathur, N.R.L. Maccallum (1967). Swirling
air jets issuing from vane swirlers, Part 1: free
jets, Journal of the Institute of fuel, pp 214-225
Mark R.J.Charest (2005). Design Methodology for
a Lean Premixed Prevaporized Can Combustor,
pp 13-66.
M.R.Pawar,
A.S.Mohite,
A.R.Patel
(2010).
Investigation and Validation of swirl generation
in Combustion chamber, ICAME, SVNIT,
SURAT.
R.F. Huang, F.C. Tsai (2001). Observations of
swirling ows behind circular disks, AIAA
Journal 39, pp 11061112.
R Thundil Karuppa Raj & V Ganesan (2009).
Experimental study of recirculating flows
induced vane swirler, Indian Journal Engineering
& Material Science, Vol.16, pp 14-22.
V. Ganesan (1974). Recirculation and turbulence
studies in an isothermal model of a gas turbine
combustor chamber, Ph.D. Thesis, I.I.T.-Madras,
Chennai, India, pp. 14-22.
Fig. 8 Assembled view of set up

CONCLUSION
This design methodology helps to construct the

combustion chamber swirler by which we can
generate better swirl optimum reversal of mass flow
of air and can be optimized with the central
recirculation zone which may help flame
71

72

Study of Performance Comparisons of

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
Power Plant
Devang A. Thakar
Mechanical Engineering, Parul Institute of Engg. & Tech.Limda, Vadodara
devang_mech1983@yahoo.co.in
Avdhoot N.Jejurkar
Mechanical Engineering, Parul Institute of Engg. & Tech.Limda, Vadodara
avdhoot jejurkar@gmail.com
Dr.Nirvesh S. Mehta
Mechanical Engineering, LDRP Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar
nirveshmehta@gmail.com
Minesh T. Patel
Mechanical Engineering, ITM Univewrse, Vadodara
minesh371973@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the performance comparisons of three different integrated gasification combined-cycle
(IGCC) plants configurations is compared using detailed analysis and objective evaluation criteria based on
second law of thermodynamics located at USA Midwest . Each configuration uses oxygen blown gasifier and
hot gas cleanup process and site condition and coal feeds are common for all plants. Also compare the
environment emission of these plants to satisfy the objective of vision 21.
KEY WORDS : IGCC,ISTIG,.Gasifier,
INTRODUCTION:
Integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC)
electric generating plants are currently under
development to provide a clean, highly efficient coal
fueled option for generating electric power from
coal. IGCC offers base load operation by coupling a
coal-gasifier with a combined-cycle power
generating block. The basic operation of an IGCC
plant is similar to a conventional combined- cycle
plant. There are two distinct turbine systems: a gas
turbine and a steam turbine, the latter being driven
by steam generated from heat recovered from the
exhaust gases of the gas turbine. The gasifier system
converts coal into a clean combustible gas that fuels

a combustion turbine. The combustion turbine
exhaust heat is used to produce steam, which drives
a turbine generator. The primary area of integration
involves the recovery and transfer of heat from the
gasifier syngas coolers to the combined-cycle block.
In addition to the heat recovery system, the gasifier
section also contains a raw gas cleanup section that
includes particulate and sulfur removal systems.
Another gasification-based power plant under
consideration reties on the Intercooled Steam
Injected Gas Turbine (ISTIG) concept. This design
73

eliminates the steam turbine system by re injecting

all steam produced into the gas turbine. IGCC
technology has been developed to commercial
readiness; these plants could be installed as an

alternative to base load pulverized coal fired units.
History of different IGCC plant is shown in chart 1
.
(D = Germany, E =Spain, I = Italy, IN = India)

Chart 1: History of Plants (Simens AG power generation , Germany)
PROCESS DESCRIPTION:
The proposed coal gasification process is known as
an air-blown, entrained-flow gasification process,
in which pulverized coal is used to produce a clean,
low-Btu fuel gas. As discussed below, four major
subsystems make up the proposed IGCC
demonstration plant: coal processing, gasification
and gas cooling, hot gas cleanup, and power
generation. Figure 1 is a simplified process flow
schematic for the plant.
The coal processing is done by conventional,
commercially available technologies, in which
conveyor belts and crushing mills are employed to
pulverize the coal. The pulverized coal is then fed
to the pressurized gasifier.
The gasifier consists of a reductor (top) and
combustor (bottom) section. Coal is fed into both
sections. During coal gasification, part of the coal
and char (a solid product) are fed into the
combustor section with an upward-flowing stream
of compressed air and burned to generate heat and
hot gases. The hot gases generated in the
combustor then enter the reductor section of the
gasifier. With additional feed coal and the heat
generated in the combustor section, the remainder
of the carbon from the char plus the fresh coal is
converted to gases by the gasification reaction.
These gases are commonly known as fuel gas. Fuel
gas is composed of hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
methane, carbon dioxide, and other carbon- and
sulfur containing compounds. Because of the high
temperatures generated in the combustor section

(in excess of 2000F), ash in the coal is converted
into a liquid that is allowed to flow out the bottom
of the gasifier into a water-filled quench tank,
where it is cooled to form a / nonleachable glassy
substance (slag).
The fuel gas generated by the reductor section and
any unreacted char exit the top of the gasifier and
are sent to cooling systems where the fuel gas is
cooled to approximately 1000F by various heat
exchange surfaces and water spray to match the hot
gas cleanup system. Following cooling, the fuel gas
is cleaned to remove sulfur-containing compounds
and any fine particulate matter. The coal char gas
stream is sent to the high-efficiency cyclone, where
fine particles and char that are suspended in the gas
are separated from each other. The solid char is
returned to the combustor section of the gasifier for
further conversion. The gas stream, which now
does not contain any solid particles, goes to the hot
gas cleanup system, where sulfur-containing
compounds are removed from the fuel gas. A
newly developed process for removing sulfur from
hot gas is also proposed to be tested. It consists of a
moving bed zinc ferrite sorbent that absorb the
sulfur containing compounds. For system
reliability, a conventional low-temperature sulfurremoval system may be installed as a backup to
provide a commercially proven technology for
sulfur removal. The low temperature sulfurremoval system uses an amine-type solution to
74

absorb sulfur compounds in the fuel gas. A

limestone sorbent injection system for optional
demonstration of in-bed desulfurization would also
be installed. The resulting clean fuel gas is well
suited to be burned in a gas turbine to produce
electricity. The exhaust gases from the turbine are
then sent to the HRSG, where they produce steam
for use in a steam turbine to generate additional
electricity. The combination of gas turbine and
steam turbine to produce electricity is commonly
known as a combined cycle. Because a gasifier is
used to provide energy to gas and steam turbines,
the entire process is known as integrated
gasification combined cycle.
Fig 1 schematic diagram of IGCC process

(combustion engineering workshop)
SITE CONDITION FOR THE PLANT

Site condition for the all the plants are same and it
is given below.
Site Condition
Location
Typical Mid Western
State
Elevation (m)
152.43
Air Temperature(K)
306
Barometric Pressure
1
(bar)
Relative Humidity(%)
60
Coal Content
HHV KJ/kg
LHV KJ/kg
Carbon (wt %)
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Oxygen
Chlorine
Ash
Moisture
Total
29656
28553
70.02
4.99
1.3
2.58
8.27
0.13
12.70
100
PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT IGCC

PLANT
Energy-based variables are generally insufficient
for the detailed performance comparison of energy
systems. An energy analysis fails in most cases to
identify the real energy waste or the effective use
of fuels and resources. Therefore, in addition to
mass and energy balances, detailed exergy (secondlaw) analyses were conducted for each plant.
Performance summary is shown in table 1 and
environment emission summary is shown in table
2.
Performance Summary
Sr. Parameter
Wabash Optimi
1000
No
River
ze coal
MW
.
Greenfie
to
coal
ld Plant
power IGCC
IGCC
plant
01 Ambient
288
288
288
Temperature
(K)
02 Coal Feed
2642
3517
10837
As
Received,
TPD
03 Dry Coal
2259
3007
9266
Feed To
Gasifier
TPD
04 Total Fresh
633.69
699.33 2253.3
Water
Consumptio
n (m3/hr)
05 Sulfur
57
76.7
236.6
Recover
TPD
06 Slag
356
462
1423
produced
TPD
07 Total
2130
2294
8009
Oxygen
Feed to
Gasifier
TPD
08 Heat input
703.39
936.40 2885.1
To Gasifier
1
(MW)
09 Cold Gas
76.9
80.8
78.0
Efficiency at
the Gas
Turbine %
10 Fuel Input to
51.83
68.51
219.43
Gas Turbine
(kg/s)
75

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Heat Input
To Gas
Turbine
MW
Steam/nitrog
en Injection
to Gas
Turbine
(kg/s)
Gas Turbine
Output
(MW)
Steam
Turbine
Output
(MW)
Gross Power
output(MW)
ASU &
Gasification
plant power
Consumptio
n (MW)
Balance of
plant &
Auxiliary
load power
Consumptio
n (MW)
Net power
output(MW)
Plant Heat
Rate
Thermal
Efficiency
490.91
13.98
711.31
78.13
2105.5
130.7
192
300.1
840
118
164.1
465.2
310
464.2
1305.2
31.2
35.4
127
9.5
12.3
23.6
269.3
416.5
1154.6
8912
7671
8526
38.3
44.5
40
Environment Emissions Summary

Sr. Paramete Wabash Optimi
No.
r
River
ze coal
Greenfie
to
ld Plant
power
IGCC
01 Total Gas Turbine Emissions
1.1
GT/HRSG
475
606.94
Stack
Exhaust
Flow Rate
(kg/s)
1.2
GT/HRSG
387
391
Stack
Exhaust
Temperatu
re (K)
1.3
Emission
(15%
1000
MW
coal
IGCC
plant
2007
387
Oxygen
Dry Basis)
SO X AS
SO2(kg/s)
NO X AS
NO2(kg/s)
CO (kg/s)
1.3.
0.00289
1
1.3.
0.020
2
1.3.
0.006
3
02 Incinerator Emission
2.1
Stack
2.78
Exhaust
Flow Rate
(kg/s)
2.2
Stack
533
Exhaust
Temperatu
re (K)
2.3
Emission
(3%
Oxygen
Dry Basis)
2.3. SO X AS
0.0365
1
SO2(kg/s)
2.3. NO X AS
0.0001
2
NO2(kg/s)
2.3. CO (kg/s)
0.0001
3
03 Total Plant Emission
3.1
Exhaust
477.8
Flow
Rate(kg/s)
3.2
Emission
3.2. SO X AS
0.039
1
SO2(kg/s)
3.2. NO X AS
0.020
2
NO2(kg/s)
3.2. CO (kg/s)
0.007
3
Sulfur
96.8
Removal
(%)
0.003
0.011
0.016
0.034
0.005
0.020
1.36
2.69
618
594
0.001
0.043
0.00003
0.00006
0.0000
8
0.0001
608.3
2009
0.04
0.055
0.01
0.034
0.005
0.02
99.7
98.9
CONCLUSIONS:
An exergy analysis is a very useful tool in
evaluating the performance of an IGCC power
plant and of specific plant components. By using
the exergy analysis plant performance comparison
was done as well as environment emission
comparison was done which satisfies the goal of
vision 21.
Thermal efficiency of the optimized coal plant was
found to be 6 % higher than the other two plants
because it used an optimized coal supplied to
advance G/H class combustion turbine.
76

Overall plant performance are very useful for

IGCC plant design configurations during
comparison. The efficiency of similar component
groups was found to vary significantly from one
plant to another considering the overall plant
efficiency to be approximately the same. In
addition, exergy-based variables provide a better
measure of consistency and comparability than
energy-based variables.
Combined-Cycle
Power Plant," EPRI Final Report
AP4734, August 1986.
Janabek, R. L., and Matchak, T. A., "Evaluation of a
Dow-Based Gasification-Combined-Cycle Plant Usinn
Low-Rank Coals," EPRI Final Report GS-6318, April
1989.
Bechet corporation task 1 topical report IGCC plant
performance optimization U.S.DOE national energy
technology laboratory (NETL)
Compared to single-train plants, multi-train plants

give the better performance and also reduce the
overall cost of the plant.
It can be inferred that even though IGCC plants are
used for the base load operations they can be used
for the peak load operations if it is integrated with
the concept of TES (thermal energy storage) which
will be economically feasible than the other storage
systems. Also, it is technically feasible to run the
plant for 24 hours operation using the concept of
TES.
REFERENCES
Gallaspy, D. T., Johnson, T. W. and Sears, R. E.,

"Southern Company Services Study of a KRW-Based
Integrated Gasification- Combined-Cycle Plant," EPRI
Final Report, RP 2773-5, 1990.
Dawkins, R. P., Hughes, M. K., Iamprecht, D. C., Rao,
A. D.,and Sander, M. T., "Cost and Performance of
Kellonn Rust Westinnhouse- based Gasification
Combined-Cycle Plants," EPRI Final Report AP-4018,
June, 1985.
Tsatsaronis, G., Tawfik, T., Lin, L., and Gallaspy, D.
T.,"Exergy Analysis of an IGCC Design Configuration
for Plant Wansley," in Analysis and Design of Enerw
Systems: Thermodynamic Analvsis of Industrial
Processes (R. A. Bajura, M. R. von Spakovsky, and E.S.
Geskin, Editors), American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 1989 ASMWAM, December 1989, AES-Vol.
10-3, pp. 21-29.
Matchak, T. A., Rao, A. D., Ramanathan, V., and
Sander, M. T.,'Cost and Performance for Commercial
Apdications of Texaco-Based Gasification Combined
Cvcle Plants," FPRI Final Report AP-3486, April 1984.
Jacob, J. T. and Chu, L. A., "Evaluation of a Texaco
Gasification-Combined-Cycle
Plantwith Kraftwerk
Union GasTurbines," EPRI Final Report GS-6160,
December 1988.
Eustis, R. H., Erbes, M. R. and Phillips, J. N., "Analysis
of the Off-Design Performance and Phased Construction
of Integrated Gasification Combined Cvcle Power
Plants," EPRI Final Report AP-5027, February 1987.
Tsatsaronis, G., Winnhold, M., and Stojanoff, C.
G.,"Thennoeconomic Analysis of a Gasification
77

78

A Review: Modeling and the Performance of

Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
A. D. Patel
PG Student, Department of mechanical Engineering,
Shri Sad Vidhya Mandal Institute of Technology, Bharuch-392001(Gujarat-INDIA)
E-mail ID: patel_ashvin2010@yahoo.co.in
V. Y. Gajjar
Assistant Professor, Department of mechanical Engineering,
Shri Sad Vidhya Mandal Institute of Technology, Bharuch-392001(Gujarat-INDIA)
E-mail ID: vandana_mistry8@yahoo.com
Araniya K.K.
Assistant Professor, Department of mechanical Engineering,
Faculty of Engg. Tech & Research, Isroli-Afwa, Bardoli(Gujarat-INDIA)
E-mail ID: kka.fetr@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Increasing demand for energy, energy security and the need to minimize the impact on the environment related to energy are
the major drivers for the research and development of alternative energy technologies. Clean and highly efficient energy
production has long been sought to solve energy and environmental problems. The current concern with consumption of
fossil fuels and pollutant emissions (especially greenhouse gases such as CO2) is the main motivator for the exploration of
fuel cell systems as an alternative to traditional power generation systems. Fuel cells, which convert the chemical energies
stored in fuel directly into electrical energy, are expected to be a key enabling technology for this century.
Modeling and simulation are latest tools for the prediction of performance characteristics of a model. Experimental Model
Analysis is a recent development in the verification and validation of performance behavior of the mechanical system. In
spite of the monumental research work done on the subject, analysis of SOFC (solid oxide fuel cell) as well as measures for
its reduction is one of the least understood areas of SOFC technology.
KEY WORDS: Fuel cell, SOFC.

NOMENCLATURE
= Reversible Nernst voltage (V)
= Anode current per unit depth (A/m)
= Cathode current per unit depth(A/m)
= Exchange current (A/m2)
R = Internal radius of the cell
R = Radius of cathode layer
R = Radius of electrolyte layer
R = Radius of anode layer
R = Anode resistance of a differential element per unit
depth
R = Cathode resistance of a differential element per unit
depth
R = Electrolyte resistance of a differential element per
unit depth
R = Activation and polarization loss
T = Cell operating temperature
= Cell operating voltage (V)
= Current density(A/m2)
= Anode thickness
= Cathode thickness
= Electrolyte thickness
= Activation polarization(V)
= Ohmic polarization in anode (V)
= Ohmic polarization in cathode(V)
=Concentration polarization (V)
=Angular location(radians)
R= Gas constant
= Electron transfer coefficient
Z= Electron associate with the electrochemical reaction
F= Faradays constants
79

INTRODUCTION
Engineers and environmentalists have long
dreamed of being able to obtain the benefits of clean
electric power without pollution-producing engines
or heavy batteries. Solar panels and wind farms are
familiar images of alternative energy technologies.
While they are effective sources of electrical
energy, there are problems with the stability of their
energy source as, on a cloudy or windless day. Their
applications are somewhat limited due to lack of
portability; a windmill is not much help to the
power plant of a diesel truck, a solar panel cannot
provide power at night, etc
Fig. 1 Fuel cell operation
Fuel cell is a device capable of converting

chemical energy stored in fuels, such as hydrogen,
methanol or formic acid, directly into direct-current
electricity without the combustion step required by
thermal cycles. Fuel cells have been the subject of
extensive research in later years, because of the
several potential advantages over todays
combustion engines: fuel cells are theoretically
more efficient, can be easily scaled up by stacking
several cells in various configurations, do not have
major moving parts and run silently. When run on
hydrogen, they produce only water as a by-product.
As a particular relevance to this concern,
solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) have been extensive
research focus because of its high efficiency,
environmental friendliness, multi-fuel capabilities
and being easy to site. The biggest advantage of
tubular cells over planar cells is that they do not
require any high temperature seals to isolate oxidant
from the fuel, and this makes performance of
tubular cell stacks very stable over long periods of
times (several years).The recent development in
technology leads near to exact prediction of
experimental
performance
and
finds
the
characteristics of a mechanical system without
building any prototype or model. It helps the

designer to make any modification according to the
requirements, and in the early stage of design so as
to make the fast response and corrective actions.
In principle, a fuel cell operates like a
battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run
down or require recharging. It will produce energy
in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is
supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes
sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes
over one electrode and hydrogen over the other,
generating electricity, water and heat.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the "anode" of
the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell
through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the
hydrogen atom splits into a proton and an electron,
which take different paths to the cathode. The
proton passes through the electrolyte. The electrons
create a separate current that can be utilized before
they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the
hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water. A fuel
cell system which includes a "fuel reformer" can
utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel from natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline.
Since the fuel cell relies on chemistry and not
combustion, emissions from this type of a system
would still be much smaller than emissions from the
cleanest fuel combustion processes.
The present challenge is to make the cost
of SOFC competitive with that of other power
generation technologies, without compromising on
the performance. Computational modeling of fuel
cell can assist in understanding several of these
issues. These models can be classified in to two
categories: systems model and mechanistic model.
Systems model are microscopic and are base on a
mass and energy balance of the SOFC power plant.
They are concerned with the overall performance of
the plant subject to thermodynamic and process
variables such as pressure, temperature, and fuel
and oxidant composition. Mechanistic models, on
the other hand, focus on detail modeling of an
individual component of the cell such as kinetic of
natural gas reformer, electrical performance of cell,
or heat and mass transport in the electrodes. Several
researchers have developed systems models for
stand-alone SOFC power systems and have done
parametric analysis with respect to key process
variables. However, from the point of view of
making the SOFC cost competitive, it is perhaps
more useful to develop mechanistic performance
models that can be implemented with relative ease
and which predict the performance of key SOFC
component whose cost is major concern. At present
80

the SOFC material cost is very high and therefore,

the cell dimension are key design variables.
molecules. This phenomenon generates the

electrical current due to the potential developed.
SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL THEORY
CELL PERFORMANCE MODEL
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) in

particular are considered as promising energy
conversion devices due to a number of potential
benefits, including high energy efficiency, lower
pollutant emissions, possibility of using different
fuels and combined heat and power generation
applications. SOFCs operate at high temperatures
in the range of about 600 C -1000 C. This high
temperature operation of SOFCs provide multiple
co-generation possibilities such as internal
reforming of hydrocarbon fuels to generate
hydrogen, which is not possible in other types of
fuel cells. It also facilitates production of high
quality steam, which can be efficiently used for
other applications. A number of different designs
have been tested in need of optimizing the
performance of these cells. The common geometries
used are shown in Figure 2.
To develop a computational model

important for predict the electrical performance of
tubular SOFC as a function of cell dimensions.
Figure 3 shows the schematic of the tubular SOFC.
Air flow in the inner hollow tube and partially reformed natural gas flows on the surface of the outer
tube. The cell is discretized into slices of thickness
dx. At each location x, a local Nernst voltage is
generated, the magnitude of which depend on the
temperature and on the fuel and oxidant
concentrations at that location. Thus the Nernst
voltage varies along the axial location x and for a
given cell operating voltage ( ) the current
generated also varies with x.
Figure 3 shows the cross section of one
slice of tubular SOFC with a thickness of dx and
located at a distance x. The cell is cathodesupported and consists of concentric layer of the
cathode (doped LaMnO3), electrolyte yttriastabilized zirconia, and the anode (Ni/doped
zirconia). The cell outer radius is R and thickness of
cathode, electrolyte and anode are c, e and a
respectively.
The average radii of three layers are define
by following equations.
R R
(Cathode)
Eq. (1)
R R
Fig. 2 Geometry of tubular SOFC
Two basic geometries of SOFCs have

been studied quite actively in the relevant literature
viz. the planar SOFC design and the tubular design.
Both types have their own advantages and
disadvantages. Figure 2 shows the general
configuration of the tubular geometry of SOFCs.
The working of a Solid Oxide fuel cell is different
to that of other types of fuel cells. The electrolyte
material is a ceramic solid which is a very good ion
conductor at elevated temperatures. In SOFC
operation, the oxygen ions travel through the
electrolyte from the cathode to the anode, and reacts
with the hydrogen molecules at the Triple phase
boundary (TPB) on the anode. This electrochemical
reaction produces H2O and releases electrons in the
anode. These electrons travel through the anode and
the current collectors and through the external
circuit to the cathode to react with the oxygen
(Electrolyte)
Eq. (2)
R R
(Anode)
Eq. (3)
Fig. 3 Cross sectional view of tubular SOFC
The interconnect contact connect one cell

to the next adjoining. The width of the contact is W1
and H1. Current enters the cell from the lower
81

adjoining cell though the interconnect contact. If the

depth of the cross section slice is x, the total
current entering the cell is 2I0x, where I0 is the
current entering the half cell per depth (A/m). Here
assume that there is no current transport in axial
direction. Further, assume that the current flow
along the circumference in the cathode and anode,
while it flows in the radial direction in the
electrolyte layer. In the cathode and anode, the
current transport occurs due to flow of electros,
while in the electrolyte it is ionic.
The current distribution itself along several
possible path, finally having the cell at the upper
interconnect contact to the next adjoin cell.
Consider one such current path (fig. 2), in which the
current travel along the circumference on the anode
until the angular location .
the different layers
Here,
is the Nernst voltage,
and
are
the activation and concentration polarizations,
respectively, in the particular current path, and
is the total Ohmic voltage loss in the anode,
cathode, electrolyte, gap and interconnect.
Eq. (4)
Figure 4 shows the differential current element

located at angle . Here ( ) and ( ) are the
anode and cathode current respectively, per unit cell
length (A/m). Thus, the actual anode current is
and cathode current is . The local current
density at the angular location is ( ) (A/m) and
hence the current flowing in the branch is
( )R2 x.
Ra and Rc are the differential anode and
cathode resistances, respectively:
=
There is an Ohmic voltage drop during this
path, which depends on anode resistivity and the
anode thickness. At this point, the current crosses
radially into the electrolyte and activation and
concentration polarization losses. The current
further Ohmic voltage drops in the cathode. Finally,
the current flow through gap and interconnect to the
next cell. In each of the possible current path, the
total voltage difference is the same and equals the
cell operating voltage
.
=
( )
( )
( )
Eq. (4)
+
+
Eq. (5)
Eq. (6)
Represents the combined activation and

polarizations and
is electrolytes resistance.
The anode and cathode current at any
location ( ) per unit cell length (A/m) can be
expressed as
( ) =
( )
( ) = ( )
Eq. (7)
Eq. (8)
The sum of the anode and cathode is , which is the

total current entering the half-cell.
The fundamental equations governing the
current distribution in each differential element of
the cell are Kirchoffs current law and Kirchoffs
voltage law. These equations apply to each
differential element, as shown in figure 4.[10]
( + ) = ( ) ( ( ) ) Eq. (9)
( + ) =
( )( ( )
) Eq.(10)
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( + )
= ( + )
( + ) ( + )
( + )
Concentration polarization
( )=
=
ln
ln 1
is given by
( )
Eq. (12)
Eq. (13)
Fig. 4 Cross section of tubular SOFC showing
82

Table 1 Specifications of the cell tube
Internal reforming of methane

High temperature fuel cells in contrast to
low temperature fuel cells can convert both
hydrogen and carbon monoxide to electricity.
Moreover, high temperature fuel cell can be fed
with methane containing fuel. Methane can be
converted to H2 and CO in a steam reforming
endothermic reaction at the SOFC anode:
CH + H O 3H + CO
Eq. (14)
Steam reforming process is associated with a water
shift reaction
CO + H O CO + H
Eq. (15)
Specification
YSZ electrolyte thickness (m)
LSMYSZ cathode thickness(m)
NiYSZ anode thickness(mm)
Outer diameter (mm)
Inner diameter (mm)
Cell length (cm)
Cell active length (cm)
Active area (cm2)
15
40
1
8
6
50
40
100
Assembly and operation of the cell
Both steam reforming of methane and water-shift

reactions are included in present model of the SOFC
stack. Water-shift reaction is assumed to reach
equilibrium locally at any location in the stack:
Eq. (16)
Where, N [Kmol/s] denotes local molar flux of
selected species. Additionally, shift equilibrium
constant is also calculated as a function of operating
temperature.
CASE STUDY
EXPERIMENTAL
Fabrication of anode-supported tubular SOFC
A green NiOYSZ tubular support was
prepared by an extrusion method. An equal weight
of NiO and YSZ (8 mol% Y2O3 stabilized ZrO2)
were used. After the extruded tube was dried, a thin
film of the YSZ electrolyte was coated on the tube.
The anode support/electrolyte assembly was then
co-fired at 1450C for 4 h. A LSMYSZ (LSM-YSZ
= 60:40 wt. %) cathode was slurry-coated on the
YSZ film, and then fired at 1250C for 2 h. The
thicknesses of the anode, cathode and electrolyte
were 1000, 40 and 15 m, respectively. The cell
tube was 50 cm in length, 8mm in diameter and the
electrode active area was 100 cm2. Nickel mesh was
used as the anode current collector and silver mesh
was used as the cathode current collector. The
specifications of the anode-supported tubular SOFC
are listed in Table 1.
Fig. 5 Schematic of the pressurized reactor for the tubular

cell (1) Reactor (2) Tubular SOFC (3) H2 mass flow
controller (4) Air mass flow controller (5) H2 valve (6)
Air valve (7) Sealing
Fig. 5 shows the schematic of the

pressurized reactor of the tubular cell. The reactor
was heated at 5 C min1 by an electric furnace,
while nitrogen and air were introduced into the
anode and the cathode chambers, respectively, both
at a flowing rate of 100 ml min 1. At 800C, the
nitrogen gas was switched to a hydrogen gas (H2),
and then the NiOYSZ substrate was gradually
reduced into a porous NiYSZ anode. The H2 was
saturated with water and all the gases were
preheated before entering the reactor. The
performance of the tubular cell was measured after
the open circuit voltage (OCV) of the cell reached at
1.0V. During the measurement, H2 and air were the
fuel gas and the oxidant gas, respectively. All the
83

gases flowed out of the reactor without cycling. In

this study, the air flow was kept at six times of the
air consumption in the electrochemical reaction.
The gas flows were controlled by mass flow
controllers and pressure valves and adjusted
according to the fuel utilization.
800C at 1 and 6 atm. respectively, indicating that

the effect of the temperature on the cell performance
was greater under lower pressures than at higher
pressures.

Effect of pressure
Fuel utilization is one of the most

important operating parameters for fuel cells and
has a significant impact on the cell output voltage
and system efficiency. Fuel utilization usually can
be evaluated by the ratio of the fuel consumed in the
electrochemical reaction to the total fuel feeding
flow. Fig. 7 shows the impact of the fuel utilization
on the cell performance at 800C and 4 atm.
The effect of pressure on the single tubular

cell performance was investigated at the
temperature range of 650800 C when the H2
utilization was kept at 70%. Fig. 6 AD shows that
all the measured OCVs were more than 1.0V even
when the cell was operated at 6 atm. thus
demonstrating that the electrolyte film was dense
and the cell was adhered with the sealant very well.
They also show that the OCV increased with the
temperature decrease or the pressure increase.
Effect of fuel utilization
Fig. 7 Dependence of cell output voltage on fuel

utilization at 800 C and 4 atm.
Fig. 6 Effect of pressure on the performance at different

temperatures (A) 650 C; (B) 700 C; (C) 750 C; (D) 800
C.
The voltage was decreased with the

increase of the current density at the same
operational temperature and pressure. However, the
effect of temperature on the cell performance was
greater than that of the pressure. The maximum
power density was increased from 135.0 to
159.0mWcm2 at 650 C when the pressure was
raised from 1 to 6 atm. and from 266.7 to
306.0mWcm2 when the temperature was 800C.
Thus, the maximum power density increased with
the pressure by 17.78% and 14.71% at 650 and
800C, respectively. It suggested that the effect of
the pressure on the cell performance was more
significant under low temperatures than at high
temperatures. On the other hand, the maximum
power density increase was 97.56% and 92.45%
when the temperature was elevated from 650 to
The terminal voltages at any current

densities decreased with increasing the fuel
utilization. The decreases were more pronounced at
higher utilizations than that at lower ones. The
maximum power density was decreased from 334.8
to 273.9mWcm2 when the fuel utilization was
increased from 10% to 90%.
The high cell performance at low fuel
utilization was due to the low concentration over
potential, i.e. at a higher fuel flow rate. However, it
would be a great waste under such low fuel
utilization for a high performance of the cell when
there was no cycling of the anode gas flow. So, it is
a necessity to balance the cell performance and the
fuel utilization.
SUMMARY
Raising the operation pressure could
improve the cell performance significantly. The
effect of the pressure on the cell performance was
more significant at low temperatures than at high
temperatures. The output voltage was dropped
significantly with an increase in the fuel utilization.
84

The results obtained from the analyses

performed on the model for the different conditions
of the computational model developed is much
more advantageous for understanding the complex
processes involved in the SOFC operation. The
plots and results obtained are much more
descriptive in terms of the distribution of various
important parameters in a three dimensional
perspective. A parametric analysis was performed
on the model, to analyze its response and
performance to varying parameters. By the pressure
effect study, it was discovered that the effect of the
temperature on the cell performance was greater
under lower pressures than at higher pressures. For
further exploring the advantages of solid oxide fuel
cells, the model was simulated for cases using fuels
other than hydrogen, to analyze the performance.
REFERENCES
Abdenebi Hafsia, Ali Volkan Akkaya, Bahri Sahin,
Hasan Huseyin Erdema Thermodynamic model
for exergetic performance of a tubular SOFC
module 34 (2009) 18631870.
electrochemical and thermal stress analysis for an

anode-supported SOFC cell33 (2008) 2580
2588.
Haynes, C.L., 1990, Simulation of tubular solid
oxide fuel cell Behavior for integration into Gas
Turbine Cycle PhD thesis, Department of
Mechanical engineering, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta, G
A. Bharadwaj, D.H. Archer, E.S. Rubin,Modeling
the performance of a Tubular solid oxide Fuel
Cellvol 2(2005).
Janusz Jewulski, Marcin Blesznowski, Michal
Stepien Flow Distribution Analysis of the Solid
Oxide Fuel Cell Stack under Electric Load
Conditions B0705,(2009).
Li Zhou, Mojie Cheng, Baolian Yi, Yonglai Dong,
You Cong, Weishen Yang, Performance of an
anode-supported tubular solid oxide fuel cell
(SOFC)
under
pressurized
conditions
Electrochimica Acta 53 (2008) 51955198.
Anja Bieberle-Hutter, Daniel Beckel, Anna

Infortuna, Ulrich P. Muecke, Jennifer L.M.
Ruppa, Ludwig J. Gauckler, Samuel Rey-Mermet
A micro-solid oxide fuel cell system as battery
replacement 177 (2008) 123130.
Chih-Kuang Lin, Tsung-Ting Chena, Yau-Pin
Chyoub, Lieh-Kwang Chiang Thermal stress
analysis of a planar SOFC stack 86 (2009)
22042212.
Lieh-Kwang Chiang, Hui-Chung Liu, Yao-Hua
Shiu, Chien-Hsiung Lee, Ryey-Yi Lee, Thermoelectrochemical and thermal stress analysis for an
anode-supported SOFC cell33 (2008) 2580
2588.
Fuel Cell Handbook, 7th ed.; E.G.&G. Services for
the U.S. Department of Energy, National
Technical Information Service: Springfield, VA,
USA, 2004.
Campanari, S., 2001, J. Power source, 92, Nos. 1-2,
pp. 26-34
Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells, European
Commission Directorate-General for Research
Information and Communication Unit B-1049
Brussels,2003
Lieh-Kwang Chiang, Hui-Chung Liu, Yao-Hua
Shiu, Chien-Hsiung Lee, Ryey-Yi Lee, Thermo-
85

86

A Review of Stirling Engines and Low

Temperature Differential Stirling Engines
Mohsin J Dadi
P.G.Student, Mechanical Department,Parul Institute of Engineering and Techonolgy, Limda
dadi.mohsin@gmail.com
Prof. Imran M Molvi

Mechanical Engineering Department, Parul Institute of Engineering and Techonolgy, Limda
imranmolvi@gmail,com
Prof. Alpesh V Mehta

Mechanical Engineering Department,Government Engineering College, Godhra
avmehta2002@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
This article provides a literature review on Stirling engine and low temperature differential Stirling engines technology. A
number of research works on the development of Stirling engines and low temperature differential Stirling engines are
discussed. The aim of this review is to find a feasible solution which may lead to a preliminary conceptual design of a
workable low temperature differential Stirling engine. Results from the study indicate that Stirling engines working with
relatively low temperature air are potentially attractive engines of the future, especially low temperature differential
Stirling engines with vertical, double-acting, gamma-configuration.
KEY WORDS: Stirling Engine; Displacer; Power

piston; Gamma stirling engine; free piston low
temperature differential stirling engine; working gas.
INTRODUCTION
The Stirling Engine is a type of what is known as a
hot air engine, which appeared early in the 19th
century and has since attracted a great deal of
interest from engineers, inventors, researchers,
entrepreneurs and hobbyists. The basis of the
Stirling Engine, or any hot air engine for that
matter, is that of a gas expanding when heated and
contracting when cooled. The invention of the
Stirling Engine is widely credited in modern
literature to Scottish minister Robert Stirling.
Robert Stirling was a minister for 53 years, however
he was not an engineer and although his name was
on the original Stirling Engine patent in 1816
(British Patent No.4081) it is very doubtful that he
had much to do with the invention was noted
(Hargreaves C M, 1991).
STIRLING ENGINE
A Stirling engine is a heat engine operating by
cyclic compression and expansion of air or other
gas, the working fluid, at different temperature
levels such that there is a net conversion of heat
energy to mechanical work. The engine resembles a
steam engine in having all heat transfer flowing
through the engine wall. This is traditionally
designated an external combustion engine in
contrast with an internal combustion engine where
the heat is put in by combustion of fuel within the
body of the working fluid. Unlike the steam engine's
usage of water as the working fluid in both its liquid
and gaseous phases, the Stirling engine encloses a
fixed quantity of permanently gaseous fluid such as
air or helium. Typical of heat engines, the general
cycle consists of compressing cool gas, heating the
gas, expanding the hot gas, and finally cooling the
gas before repeating the cycle.
87

order to maintain the necessary pressure differential

across the piston for motive power
STIRLING ENGINE COMPONENTS
REGENERATOR
A Stirling Engine always has 5 main parts to it that
are essential to its operation. Figure 1 below shows
one of the Stirling brothers early engines where the
regenerator and cooler are separated from the body
of the engine. This makes it simple to see and
understand the role of the 5 main parts.
The regenerator is probably the single most studied

and talked about feature of a Stirling engine. The
regenerator was the main point of Robert Stirlings
1816 patent. The point of the regenerator is to act as
a temporary heat storage element that is able to
quickly absorb heat from the hot working fluid and
transfer it back again into the cold working fluid.
CRANKSHAFT
Fig. 1. Stirling brothers 4th engine, built in 1840

HEAT EXCHANGERS
The heat exchangers are responsible for transferring
all the heat in-to and out of the engine. There are
always two heat exchangers, one to heat the
working gas and one to cool it.
DISPLACER
The purpose of the displacer, or displacer piston, is
to simply move the working gas around inside the
engine. The heat exchangers create two distinct
regions inside the engine; a hot region and a cold
region. These regions occupy the majority of the
volume inside the engine. It is the role of the
displacer to shuttle the working gas alternately
between these regions in order to alternately heat
and cool the gas, giving rise to the necessary
expansion and contraction that facilitates the
operation of the engine. The main difference usually
between a displacer and a piston is that the displacer
is a loose fit inside the cylinder which allows gas to
flow past it through the annulus when it moves.
POWER PISTON
The power piston is similar to that of a piston found
in an internal combustion engine. Its job is to
transmit power created by pressure acting on the
piston face to the crankshaft of the engine. The
piston slides within a cylinder and is tightly sealed
against the cylinder walls by the piston rings in
The crankshaft is usually a traditional crankshaft

such as that found in an internal combustion engine.
It is a rotating shaft with an offset crank to which
the power piston is attached via a connecting rod or
con-rod. The length of the crank determines the
stroke of the power piston. All power produced by
the engine must be transferred to the crankshaft
through pressure acting on the piston.
FLYWHEEL
A flywheel is needed to keep the engine in motion
during the two non power-producing phases and one
power absorbing phase. This is critical in low RPM
engines typically associated with low temperature
differences and low power where the angular
momentum of the flywheel is needed to keep the
engine moving smoothly, or even at all, through the
cycle.
WORKING GAS
The working gas, or working fluid, is the gas that
fills the engine. It is in a sense the fuel for the
engine as all work performed on the piston is
performed by the gas. The lighter gases have lower
viscosity, resulting in less flow losses, as well as a
greater specific heat capacity, cp, and a higher gas
constant value, R.
ENGINE TYPES AND CLASSIFICATIONS
Broadly speaking, a Stirling Engine will fall under
one of the four main categories described here,
being alpha, beta, gamma or free piston
configurations.
ALPHA () CONFIGURATION
The alpha configuration uses no displacer and two
power pistons connected in series by a heater,
88

cooler and regenerator. There are two cylinders, the

expansion space (hot cylinder) and compression
space (cold cylinder). It is a mechanically simple
engine and typically produces a high power-tovolume ratio, however there are often problems
related to the sealing of the expansion piston under
high temperatures. The alpha engine pictured in
Figure 2 is a horizontally opposed type, which has
the smallest dead space but requires rather length
and complicated linkages to join the pistons to the
crankshaft.
FREE PISTON CONFIGURATION

The invention of the free piston Stirling engine is
generally credited to W.T. Beale who first built it in
the 1960 as a solution to overcoming problems with
lubricating the crankshaft of a traditional engine
was noted (Organ and Allan, 1997).
Fig. 4. Gamma engine configuration

Fig. 2. Alpha engine configuration
BETA () CONFIGURATION
The beta configuration features figure 3 both the
piston and displacer working inside the same
cylinder. This makes it quite compact and there is
typically a minimal amount of dead space as there
are no interconnecting passageways. It is
mechanically simple as both piston and displacer
are connected at a common point on the crankshaft,
with the only difficulty arising from the fact that the
connecting shaft for the displacer must pass through
the piston where it must make a pressure-tight seal.
Fig. 3.Beta Engine Configuration

GAMMA () CONFIGURATION
The gamma configuration figure 4 is similar to that
of the beta type in that it uses a piston and a
displacer both directly connected to a common
crankshaft. The difference is that they are not in the
same cylinder, meaning that the problems of sealing
the displacer rod through the piston are avoided.
Free piston Stirling engines are different in that

there is no crankshaft and the piston and displacer
are not attached to each other. The motion of the
piston and displacer is controlled by fluid forces and
usually by a spring of some sort. The advantages of
a free-piston engine are fewer moving parts,
meaning greater reliability and simplicity, which
also reduces production costs. They can also be
compact and lightweight by comparison with more
traditional designs. Non-contact gas bearings and
planar springs can bring friction down to almost
zero in these designs.
ADVANTAGES OF STIRLING ENGINES
1. They can run directly on any available heat
source, 2. A continuous combustion process can be
used to supply heat, 3. Most types of Stirling
engines have the bearing and seals on the cool side
of the engine, and they require less lubricant and
last longer than other reciprocating engine types. 4.
The engine mechanisms are in some ways simpler
than other reciprocating engine types,5. A Stirling
engine uses a single-phase working fluid which
maintains an internal pressure close to the design
pressure, and thus for a properly designed system
the risk of explosion is low, 6. In some cases, low
operating pressure allows the use of lightweight
cylinders, 7. They can be built to run quietly and
without an air supply, for air-independent
propulsion use in submarines, 8. They start easily
(albeit slowly, after warm-up) and run more
efficiently in cold weather, in contrast to the internal
combustion which starts quickly in warm weather,
but not in cold weather, 9. A Stirling engine used
for pumping water can be configured so that the
water cools the compression space.
89

DISADVANTAGES OF STIRLING ENGINES

1. Stirling engine designs require heat exchangers
for heat input and for heat output, and these must
contain the pressure of the working fluid, where the
pressure is proportional to the engine power output.
In addition, the expansion-side heat exchanger is
often at very high temperature, so the materials
must resist the corrosive effects of the heat source,
and have low creep (deformation). 2. All
thermodynamic cycles require large temperature
differentials for efficient operation. In an external
combustion engine, the heater temperature always
equals or exceeds the expansion temperature. This
means that the metallurgical requirements for the
heater material are very demanding. 3. Dissipation
of waste heat is especially complicated because the
coolant temperature is kept as low as possible to
maximize thermal efficiency. This increases the size
of the radiators, which can make packaging
difficult. 4. A Stirling engine cannot start instantly.
APPLICATIONS OF STIRLING ENGINES
The most common applications of said engine are
combined heat and power applications, solar power
generation, Stirling cryo coolers, heat pump, marine
engines, nuclear power, aircraft engines, low
temperature difference engines ,etc.
DEVELOPMENT OF STIRLING ENGINES
The Stirling engine was the first invented
regenerative cycle heat engine. Robert Stirling
patented the Stirling engine in 1816 (patent no.
4081). Engines based upon his invention were built
in many forms and sizes until the turn of the
century. Because Stirling engines were simple and
safe to operate, ran almost silently on any
combustible fuel, and were clean and efficient
compared to steam engines, they were quite popular
was noted (Senft J R, 1993). These Stirling engines
were small and the power produced from the engine
was low (100 W to 4 kW). In 1853, John Ericsson
built a large marine Stirling engine having four 4.2
m diameter pistons with a stroke of 1.5 m producing
a brake power of 220 kW at 9 rpm was noted
(Walker G, 1980). The first era of the Stirling
engine was terminated by the rapid development of
the internal combustion engine and electric motor.
The second era of the Stirling engine began around
1937 when the Stirling engine was brought to a high
state of technological development by the Philips
Research Laboratory in Eindhoven, Holland, and
has progressed continuously since that time. Initial
work was focused on the development of small

thermal-power electric generators for radios and
similar equipment used in remote areas. New
materials were one of the keys to Stirling engine
success. The Philips research team used new
materials, such as stainless steel was noted (Senft J
R, 1993).Another key to success was a better
knowledge of thermal and fluid physics than in the
first era. The specific power of the small 102C
engine of 1952 was 30 times that of the old Stirling
engines was noted by (West C D, 1988).The
progress in further development made by Philips
and many other industrial laboratories, together with
the need for more energy resources, has sustained
the second era of Stirling engine development until
today.
Intensive research by Philips and industrial
laboratories led to the development of small Stirling
engines with high efficiencies of 30% or more. In
1954, Philips developed an engine using hydrogen
as a working fluid. This engine produced 30 kW for
a maximum cycle temperature of 977 K at 36%
thermal efficiency. The efficiency of the same
engine was later improved to 38%. The
experimental studies of engines of various sizes up
to 336 kW were studied (Walphita S H, 1983).
Other attempts to further develop Stirling engines
under license of Philips were carried out by General
Motors from 1958 to 1970. Other licenses were
granted by Philips to United Stirling AB of Malmo,
Sweden in 1968 and to the West German
consortium of MAN and MWM in 1967. In 1973,
the Philips/Ford 4-125 experimental automotive
Stirling engine accomplished a specific power of
over 300 times that of the early Stirling engines
(Senft J R, 1993).
(Trayser and Eibling, 1967) carried out a design
study to determine the technical feasibility of
developing a 50 W portable solar-powered
generator for use in remote areas. The result of their
study indicates that it is possible to build a solarpowered lightweight portable, reliable, Stirling
engine at a reasonable cost. (Gupta-Desphande and
Brave, 1978) developed 1 and 1.9 kW solarpowered
reciprocating
engines
for
rural
applications. Engine efficiencies were found to be
between 5.5 and 5.7% and overall efficiency was
found to be 2.02%. (Pearch-Al Zahawi-Auckland
and Starr, 1996) proposed and analyzed a 1 kW
domestic, combined heat and power (DCHP)
system. The results show that 30% of a homes
electrical demand could be generated and electricity
cost could be reduced by about 25%. (Podesser E,
1999) designed, constructed and operated a Stirling
90

engine, heated by the flue gas of a biomass furnace,

for electricity production in rural villages. With a
working gas pressure of 33 bar at 600 rpm and a
shaft power of 3.2 kW, an overall efficiency of 25%
was obtained. He expected to extend the shaft
power to 30 kW in the next step.
Usually the design point of a Stirling engine will be
somewhere between the two limits of: (1) maximum
efficiency point; and (2) maximum power point.
(Markman-Shmatok and Krasivkii, 1983) conducted
an experiment using the beta-configuration of the
Stirling engine to determine the parameters of a 200
W Stirling engine by measuring the thermal-flux
and mechanical-power losses. The aim of the
project was to optimize and increase the engine
efficiency. (Orunov-Trukhov and Trusunbaev,
1983) presented a method to calculate the optimum
parameters of a single-cylinder Stirling engine.
They concluded that mass and size characteristics of
the engine could be improved by using the correct
choice of the optimal parameters which would result
in larger efficiency.
LOW TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL
STIRLING ENGINE (LTD)
A low temperature differential (LTD) Stirling
engine can be run with small temperature difference
between the hot and cold ends of the displacer
cylinder (Rizzo J G, 1997). It is different from other
types of Stirling-cycle engines, which have a greater
temperature difference between the two ends, and
therefore the power developed from the engine can
be greater. LTD engines may be of two designs. The
first uses single-crank operation where only the
power piston is connected to the flywheel, called the
Ringbom engine. This type of engine, that has been
appearing more frequently, is based on the Ringbom
principle. A short, large-diameter displacer rod in a
precise-machined fitted guide has been used to
replace the displacer connecting rod. The other
design is called a kinematic engine, where both the
displacer and the power piston are connected to the
flywheel. The kinematic engine with a normal 90
phase angle is a gamma configuration engine. Some
characteristics of the LTD Stirling engine as
follows.
1. Displacer to power piston swept volumes ratio is
large;
2. Diameter of displacer cylinder and displacer is
large; 3. Displacer is short; 4. Effective heat transfer
surfaces on both end plates of the displacer cylinder
are large; 5. Displacer stroke is small; 6. Dwell
period at the end of the displacer stroke is rather
longer than the normal Stirling engine; 7. Operating

speed is low.
LTD Stirling engines provide value as
demonstration units, but they immediately become
of interest when considering the possibility of
power generation from many low temperature waste
heat sources in which the temperature is less than
100 C (Van Arsdell, 2001). A calculation using the
Carnot cycle formula shows that an engine
operating with a source temperature of 100 C and a
sink temperature of 35 C gives a maximum thermal
efficiency of about 17.42%. If an engine could be
built for achieving 50% of the maximum thermal
efficiency, it would have about 8.71% overall
Carnot efficiency. Even the calculated thermal
efficiency seems rather low, but LTD Stirling
engines could be used with free or cheap low
temperature sources. This engine should be selected
when the low cost engines are put into
consideration. Although the specific power
developed by LTD Stirling engines is low,
lightweight and cheap materials such as plastics can
be used as engine parts.
DEVELOPMENT OF LTD STIRLING
ENGINES
(Haneman, 1975) studied the possibility of using air
with low temperature sources. An unusual engine,
in which the exhaust heat was still sufficiently hot
to be useful for other purposes, was constructed. In
practice, such an engine would produce only little
useful work relative to the collector system size, and
would give little gain compared to the additional
maintenance required was noted (Spencer, 1989). A
simply constructed low temperature heat engine
modeled on the Stirling engine configurations was
patented in 1983 by (White, 1983). White suggested
improving performance by pressurizing the
displacer chamber. Efficiencies were claimed to be
around 30%, but this can be regarded as quite high
for a low temperature engine.
In 1984, OHare patented a device passing cooled
and heated streams of air through a heat exchanger
for changing the pressure of air inside the bellows.
The practical usefulness of this device was not
shown in detail as in the case of Hanemans work.
Kolin experimented with a number of LTD Stirling
engines, over a period of many years. In 1983, he
presented a model that worked on a temperature
difference between the hot and cold ends of the
displacer cylinder of as low as 15 C. After Kolin
published his work, Senft made an in-depth study of
the Ringbom engine and its derivatives, including
91

the LTD engine. Senfts research in LTD Stirling

engines resulted in the most interesting engine,
which had an ultra-low temperature difference of
0.5 C. It is very difficult to create any development
better than this result. In 1991 Senfts work showed
the principal motivation for Stirling and general
heat engines, their target being to develop an engine
operating with a temperature difference of 2 C or
lower. Senft, 1993 described the design and testing
of a small LTD Ringbom Stirling engine powered
by a 60 conical reflector. He reported that the 60
test conical reflector producing a hot-end
temperature of 93C under running conditions,
worked very well.
CONCLUSIONS
This article describes a number of research works
on the technology of Stirling engines and LTD
Stirling engines. The keys to the success of the
Stirling engine are new materials and good heat
transfer to the working fluid. Good heat transfer
needs high mass flows, then a lower viscosity
working fluid is used to reduce pumping losses, or
higher pressure is used to reduce the required flow
or the combination of both. Current research and
development on LTD Stirling engines show
considerable promise for future applications. The
Stirling engine efficiency may be low, but reliability
is high and costs are low. Simplicity and reliability
are key to a cost effective. The aim of this study is
to find a feasible solution which may lead to a
preliminary conceptual design of a workable LTD
Stirling engine. The engine design should be that of
a gamma-configuration, double-acting, vertical,
LTD Stirling engine. This engine should be
powered both by solar energy and heat from any
combustible material.
REFERENCES
Gupta RK, Deshpande AM, Brave KM.
Development of 1 kW solar powered reciprocating
engine for rural applications. In: International Solar
Energy Congress, New Delhi. 1978. p. 201620.
Haneman D. Theory and principles of lowtemperature hot air engines fuelled by solar energy.
Report Prepared for U.S. Atomic Energy Comm.
Contract W-7405-Eng-48; 1975.
Hargreaves, C.M. The Philips Stirling Engine.
Amsterdam Elsevier Science Publishers, 1991.
Markman MA, Shmatok YI, Krasovkii VG.
Experimental investigation of a low-power Stirling
engine. Geliotekhnika 1983; 19:1924.
Organ, Allan J. The Regenerator and the Stirling

Engine.
Suffolk:
Mechanical
Engineering
Publications Ltd., 1997.
Orunov B, Trukhov VS, Tursunbaev IA.
Calculation of the parameters of a symmetrical
rhombic drive for a single-cylinder Stirling engine.
Geliotekhnika 1983; 19:2933.
OHare R. Convection powered solar engine, U.S.
Patent; 1984. p. 4, 453, 382.
Pearce JM, Al Zahawi BA, Auckland DW, Starr F.
Electricity generation in the home: evaluation of
single-house domestic combined heat and power.
IEE Proc-A 1996; 143:34550.
Prodesser E. Electricity production in rural villages
with biomass Stirling engine. Renewable Energy
1999; 16:104952.
Rizzo JG. The Stirling engine manual. Somerset:
Camden miniature steam services, 1997.
Senft JR. Ringbom Stirling engines. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1993.
Senft JR. An ultra low temperature differential
Stirling engine. In: Proceedings of the Fifth
International Stirling Engine Conference, Paper
ISEC 91032, Dubrovnik, May. 1991.
Spencer LC. A comprehensive review of small
solar-powered heat engines: Part III. Research
since 1950-unconventional engines up to 100 kW.
Solar Energy 1989; 43:21125.
Trayser DA, Eibling JA. A 50-Watts portable
generator employing a solar-powered Stirling
engine. Sol Energy 1967;11:1539.
Van Arsdell BH. Stirling engines. In: Zumerchik J,
editor. Macmillan encyclopedia of energy, vol. 3.
Macmillan Reference USA; 2001. p. 109095.
Walpita SH. Development of the solar receiver for a
small Stirling engine. In: Special study project
report no. ET-83-1. Bangkok: Asian Institute of
Technology; 1983.
West CD. A historical perspective on Stirling
engine performance. In: Proceedings of the 23rd
Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering
Conference, Paper 889004. Denver: American
Society of Mechanical Engineers; 1988.
92

Performance and Emission Comparison of

4-Stroke Multi- Cylinder CI-Engine using
EGM-Diesel Blend and Diesel as Fuel
Simit B. Prajapati
4th Semester PG student, Automobile Engineering, Government Engineering College, Bhuj
simit31@gmail.com
Pravin P. Rathod
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Government Engineering College, Bhuj
pravinprathod@gmail.com
Nikul K. Patel
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, M S University,
Vadodara
nikulatmsu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Ethylene glycol monoacetate (EGM) is a hopeful alternative fuel as well as fuel additive to improve
performance and reduce smoke emission in normal CI engine, due to its high oxygen content. This paper
presents an experimental study on its effects on the performance and emissions characteristics of a diesel
engine. Diesel-EGM blend which contain 10% EGM by volume was prepared. Experimental investigations
have been carried out to examine properties, performance and emission of EGM-diesel blend and compared to
diesel fuel. A four stroke four cylinder direct injection water cooled CI engine is used to measure the
performance. Results are taken at six different loads starting from no load to maximum 12 kW at constant speed
of 1500 RPM. From the experiment it is found that properties of EGM-diesel blend are comparative to diesel.
Engine performance parameters are very close and sometimes found superior to diesel. Pollutants emissions are
less at all loads.
KEYWORDS:
CI Engine; Ethylene Glycol

Monoacetate; Diesel; Blend; Performance ; Emission
1.INTRODUCTION
As crude oil and petroleum products will have a
certain quantity and it is reduced day by day, hence
they are costlier. There will be a great demand for
fuel in the near future because of increases in
number of automobiles. Due to these reasons,
alternative fuel technology will become more
common in the coming decades. An advantage of a
diesel engine compared to a gasoline engine is the
fuel-economy benefits and extensive applications.
Diesel engines are mainly used in industrial,
transport and agricultural applications. Diesel

engine has been widely used in such applications
due to its reliability, durability and high fuel
efficiency. However, high smoke and NOx
emissions always remain the main hindrance for its
developments. It is further subjected to increase of
strict imposed emission regulations [1,3]. To
achieve substantial reductions in emissions, some
diesel engine emission control technologies have
been developed, such as common rail systems, fuel
injection control strategies including multi-stage
injection, exhaust gas recirculation and exhaust gas
after treatment devices [7]. But these emission
control technologies usually lead to cost increase
93

highly or more fuel consumption. It is also

commonly accepted that diesel engine emission can
be reduced effectively by using oxygen alternative
fuels, or potentially the addition of oxygen within
the diesel fuel. Therefore, much research has
focused on screening of oxygenated fuel additives,
including alcohols, esters and ethers [6,10].
Combustion and emission characteristics of a direct
injection diesel engine fuelled with diesel diglyme
blends are improved [9]. The effect of fuel
constituents on combustion characteristics, fuel
efficiency and emissions of a direct injection diesel
engine fuelled with diesel-dimethoxymethane
(DMM) blends are investigated. By the use of
DMM, it is observed that CO and smoke emissions
as well as the total number and mass concentration
of particulate reduce significantly, while HC
emissions and particulate number increase slightly
[13]. By using a diesel fuel reformulating agent
(CETANER) has been examined in a popular lightmedium duty turbo diesel engine over a range of
blending ratios on six cylinder diesel engine.
This work demonstrates the potentially seamless
transition that may be achieved with incorporation
of oxygenates in diesel fuel to reduce emissions [2].
An investigation to improve the performance of a
diesel engine by adding oxygenated fuel additive of
known percentages. The effect of fuel additive
dimethyl carbonate (DMC) was to control the
emission from diesel engine and to improve its
performance. The experimental study was carried
out in a multi-cylinder diesel engine [5]. DMC is an
oxygenated fuel with the oxygen content of 53.3%,
which is usually used as an oxygenated additive to
blend with diesel fuel to improve combustion and
reduce emissions of diesel engines [11,12]. The
addition of DMC to fuels to reduce engine
emissions without engine modification seems to be
more attractive. However, the power output will
decreases when diesel engines fueled with DMC
diesel blend without engine modification, especially
at condition of high loads, because the low heating
value of DMC is much lower than that of diesel
fuel. To achieve substantial reductions in emissions
without severely decreases of power output, this
paper proposes that DMC is blended with ethylene
glycol monoacetate (EGM) in order to increase the
low heating value, which is another promising
oxygenated fuel additive with the more oxygen
content and the lower low heating value [11]. The
objectives of this study is to investigate
experimentally the performance and emissions
characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with the
EGM-diesel blend.
2.EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE
SETUP
AND
TEST
A four cylinder, four stroke, naturally aspirated,

direct injection, water cooled CI engine have been
used to carry out experimental investigations. The
specification of the engine is given in Table 1.
Table 1 Engine Specification
Particulars
Specification
Make &
Stride Engine 1.5 E2 DSL make
Model
General
Four stroke, Four cylinder,
Details
Compression ignition,
Bore
73 mm
Stroke
88.9 mm
Capacity
1489 cm3
Compression
23:01
Ratio
Max. Power
26.6 kW
Max. Torque
8.5 kg at 2250 rpm
Clearance
16.913 cm3 / cylinder
Volume
Figure 1 Engine test setup

A six gas Exhaust gas analyser is used to measure
emission data of the engine. The specification of the
exhaust gas analyser is shown in Table 2.
Measurement of HC, NO, NO2, CO, Excess air and
flue gas temperature can be possible with the
analyser. Data can be transferred to computer and
stored. Also printer port provided can print the data
also.
Table 2 Exhaust Gas Analyser Specification
Parameter
Range
Resolution
O2
0-25 %
0.1 %
CO
0-2 %
0.005 %
NO
0-4000 PPM
1 PPM
NO2
0-500 PPM
1 PPM
HC
0-2 %
0.1%
94

brake thermal efficiency is achieved at 9.9091 kW

power when 10 % EGM is added to diesel fuel.
Table 3 Properties comparison of Diesel and EGMdiesel blend
Fuel is supplied through 100 ml burette for better

accuracy. The electrical dynamometer is used to
load the engine. The load on engine is varied by
changing excitation current with the control panel.
The water flow is measured with the help of rota
meter. Data acquisition system is used to measure
temperatures of cooling water at inlet and outlet,
Exhaust gas temperature before and after exhaust
gas calorimeter, inlet air temperature and load on
the engine. The data is recorded and stored at 5
seconds interval. The experiment are carried out
using 10% EGM with diesel and compared with
diesel. Speed is kept constant at 1500 rpm and load
is varied from no load to full load. With the help of
burette and stop watch, time taken for 10 ml fuel
consumption is measured at constant load and
speed. From these data brake thermal efficiency and
brake specific fuel consumption is calculated.
Different temperatures and load are recorded with
data acquisition system. At the same time emission
data are recorded.
Diesel
Calorific value (kJ/kg)
41807
EGM
diesel blend
40226.48
Kinematic viscosity (cSt) 3.7

3.3
Sulphur content (%w/w)
0.02
0.0182
Water content (%w/v)
0.005
0.0145
Oxygen content (%wt)
0
46.1
Density (kg/m3)
0.816
0.83494
Flash point(0C)
44
116
While in the case of diesel it is at 10.4157 kW.
Higher brake thermal efficiency with EGM-diesel
blend is contributed towards inbuilt oxygen atoms
of EGM-diesel blend results in more complete
combustion of fuel.
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
BTE
Figure 2. Exhaust Gas Analyser
Property
0.15
0.10
Diesel
EGM10
0.05
0.00
10
12
14
Brake Power (kW)
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Fuel properties
Ethylene glycol monoacetate (EGM) is a clear,
colorless liquid. Its molecular formula is C4H8O3,
The oxygen content is 46.1% wt and it can be
produced in industrial scale by different methods.
Lower heating value EGM 26 MJ/Kg. It is lower
than that of diesel fuel, which is affected on the
engine power output. Diesel and diesel-EGM blend
were used in this study. Table 3 shows comparison
of some fuel properties like calorific value,
kinematic viscosity, density, flash point of diesel
and diesel-EGM blend.
Figure 3 Variation of BTE with Brake Power

Brake specific fuel consumption
Calorific value of diesel is higher than EGM-diesel
blend due to oxygen content in EGM-diesel blend.
These results in lower brake specific fuel
consumption of EGM-diesel blend compared to
diesel. With lower calorific value of BSFC for
EGM-diesel blend is higher than diesel as shown in
figure 4. It compares brake specific fuel
consumption with diesel and EGM-diesel blend at
varying brake power. Minimum BSFC for diesel
fuel is 0.2783Kg/kWh and minimum BSFC for
EGM-diesel
blend
is
0.2480Kg/kWh.
3.2 Performance Parameters

Brake thermal efficiency
As shown in figure 3 with increase in brake power,
brake thermal efficiency increases. The maximum
95

0.60
0.55
BSFC (kg/kWh)
0.50
Diesel
EGM10
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0
10
12
14
operated under very high load conditions. Figure 6

shows CO emission characteristics when diesel and
EGM-diesel blend are used as fuels at varying brake
power. It is clear that CO emissions can be reduced
significantly by using EGM-diesel blend. The
maximum value of CO emission with diesel fuel is
0.0520% /Vol. is found at brake power of
10.4157kW. EGM-diesel blend emits maximum
0.0480% /Vol. of CO at brake power of 11.6238kW.
The minimum value of CO emission with diesel fuel
is 0.0350% /Vol. is found at brake power of
5.0590kW. EGM-diesel blend emits minimum
0.0250% /Vol. of CO at brake power of 4.811kW.
Brake Power (kW)

0.055
Figure 4 Variation of BSFC with Brake Power
0.050
The presence of additional oxygen in the blends

always increases the possibility of burning of
carbon particle in the exhaust gases. . Figure 5
compares exhaust gas temperature with diesel and
EGM-diesel blend at varying brake power. EGT
measured maximum at full load for both fuel and is
360C and 383C for EGM-diesel blend and diesel
respectively. Lower exhaust gas temperature of
EGM-diesel blend may be due to good ignition
quality.
350
EGT( 0C)
0.040
0.035
0.030
Diesel
EGM10
0.025
0.020
0
10
12
14
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 6 Variation of CO with Brake Power

NOX emission
It is seen that the oxygen enrichment of the
conventional fuel is not accompanied by a sharp
increase of NOx concentration as expected due to
decrease of the exhaust gas temperature as a result
of the lower fuel heating value. Figure 7 compares
emissions of Nitrogen oxides with diesel and EGMdiesel blend at varying brake power. The maximum
value of NOx emission with diesel fuel is 307 PPM
is found at brake power of 7.9003kW. EGM-diesel
blend emits maximum 320 PPM of NOx at brake
power of 11.6238kW
400
Diesel
EGM10
300
CO (% by vol.)
0.045
Exhaust gas temperature
250
200
150
100
50
0
10
12
14
350
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 5 Variation of EGT with Brake Power

3.3 Emission Parameters
CO emission
It is more effective to reduce exhaust smoke by
adding oxygenated additive in diesel according to
the studies done by other researchers. This fact was
confirmed in this study. Generally, diesel engines
emit less CO than SI engines. But CO emissions
will increase quickly when diesel engines are
NO2 (ppm)
300
250
Diesel
EGM10
200
150
100
0
10
12
14
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 7 Variation of NOx with Brake Power
96

4. CONCLUSIONS
In this research a preliminary investigation was
carried out to study comparison of the effects of on
performance and exhaust emissions by diesel and
diesel-EGM blend in a four cylinder, four stroke,
naturally aspirated, direct injection, water cooled CI
engine The results obtained for constant engine
speed (N=1500rpm) with various engine loads can
be summarized as follows:
The addition of EGM to diesel fuel

changes the properties of blends.
Higher brake thermal efficiency with

EGM-diesel blend is contributed.
Calorific value of diesel is higher than

EGM-diesel blend due to oxygen content
in EGM-diesel blend.So, EGT and BSFC
values are lower for diesel-EGM blend
than the diesel.
As it can be seen from study, Oxygenated

fuel additive EGM considered in this work
have a significant impact on CO emission
from diesel engines.
The obtained results show that the fuel

which effectively reduces the CO emission
is less effective in reducing the NOx
emissions.
All these results indicate the potential of

the diesel-EGM blend for clean
combustion in CI engine.
In the near future, we will

consider the application of an oxygenated fuel
additive mixture and exhaust gas recirculation for
a further improvement in the engine exhaust
emissions trade off.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the MS University,
Vadodara for providing the facilities and their
support to carry out this work.
NOMENCLATURE
CI Engine Compression Ignition Engine
DMM-Dimethoxy Methane
DMC- Di Methyl Carbonate
EGM - Ethylene Glycol Monoacetate
CO- Carbon Monoxide

HC- Hydro Carbon
NOx- Nitrogen Oxide
NO - Nitrogen Mono oxide
NO - Nitrogen Di oxide
2
O Oxygen
2
BTE-Brake Thermal Efficiency

BSFC-Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
EGT - Exhaust Gas Temperature
Diesel-EGM10 - 90 % Diesel + 10 % EGM blend
PPM- Parts Per Million
REFERENCES
[1] Aneggi E. et al., Diesel soot combustion
activity of ceria promoted with alkali
metals, Catalysis Today 136 (2008) ,
pp.310.
[2] Hess H. et al., Impact of Oxygenated fuel
on Diesel Engine Performance and
Emissions Air Products and Chemicals
(2000), Inc.
[3] Kim H. et al., Effect of ethanoldiesel

blend fuels on emission and particle size
distribution in
a common-rail direct
injection diesel engine with warm-up
catalytic converter, Renewable Energy
(2008).
[4] Kitagawa H. et al., The effect of

oxygenated fuel additive on the reduction
of diesel exhaust particulates, SAE paper
(2001).
[5] Lin C. et al., An oxygenate additive for
improving the
performance and
emission characteristics of marine diesel
engines Ocean Engineering (2003),
Vol.30, pp.1699-1715.
[6] Marchetti A. et al., Biodegradation of
potential diesel oxygenate additives:
dibutyl maleate (DBM), and tripropylene
glycol
methyl
ether
(TGME),
Chemosphere (2003), Vol.52, pp:.861-868.
[7] Muruyama T. et al., Simultaneous
reductions of smoke and NOx from a DI
Diesel engine with EGR and dimethyl
carbonate, Trans SAE, J Fuels Lubr
(1995), Vol.104, pp.1887-1996.
97

[8] Nibin T. et al., Investigation on emission

characteristics of a diesel engine using
oxygenated fuel additive Institute of
Engineers- India(2005), Vol.86, pp. 51-54.
[9] Ren Y. et al., Effect of the Addition of
Diglyme in Diesel Fuel on Combustion and
Emissions
in
Compression-Ignition
Engine, Energy & Fuels (2007), pp.25732583.
[10] Wang Y. et al., Diesel emission
improvements by the use of oxygenated
DME/diesel blend fuels, Atmospheric
Environment (2006), Vol.40, pp. 23132320.
[11] Yanxia W. et al (2007), Diesel Engine
Emission Improvements by the Use of
EGM-DMC-Diesel Blends Fuel 5th
WSEAS Int. Conf. On ENVIORNMENT,
ECOSYSTEMS and DEVELOPMENT,
pp: 90-94.
[12] Zhu R. et al., Effect of dimethoxymethane and exhaust gas recirculation on
combustion and emission characteristics of
a direct injection diesel engine, Fuel90(2011), pp.1731-1737.
[13] Zhang Y. et al., Study on DMC as a new
oxygenated clean fuel additive for diesel
Engines, J Huazhong Univ of Sci Tech
(2000), Vol.28, pp.68-70.
98

Performance and Emission Characteristics

of Four Cylinder Four Stroke Compression
Ignition Engine Fueled With Coconut OilDiesel Fuel Blend
Mohsin Jujara M
Parul Institute of Engineering &Technology, P.G Student, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Email:er.mohsinjujara@gmail.com
Dilip S Kanetkar
Parul Institute of Engineering &Technology, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department
Email: dileepkanetkar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The objective of the present study is to reveal the effects of pure diesel fuel and coconut oil-diesel fuel blends
with indirectly heating of coconut-oil at 600C before blending with diesel on the performance and emissions of
a direct injection diesel engine. Operation of the test engine with pure diesel fuel and coconut oil-diesel fuel
blends for a wide range of engine speed and 25%load conditions will be shown to be successful even without
engine modifications. It will be also shown that increasing the amount of coconut oil-diesel fuel blend resulted
in lower CO, CO2, and NOx emissions and increasing the specific fuel consumption of the engine.
Keywords: Diesel engine; Engine performance;

Exhaust emissions; Coconut oil-diesel fuel blend
INTRODUCTION
The idea of using biomass-based fuels specifically,
vegetable oil fuels as diesel fuel alternatives, is not
new. Rudolf Diesel demonstrated that his engine
would run on peanut oil fuel. Since then, various
vegetable oils have been tested as diesel fuel
alternatives with the increased availability of
petroleum-based fuels, studies on vegetable fuels
decreased. During the oil shock period of the
1970s, interest in vegetable oils as alternative fuels
again resurfaced.
Recently, the non-oil producing countries
increasing concern over their energy security
coupled with their growing awareness of the
environmental problems has led to the renewed
interest on biomass-based fuels. Why vegetable
oil? The reasons can be enumerated in terms of the

environmental impact and the economic benefits of
using vegetable oils. It is known that petroleum or
fossil-based fuels are not infinite, although how
long the world's oil supply lasts is still debatable.
Vegetable oils are non-toxic, renewable sources of
energy, which do not contribute to the global CO2
buildup. In terms of the economic benefits,
vegetable fuels could be used as an emergency
energy source in the event of another petroleum
fuel shortage. For countries like the Philippines,
which heavily rely on imported oil for their energy
needs, but which have an abundant supply of
vegetable oil (the Philip- pines is a major coconut
oil producing country), the use of vegetable oils
could save much needed foreign reserves. Their
use could also revitalize the rural and farming
economies, since a growing demand for vegetable
oils will certainly result in their increased
99

production. With these incentives, the need for

further research on the engine performance and
exhaust emissions of coconut oil-based fuels exists.
In the present study, the use of vegetable oils as
diesel fuel alternatives is approached in two ways,
first in its pure form of diesel, and second, as
blends with diesel fuel. Future work will involve
tests on the esteried form of coconut oil.
Molecular
weight
148.6
198
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
ENGINE SELECTION
There is no difference of opinion that India is going
to face a severe fuel crisis in future because fuel
consumption has increased in all the vital sectors
specially transportation and agricultural sector. As
diesel engines plays an indispensable role in
transportation and agriculture sector and as such
diesel consumption will increase multifold in time
to come. The diesel engine continues to dominate
the agriculture sector in our country in comparison
to spark ignition engine and have always been
preferred widely because of power developed,
specific fuel consumption and durability. A
through description of combustion mechanism in
diesel engine is beyond the scope of this study.
However, it would be worthwhile to inform that the
fuel is burnt in diesel engine by self ignition at
higher temperature and pressure conditions of the
order of 600C and 40 bar, respectively. Diesel as a
fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at the
end of compression stroke and after certain ignition
delay; it burns to give the motive power. In India,
almost all irrigation pump sets, tractors,
mechanized farm machinery and heavy
transportation vehicle are powered by direct
injection diesel engines. Keeping the specific
features of diesel engine in mind, a typical engine
system, This is actually used widely in mahindra
automobile engine
Table .1 Technical Specification Of Engine
Engine
Four Cylinder 4- Stroke
Engine,Water Cooled
Bore
90.9 mm
Stroke
`92.4 mm
Power
40 B.H.P
Speed
3000 Rpm
Compression ratio
16:1
Table.2Comparative properties of diesel fuel and
coconut oil
diesel
Coconut oil
Density(kg/m3) 828
890
Viscosity(pa.s)
0.00361
0.0365
Flashpoint(c)
55
210
Calorific
43200
37800
value(KJ/kg)
1. Four Cylinder Four

Stroke Engine
2.Dynamometer
3. Resistant Load
4.Gas Analyser
5.Exhaust
Manifold
6.Fuel Tank
7.Inlet Manifold
8.Air Drum
MEASUREMENT METHODS
The main components of the experimental setup
are fuel tanks (Diesel and Coconut-oil), Fuel
consumption measuring unit, loading arrangement,
rpm meter, Temperature indicator and emissions
measurement equipments. The engine is started
with diesel for at least 30 minutes and once the
engine warms up, it is switched over to coconut oil.
For switching the engine from diesel to coconut oil,
a two way valve is provided on the control panel.
Both the fuels from the tanks can be feed to the
engine through this valve continuously. The fuel
from the valve enters into the engine through this
fuel measuring unit. With the help of this fuel
measuring unit, the volumetric flow of the fuel can
be easily measured. The fuel from the fuel
measuring unit than enters in to the fuel filter
before entering to the engine. In case of indirect
heating of the coconut oil flows into the fuel pump
and injectors to minimize their resistance to flow
and for good atomization. The desired level of fuel
inlet temperature of coconut- oil can be obtained
by controlling the amount of exhaust gases passing
through the bypass arrangement.
Significant improvement in the performance and
emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled
with coconut oil-diesel fuel blend in four cylinder
four stroke engine with indirectly heating of
coconut oil for reducing the viscosity of coconut
100

Brake Thermal Eff. In

%
D10
0
C10
0.5
C20
1.5
CO2
oil and better atomization quality for improving the

combustion engine. Finally, the result obtained by
pure diesel fuel result and blending of coconut oil
diesel are compared in difference speed &25% load
of the engine. The blends tested were 0-100, 1090, 20-80, 30-70and 40-60 coconut oil-diesel fuel
volume ratios.
20
D100
C10
C20
C30
C40
15
10
5
0
0
Brake Power In Kw
Fig. 4 Effect of the amount of Brake Power
Vs.CO2.
Brake power in kw
0.06
Specific fuel consumption
1.5
CO %
0.05
Fig. 1. .Effect of the amount of brake power vs.
brake thermal efficiency
D10
0
C10
D100
0.03
C10
0.02
C20
0.01
C30
0
0
C20
0.5
Fig. 5 Effect of the amount of B rake Power Vs.CO
D100
C10
C20
C30
C40
4
Brake Power in KW
NOx(ppm)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2
C40
Fig.2 Effect of the amount of brake power vs.

specific fuel consumption
Brake Power in Kw
C30
Brake power in kw
Exaust temperature
0.04
760
759
758
757
756
755
754
753
752
D100
C10
C20
C30
C40
Brake Power in Kw
Fig. 6 Effect of the amount of B rake Power vs.
NOx
Fig. 3 Effect of the amount of brake power in Kw

Vs. Exaust temperature in c
101

CONCLUSION
In this study, it was shown that coconut oil as alternative diesel engine fuels can be used successfully
to operate a direct injection diesel engine without
modifications to the engine or the injector system.
Coconut oil engine operation resulted in better
emissions, and lower NOx emissions compared
with standard diesel fuel. increasing the amount of
diesel fuel blend increasing the value of bsfc, and
decreasing break thermal efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Permission to use the Hydraulic Dynamometer,
Mahindra engine and all testing equipments at
Department of Mechanical Engineering (DME) for
our measurements by Prof. D.S. kanetkar and the
extensive efforts of the staff of DME are highly
appreciated. The support offered by Institute of
Anand agriculture university by providing
knowledge of produce ester for the research is also
greatly cherished.
REFERENCES
F.Aksoy ;the effect of opium poppy oil diesel fuel
mixture on engine performance and emissions, int. J.
Environ. Sci. Tech., 8 (1), 57-62, winter 2011issn: 17351472
Jhoni Alison ; comparative performance and emissions
study of direct injection single cylinder diesel engine
using vegetable oil, journal of applied sciences
research, 7(8): 1346-1350, 2011 issn 1819-544x
M. Senthil Kumar, A. Ramesh, B. Nagalingam; an

experimental comparison of methods to use methanol
and jatropha oil in a compression ignition engine,
biomass and bioenergy 25 (2003) 309 318
A.M. Liaquat, M.A. Kalam, H.H. Masjuki, M.H. Jayed;
engine performance and emissions analysis using envo
diesel and coconut biodiesel blended fuel as alternative
fuels.
Jilin Lei, Yuhua Bi, And Lizhong Shen; performance
and emission characteristics of diesel engine fueled with
ethanol-diesel blends in different altitude regions,
hindawi publishing corporation journal of biomedicine
and biotechnology volume 2011, article id 417421, 10
pages doi:10.1155/2011/417421
R.K. Singh And Saswat Rath ; performance analysis of
blends of karanja methyl esterin a compression ignition
engine, 2011 international conference on biomedical
engineering and technology
Ramchandra S. Jahagidar, Eknath R. Deore, Milind S.
Patil,
Purushottam
S.
Desale;
performance
characterization of single cylinder di diesel engine fueled
with karanja biodiesel, wce 2011, july 6 - 8, 2011,
london, u.k.
B.K.Venkanna,C.Venkataramanareddy,Swatibwadawada
gi; performance, emission and combustion characteristics
of direct injection diesel engine running on rice bran oil /
diesel fuel blend, international journal of chemical and
biological engineering 2:3 2009
Er. Milind S Patil, Dr. R. S. Jahagirdar, Er. Eknath R
Deore; performance test of ic engine using blends of
ethanol and kerosene with diesel, international journal
of engineering science and technology vol. 2(8), 2010,
3503-3509
R. P. Manorathna and n. K. B. M. P. Nanayakkara ;

experimental investigation of operating characteristics
of bio-diesel on a conventional diesel engine,
international journal of innovation, management and
technology, vol. 2, no. 3, june 2011
Ch .S. Naga Prasad , K. Vijaya Kumar Reddy, B.S.P.
Kumar1, E. Ramje, o.d. hebbel2 and m.c. nivendgi ;
performance and emission characteristics of a diesel
engine with castor oil, indian journal of science and
technology, vol.2 no.10 (oct 2009) issn: 0974- 6846
P.K. Sahoo, L.M. Das ; combustion analysis of
jatropha, karanja and polanga based biodiesel as fuel in
a diesel engine, fuel 88 (2009) 994999
Hakan Bayraktar ; an experimental study on the
performance parameters of an experimental ci engine
fueled with dieselmethanoldodecanol blends, fuel 87
(2008) 158164
Bhattacharya, And M. P. Singh ; emission
characteristics of methyl ester of rice bran oil as fuel in
compression ignition engine, proceedings of world
academy of science, engineering and technology volume
26 december 2007 issn 1307-6884,
102

Analysis of Heat Transfer in Liquid Nitrogen

Dewar Vessel with Vacuum Insulation
Vimalkumar P. Salot
Student, M.E. (Cryogenic Engg.), Department of Mechanical Engg., L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad.
Salot.vimal@gmail.com
Prof. R.K.Patel
Asst. prof., Department of Mechanical Engg., L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad.
rkpatel2000@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this work is to investigate the boil off rate of liquid nitrogen using vacuum as insulation. Generally liquid nitrogen
vessels are provided with one insulation gap. Here the new concept to provide two insulation gap is introduced. One radiation
shield is interposed in between inner and outer vessel. This vessel is flexible in the sense that intermediate and outer vessels are
removable. In case of vacuum insulation, the heat is transferred mainly by radiation and residual gas conduction. For the same
material and surface area, the heat transfer by radiation cannot be reduced, but heat transfer by molecular conduction is a
function of pressure and by lowering the pressure to sufficient value, heat transfer can be minimized.
KEY WORDS: liquid nitrogen; vacuum; insulation;

heat transfer; radiation.
NOMENCLATURE
Dii
Dio
Dis
Doi
Doo
Dos
Fa
es
Fe
F1-2
h
hfg
p
Qr
Qg
R
ti
to
inner diameter of inner vessel

inside diameter of outer vessel
inside diameter of radiation shield
outer diameter of inner vessel
outside diameter of outer vessel
outside diameter of radiation shield
accommodation co-efficient
emissivity of radiation shield
emissivity factor
configuration factor
height of the vessel
latent heat of evaporation
vacuum pressure
heat transfer by radiation
heat transfer by residual gas conduction
specific gas constant
minimum thickness of inner vessel
minimum thickness of outer vessel
ts
Ts
T1
T2
V
Vcyl
Vhead
thickness of radiation shield

temperature of radiation shield
temperature of inner vessel
temperature of outer vessel
total volume of the vessel
volume of the cylindrical portion
volume of head
Stefan-boltzman constant
density of liquid nitrogen
specific heat ratio
Gas visocity, Pa-s
free mean path
INTRODUCTION
After the cryogenic fluid has been liquefied, it is
necessary to store it in such a way that it results in
minimum boil-off rate. Spherical vessels have most
effective configuration as
far as heat in leak is concerned, and they are often
used for large volume storage in which the vessel is
constructed on the site. Cylindrical vessels are
usually required for transportable trailers and
103

railway cars. For small laboratory vessels,

cylindrical configuration is preferred for their
easiness and economical fabrication. Small
laboratory vessels are widely used for long time
storage of cryogenic fluids, for the preservation of
biological samples, for cooling of small samples and
to cool detectors for space telescopes.
SELECTION OF MATERIAL
Some materials like carbon steel performs ductile to
brittle transition when they are exposed to liquid
nitrogen temperature and they become very brittle.
So this type of materials cannot be used for the
construction of inner vessel. But material like
Stainless Steel retains their properties even at lower
temperature
because
of
martensitic
transformation[3][6]. Some other desirable properties
for constructional materials are:
compatibility for high vacuum
low emissivity
low thermal contraction coefficient
good weldability
low out gassing rate
available in standard shape and size
economical
Considering all these requirements S.S. 304 is best
suitable material and is selected for the construction
of inner vessel, outer vessel and radiation shield.
(ii) Thermal analysis and design: It determines

insulation requirements and heat transfer rate.
DESIGN OF INNER VESSEL
The design of inner vessel is done according to
ASME design standards [1]. Height of the vessel is
determined by the total volumetric capacity of the
vessel. It is made from NPS 6 schedule 5 with
following dimensions:
Inner diameter (Dii) = 162.7 mm
Outer diameter (Doi) = 168.3 mm
Thickness (ti) = 2.8 mm
ASME standard 2:1 elliptical head is used as bottom
cap.
The height of the vessel can be found by
V = Vcyl + Vhead
Eq. (1)
Where
V = total volume of the vessel = 11 lit considering
10% ullage volume.
Fig. 1 shows assembly drawing of inner vessel
which includes cylindrical portion, bottom head, top
flange and standard KF.
PROBLEM FORMULATION
Here small laboratory vessel of 10 litre capacity is
developed with radiation shield interposed between
inner and outer vessel.
Technical specifications:
Capacity: 10 litre
Ullage space: 10%
Cryogenic fluid to be stored: LN2
Absolute design pressure: 238 kPa
Type of insulation: Vacuum
Vacuum intensity: 2 mPa
TABLE 1.
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID NITROGEN
Temp.(K)
Psat
(kPa)
Density
(kg/m3)
75
77.36
80
76
101.3
136.7
818.1
807.3
795.1
Latent
heat
hfg
(kJ/kg)
202.3
199.3
195.8
Design Methodology:
(i) Mechanical analysis and design: It determines
minimum thickness required for inner vessel and
outer vessel. It is done according to ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code, section VIII, Div-I.
Fig. 1 Assembly drawing of inner vessel
104

RADIATION SHIELD
It appears that the dominant heat transfer mode is
radiation in the isolating cavity[4]. This can be
reduced by interposing radiation shield between
inner and outer vessel.
NPS 7 schedule 5 pipe, S.S. 304 is used as radiation
shield with flat bottom head. The following are
dimensions:
Inside diameter (Dis): 189 mm
Outside diameter (Dos): 193 mm
Thickness (ts): 2 mm
The gap maintained between inner vessel and
radiation
shield is 10 mm in order to fulfill the condition that
free mean path should be larger than this gap.
Fig. 2 shows details of radiation shield which
includes cylindrical portion and top flange.
= (/p) (RT/2gc) 1/2

Eq. (2)
Where
= gas visocity, Pa-s
p = vacuum pressure = 2 mPa
R = specific gas constant = 287 J/kg K
(i) Check this condition for inner vessel and
radiation shield:
= 16 10-6 Pa-s at 253 K
= 2.94 m
The gap between inner vessel and radiation shield =
10.35 mm, thus is greater than gap.
(ii) Check this condition for outer vessel and
radiation shield:
1=18.4710-6 Pa-s at 300K, hence =3.39 m
DESIGN OF OUTER VESSEL
It has to withstand only atmospheric pressure. So it
may fail from the view point of elastic instability or
buckling. It is designed by considering four times
atmospheric pressure acting on it[1][2].
NPS 8 schedule 5 pipe, S.S. 304 is used as outer
vessel with following are dimensions:
Inside diameter (Dio): 213 mm
Outside diameter (Doo): 219 mm
Thickness (to): 3 mm
Fig. 2 Assembly drawing of radiation shield

FREE MEAN PATH
In order for free molecular conduction to occur, the
mean free path of the gas molecules must be larger
than the spacing between two surfaces. To check
this condition, the mean free path may be
determined from
Fig. 3 Assembly drawing of outer vessel
105

evaporated during one day is given by, Ed/Et.

Following is the summary of results.
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

The radiant heat transfer rate between two surfaces
is given by the modified Stefan-Boltzman equation,
Qr = Fe F1-2 A1 (Ts4- T14)[5]
Eq. (3)
Where
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 56.6910-9 W/m2
K4
Ts = temperature of radiation shield = 252 K
T1 = temperature of inner vessel = 78 K
es = emissivity for highly polished S.S.= 0.03[2]
Fe= emissivity factor = 0.00112
Total heat transfer through cylindrical portion and
head by radiation,
Qr = 0.4974 W
HEAT TRANSFER BY MOLECULAR GAS
CONDUCTION
Heat transfer through residual gas conduction is
given by
Qg = G p A1 (Ts T1)
Eq. (4)
Where
G = (+1)/(-1) (gcR/8T)1/2 Fa
Eq. (5)
R = specific gas constant
Total heat transfer through cylindrical portion and
head by residual gas conduction,
Qg = 0.0578 W
Total heat transfer by radiation and residual gas
conduction (with radiation shield),
Q = Qr + Qg = 0.4974 + 0.0578 = 0.5552 W
Total heat transfer by radiation and residual gas
conduction (without interposing radiation shield),
Q = Qr + Qg = 2.3114 + 0.0784 = 2.3898 W
BOIL OFF RATE
The total heat energy required to evaporate
content of the vessel is given by,
Et = f hfg V
= 807.3 199.3 10 10-3= 1608.95 kJ
The total energy transfer to the vessel
during one day is,
Ed = Q td
= (0.555210-3) (3600 s/hr) (24 hr/day)
the full
Eq. (6)
content
Eq. (7)
Fig. 4 Sectional view of assembly of vessel
= 47.96 kJ/day
The fraction of the full vessel content that is
106

Table.1 Result Sheet
Boil off rate of

liquid nitrogen
With radiation
shield
Without
radiation
shield
2.98% per day
12.83% per day
CONCLUSION
The analysis shows good result of using radiation
shield in between inner and outer vessel. The saving
achieved in boil off rate is about 10% which
justifies the additional cost. Following the same
design procedure for 25 litre vessel, boil off rate is
1.74% per day and without radiation shield it is
8.50% per day. For higher volume to surface area
still better results may be obtained.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The support given by Dr.Venkat Ramani
(Proprietor), Plasma & Vacuum Technologies for
sponsoring this project work and providing
experimental facility is greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
ASME
Boiler
and
Pressure
Vessel
Code,Section VIII, Unfired Pressure Vessels,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York, 1983.
Barron R. F, Cryogenic Systems, second
edition, oxford university press, 1985.
Mohsen Botshekan, Suzanne Degallaix and
Yannick Desplanques,Influence of martensitic
transformation on the low-cycle fatigue
behavior of 316LN stainless steel at 77 K,
1997.
O.Khemis, M.Boumaza, M.Ait Ali and
M.X.Francois,Experimental analysis of heat
transfer in a cryogenic tank without lateral
insulation,
Universite
de
constantine,
constantine, Algeria,2003.
Seo
Young
Kim,
Byung
and
Ha
Kang,Thermal design analysis of a liquid
hydrogen vessel, Korea institute of science
and technology, South Korea, 2000.
Wigley, D.A.,The mechanical properties of
Materials at Low Temperatures, Plenum Press,
New York, 1971
107

108

Design of Lean Premixed Prevaporized

Combustion Chamber Using Kerosene as a
Fuel
Patel Amir D.
M.E Student,Shri Sad Vidhya Mandal Institute of Technology,Bharuch.
amrptl@gmail.com
Gosai Dipak C.
Associate Proffessor, Shri Sad Vidhya Mandal Institute of Technology,Bharuch.
dip_gosai@yahoo.co.in
Dr. Digvijay Kulshreshtha

Associate Proffessor, C K Pitahwala College of Engineering and Technology,Surat.
ABSTRACT
An introductory overview of micro and small scale devices for the combustion in micro gas turbines is presented at the
beginning of this dissertation. The work, thereafter presents the development of micro combustion chamber. The micro
combustion chamber designed as kerosene as a fuel. A major consideration in the development of advanced high
performance gas turbine engines for aircraft applications is to reduce pollutant emissions while increasing fuel efficiency.
This is especially true as combustor temperatures and pressures are increased in order to improve engine efficiency, since
both of these factors result in increased oxides of nitrogen (NOx) production. Of particular interest in this report is the Lean
Premixed Pre-vaporized (LPP) concept. This low NOx combustor concept is based on the fact that thermal NO formation is
reduced when operating away from stoichiometric conditions. Thus, the present work is an attempt to present the design for
Lean Premixed Pre-vaporized combustion chamber with Kerosene as fuel for Micro Gas Turbine application.
KEY WORDS:
LPP,Combustion Chamber,Kerosene,Design
INTRODUCTION
Premixed flames are distinguished from diffusion
flames by the mixing of the fuel and air prior to
ignition. Premixing allows careful control over the
local flame temperatures in the combustion zone to
avoid any potential NOx-forming hotspots.
Extremely well premixed flames exhibit ultra-low
NOx, CO, and UHC emissions if the flame
temperature is maintained below 1800 K and given
sufficient residence time [10]. DLE designs using
premixed flames are called lean premixed (LP) and
lean premixed pre vaporized (LPP) [10] for gaseous
and liquid fuelled combustors respectively. Figure
1.1 illustrates the
modern premixed combustors. The air is divided
into two streams. The first stream enters the primary
zone (PZ) for combustion and the second is diverted

into the annulus for cooling and dilution purposes.
The premixed design mixes the fuel and air prior to
injection into the PZ, whereas mixing of the fuel
and air for diffusion flames does not occur until
inside the PZ. A smaller fraction of the air is
diverted to the annulus in premixed designs as
leaner fuel/air mixtures are required to reduce the
flame temperature.
Fig. 1 Layout of LPP Combustor
109

DESIGN OF LPP COMBUSTION CHAMBER

Design begins with a concept. Figure 1.2 illustrates
the concept chosen [10]. Air discharged from the
compressor enters the combustor. The air passes
through a faired diffuser before it is dumped into the
premixer. Premixer consists of the axial swirler with
the coaxial fuel injection nozzle at the centre. Some
portion of the air passes through the premixer while
the remaining air flows through the annulus and
enters the dilution zone through dilution holes.
From the premixer, the exiting fuel and air mixture
is dumped into the combustor PZ by another axial
swirler where it ignites and burns. The resulting hot
products are diluted with relatively cooler air and
accelerated out of the combustor by a converging
nozzle.
requirements is so low as to give an unacceptably

high pressure loss. Under these conditions the
overall pressure loss dictates the casing size and
Aref is obtained from Equation
0.5 2
R m T P34
Aref 3 3
2 P3 Pref

P34
P3
0.5
2). Liner Area
If the ratio of liner cross-sectional area to casing

cross-sectional area is denoted by k , then the
optimal value of k is that which gives the highest
value of pL
q pz . It can be shown [10] that
2
2
p L
T3 k 2 P3 4 1 msn r 1 k 1
1
2
q pz
T pz m 2p qref
1 k
3). Size of Conventional Combustor

The design begins with evaluating the Reference
Area of conventional combustor by taking the
aerodynamic consideration of the combustor into
account.
=[
=1.589*10-3 m2
Fig. 2 Lean Premixed Prevapourized combustor
concept
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Parameters
Inlet Pressure to combustor
P3
Inlet
Temperature
to
combustor T3
Mass flow rate of air m3
Exit
Temperature
of
combustor T4
Mass
flow
rate
of
fuel(kerosene)
Designed
air
fuel
ratio(kerosene)
Value
3 bar
+2
=0.0509 m
4). Resizing for Premixed Combustion
Leonard & Stegmair stated that the combustion
volume should be roughly twice that of
conventional combustor for stable premixed
operation.
300 K
0.1 kg/s
=0.10531 m
1200 K
0.0009
kg/s
14.7
+2
=0.13595 m
1). Casing Area

For straight-through combustors the optimal crosssectional area of the casing Aref is determined from
considerations of overall pressure loss and
combustion loading. However, for most industrial
combustors and some aircraft combustors, the
casing area needed to meet the combustion
Fig. 3 Premixer Dimension
110

5). Premixer Design

Premixer design involves determining the following
parameters
a). Inlet diameter of the premixer.
b). Outlet diameter of the premixer.
c). Swirler design
d). Length of the premixer
In order to study the effect of premixer length on
flame phenomenon in combustor, it is assumed that
the inlet diameter of the premixer is equal to the
outlet diameter of the premixer.
7). Design Parameter for Mixer Swirler
Design
Mixer Swirler
parameters
1 at mean radius [19]

tv
1 mm
[19]
Dhub/Dsw
0.3 - 0.4
nv
8 - 16
Ksw
1.3[14]
1% (P3)
8). Premixer Length

Fig.4 Flowchart of Premixer Design
6). Axial Swirler Design
The swirler design process is iterative, as the
velocity in the premix tube is dependent on the
unknown outer dimensions of the swirler. The
average velocity in the mixer tube, Vavg is required
to estimate the cross sectional area of the mixer
tube. It is defined by
The mixer tube needs to be designed in such a way

that complete mixing takes place without auto
ignition. Auto ignition can occur when the residence
time of the mixture is more than the auto ignition
delay time.
The ignition delay time is given as,
= 0.43
Thus the length until ignition occurs is

Vavg = ( Vin + Vout ) / 2
= (
)0.5
)-
CONCLUSION
For micro gas turbine applications, two types of
combustion chamber, i.e. Tubular, Lean Premix prevaporized (LPP) combustor are used. Motivated by
new lowering governmental emission limits, a
methodology for the design of LPP combustor was
applied to 25 kW micro gas turbine cycle. There has
been no generalized design philosophy available for
LPP combustors, and hence the design of LPP
combustor was extracted from diffusive combustor.
From the design it can be observed that the liner
diameter for LPP combustor is thrice that for liner
diameter for diffusive combustor. Flashback and
flame blowout are major technical challenges for
the design of LPP combustor which can be avoided
through efficient design of premixer of the LPP
combustor.
Fig.5 Axial Swirler Dimensions
111

REFERENCES
D. Galley, A. PubillMelsi, S. Ducruix, F. Lacas, D.
Veynante, Y. Sommerer and T. PoinsotDynamics
of Lean Premixed Systems:Measurements for Large
Eddy Simulation.
Spadaccini C.M. Lee, Lukachko S., , Mehra A., X.
Zhang,,High Power Density Silicon Combustion
Systems for Micro Gas Turbine Engines, ASME
paper 2002-GT-30082.2002.
Applied
Science,Ottawa-Carleton
Institute
forMechanical and Aerospace Engineering.2005.
Brijesh P. Dharani, Design, Numerical Simulation
and Experimental Investigation of Tubular type
Hydrogen fuelled Micro Gas Turbine Combustion
Chamber, A Project submitted in partial fulfilment
for award of degree in Master of Engineering in
Thermal Engineering.June 2010.
Lu Liu, Qin Cheng Bi, Wei Min Liu, Fang Cheng

Qi, Xin Gang Bi, Experimental and Theoretical
Investigation of Rapid Evaporation of Ethanol
Droplets and Kerosene Droplets During
Depressurization, Springer Science Business
Media B.V 2010.
J. Trilla, D. Verstraete, N. de Bruyn and P.
Hendrick, CFD in the Design of an Ultra Micro
Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber,European
Conference for Aerospace Sciences (EUCASS).
TakeyukiKishi, KatsuhideHiraoka, Masaru Ikame,
Kazuyoshi Harumi, Hideyuki Shirota and Hideyuki
Oka, Characteristics of Hydrogen Combustion in
an Experimental Lean Premixed Combustor,
Power and Energy Engineering Division, Ship
Research Institute 6-38-1 ShinkawaMitaka, Tokyo
181-0004 Japan.(5)
C. Allouis, T. Marchione, F. Beretta, Preliminary
study of fluctuations of a LPP burner,29th Meeting
on Combustion,Italian Section of the Combustion
Institute.
Martins G., Cabot G., Taupin B., Vauchelles D. and
Boukhalfa, A, Structure Effect of Pressure in a
Lean Swirl Flame,Avenue de lUniversit BP8,
76801
Saint
Etienne
du
Rouvray
FRANCE.Proceedings of European Combustion
Meeting 2005.
Richard J. Roby, Micheal S. Klassen, Leo D. Eskin,
MichealRamotowski
and
Glenn
Gaines,
Development of System for Lean, Prevaporized,
Premixed Combustion Proceedings of the Thirty
Sixth Turbomachinery Symposium-2007.
Lefebvre A. H., Gas Turbine Combustion, Taylor
and Francis, 2nd ed., 1999 ISBN 1 56032 673
5.
Marc R.J. Charest, Design Methodology for a Lean
Premixed Prevaporized Can Combustor.Master of
112

Reduction in Make-up Water of Cooling

Towers
Harshal T Shukla
Mechanical Department/ Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology
h_08me77shukla@yahoo.in
Devesh A Vankar
Devcr7@gmail.com
Prof. Imran M Molvi
imranmolvi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Cooling tower are the type of Heat Exchangers which are widely used in Power Plants, Chemical Plants and
wherever cooling is required. Its primary task is to reject heat into atmosphere. They are relatively inexpensive and
are dependable means of removing low-grade heat from the cooling tower. It is based on the principle of
Evaporation. The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to evaporation as well as the blow-down rate.
One indicator of cooling tower efficiency is cycles of concentration, or concentration ratio. This is the ratio of the
makeup rate to the bleed rate, assuming the uncontrolled losses are negligible. Thus to reduce the make-up water the
factor cycle of concentration should be increased to optimum level.
KEYWORDS:
the two cooling rates of Mechanical draft towers

depend upon their fan diameter and speed of
operation.
Cycles of concentration; Tower Characteristics;

Tower Demand; Range; Approach; Wet and Dry Bulb
Temperature; Scaling; Fouling.
Cooling Tower System
INTRODUCTION
Types
Cooling towers fall into two main categories:
Natural draft and Mechanical draft. Natural draft
towers use very large concrete chimneys to
introduce air through the media. Due to the large
size of these towers, they are generally used for
high water flow rates. These types of towers are
used only by utility power stations.
Mechanical draft towers utilize large fans to force
or suck air through circulated water. The water
falls downward over fill surfaces, which help
increase the contact time between the water and
the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between
The water that is evaporated from the cooling

tower is pure; that is, it doesnt contain any of the
mineral solids that are dissolved in the cooling
water. When the solubility limit is reached,
dissolved minerals (most commonly calcium and
magnesium salts) precipitate as an insoluble scale
or sludge.
This is the off-white, mineral scale that is
frequently found in heat exchangers, in the tower
fill, or deposited in the sump. To prevent the
tower from over concentrating minerals, a
percentage of the cooling water is discharged to
drain. This is called as blow down.
113

concentration translate into greater efficiency as

measured by a decrease in freshwater
consumption and wastewater discharge.
Makeup (M) = Evaporation (E) + Bleed (D) +
Uncontrolled losses.
Increasing the cycles of concentration or cooling
tower water dissolved mineral content will
decrease the cooling tower blowdown and
thereby decrease makeup water requirements.
However, increased minerals in the water can
degrade tower performance over time.
Fig. 1 Cooling Tower System
The water that is lost by evaporation and bleed

must be replaced by fresh makeup to maintain a
constant system volume. Make-up is typically
obtained from potable water sources, but it may
also come from treated wastewater or recycled
water supplies.
So to reduce the cost of water we have to reduce
the blow down amount and there by the reducing
the total intake water supply. A typical power
plant evaporative cooling system must add
makeup water to balance out evaporation and
cooling tower blow down. One indicator of
cooling tower efficiency is cycles of
concentration. This is the ratio of the makeup rate
to the bleed rate, M/D, assuming the uncontrolled
losses are negligible. Cycles of concentration are
also estimated by the ratio of the specific
conductance of the cooling water and the makeup
water.
COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE

The important parameters, from the point of
determining the performance of cooling towers,
are:
I.
Range is the difference between the
cooling tower water inlet and outlet
temperature.
Fig. 2 Range and Approach

II.
=Salt
concentration
in
system/Salt
concentration in makeup water.
(
)
i.e.
=
Eq. (1)
Or, = +
From these relationships, the amount of bleed
required to maintain a specific cycle of
concentration is determined by:
= ( )
If E is held constant, reducing the bleed causes
the cycles to increase. Conversely, increasing the
bleed causes the cycles to decrease. Operating the
cooling tower at maximum cycles of
concentration reduces the amount of water sent to
drain and thereby decreases the freshwater
makeup demand. Overall, higher cycles of
III.
IV.
V.
Approach is the difference between

the cooling tower outlet cold water
temperature and ambient wet bulb
temperature. Although, both range and
approach should be monitored, the
`Approach is a better indicator of
cooling tower performance.
Cooling
tower
effectiveness
(in
percentage) is the ratio of range, to the
ideal range, i.e., difference between
cooling water inlet temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature, or in
other words it is
Effectiveness= Range / (Range +
Approach).
Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in
kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass
flow rate of water, specific heat and
temperature difference.
114

VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
Evaporation loss is the water quantity

evaporated for cooling duty.
Cycles of concentration ( ) is the ratio
of dissolved solids in circulating water to
the dissolved solids in makeup water.
Blow down losses depend on given
relation:
D = E(C 1)
Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio, of a cooling
tower is the ratio between the water and
the air mass flow rates. Against design
values, seasonal variations require
adjustment and tuning of water and air
flow rates to get the best cooling tower
effectiveness through measures like
water box loading changes, blade angle
adjustments.
COOLING TOWER THEORY

Dr. Merkel developed a cooling tower theory for
the mass (evaporation of a small portion of water)
and sensible heat transfer between the air and
water in a counter flow cooling tower. The theory
considers the flow of mass and energy from the
bulk water to an interface, and then from the
interface to the surrounding air mass. The flow
crosses these two boundaries, each offering
resistance resulting in gradients in temperature,
enthalpy,
and
humidity
ratio.
Merkel
demonstrated that the total heat transfer is directly
proportional to the difference between the
enthalpy of saturated air at the water temperature
and the enthalpy of air at the point of contact with
water.
Q = K S (h h )
Where, Q = total heat transfer Btu/h
K = overall enthalpy transfer coefficient lb/hr.ft2
S = heat transfer surface ft2.
=axV
h = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at the
Bulk water temperature, Btu/Lb dry air
h = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at the
wet
Bulb temperature, Btu/Lb dry air
t = hot water temperature
t = cold water temperature
The water temperature and air enthalpy are being
changed along the fill and Merkel relation can
only be applied to a small element of heat transfer
surface dS.
dQ = d[K S (h h )
= K (h h ) dS
Eq. (2)
The heat transfer rate from water side is
Q = C L Cooling range
Therefore,
dQ = d[C L (t t )]
= C L dt
Where,
C = specific heat of water = 1
L = water flow rate
Eq. (3)
Also, the heat transfer rate from air side is

Q = G (h h )
Therefore,
dQ = d[G (h h )]
= G dh
Eq. (4)
Where,
G = air mass flow rate
Now Equating Eq. 2, 3 and 4.
We get,
K (h h ) dS = G dh
K (h h ) dS = C L dt
Or,
K dS = (G dh )(h h )
(K dS)L = (C dt )(h h )
Integrating the above Eqns
KS KaV G
=
=
L
L
L
KS KaV
=
= Cw
L
L
dh
hw ha
dtw
hw ha
KaV
= Tower Characteristics
L
Heat Balance
HEAT = HEAT
(WATER HEAT + AIRHEAT ) = (WATER
HEAT + AIR HEAT )
Fig. 3 Directions of air and water in tower
C L t
+ Gh
=C L t
+ Gh
Eq. (5)
115

L = Leaving water flow rate

L = Entering water flow rate
The difference between L and L is the loss of
water due to the evaporation in the direct contact
of water and air. This evaporation loss is a result
of difference in the water vapor content between
the inlet air and exit air of cooling tower.
This Evaporation loss is given by
L L = G (w w )
Or,
L = L [G (w w )
Eq. (6)
Substituting the Eq. (6) in Eq. (5)
We get
C L t + Gh = C [L [G (w w )]
t + (Gh )
C L (t t ) = G (h h )
C [G(w w ) t ]
In general, the 2nd term of right side is ignored to
simplify the calculation under the assumption of
G(w w ) = 0.
Finally, the relationship of
C L (t t ) = G (h h )
is
established and this can be expressed to
C L(t t ) = G (h h )
again.
Therefore, the enthalpy of exit air,
C (t t ) L
h =h +
G
is obtained. The term of (t t ) is called the
cooling range.
Simply,
L Range
h =h +
G
Consequently, the enthalpy of exit air is a
summation of the enthalpy of entering air and the
addition of enthalpy from water to air (this is a
value of L/G x Range).
Fig. 4 Graphical
Characteristics
representation
of
C' = Entering air enthalpy at wet

BC = Initial enthalpy driving force
CD = Air operating line with slope L/G
Tower
DEF = Projecting the exiting air point onto the

water Operating line and then onto the
temperature axis shows the outlet air web.
As shown by Equation, by finding the area
ABCD, we get the tower characteristic. An
increase in heat load would have the following
effects on diagram in Figure 4:
1. Increase in the length of line CD, and a CD
line shift to the right
2. Increases in hot and cold water temp
3. Increases in range and approach areas
The increased heat load causes the hot water
temperature to increase considerably faster. Than
does the cold water temperature. Although the
area ABCD should remain constant. It actually
decreases about 2% for every 10increase in hot
water temperature above 100. To account for
this decrease, an "adjusted hot water temperature"
is used in cooling tower design. The area ABCD
is expected to change with a change in L/G, this is
very key in the design of cooling tower.
Tower Demand and Characteristics Curves
Tower Demand
The Merkel equation is used to calculate the
thermal demand based on the design temperature
and selected liquid-to-gas ratios (L/G). The value
of KaVL becomes a measure of the order of
difficulty for the liquid cooling requirements. The
design temperature and L/G relate the thermal
demand to the MTD (Mean Temperature
Difference) used in any heat transfer problem.
Fig. 5 Tower Demand Curve
The Tchebycheff method was selected as being of

adequate consistency and accuracy for the
proposed volume. The CTI curves were
calculated and plotted by computer over a large
span of temperature and operating conditions. The
116

curves are plotted with the thermal demand,

KaVL as a function of the liquid-to-gas ratio,
L/G. The approach lines (t WBT) are shown
as parameter.
The curves contain a set of 821 curves, giving the
values of KaVL or 40 wet bulb temperature, 21
cooling ranges and 35 approaches.
Tower Characteristics
An equation form used to analyze the thermal
performance capability of a specified cooling
tower was required. Currently, the following
equation is widely accepted and is a very useful
To be able to superimpose on each demand curve,
since KaVL vs. L/G relationship is a linear
function on log-log demand curve.
= C(LG)
Eq. (7)
Where,
KaVL=Tower Characteristic, as determined by
Merkel equation
C=Constant related to the cooling tower design,
or The intercept of the characteristic curve at
L/G=1.0
m=Exponent related to the cooling tower design
(Called slope),
The characteristic curve may be determined in
one of the following three ways:
a) If still applicable and available, the vendor
supplied characteristic curve may be used. In
all cases the slope of this curve can be taken
as the slope of the operating curve.
b) Determine by field testing one characteristic
point and draw the characteristic curve
through this point parallel to the original
characteristic curve, or a line through this
point with the proper slope (- 0.5 to - 0.8).
c) Determine by field testing at least two
characteristic points at different L/G ratios.
The line through these two points is the
characteristic curve. The slope of this line
should fall, within the expected range, and
serves as a check on the accuracy of the
measurement.
Fig. 6 Tower Demand & Characteristic Curve
d) A characteristic point is experimentally

determined by first measuring the wet bulb
temperature, air discharge temperature, and
cooling water inlet and outlet temperature.
The L/G ratio is then calculated as follows:
a.
It may be safely assumed that the air

discharge is saturated. Therefore, the air
discharge is at its wet bulb. Knowing wet
bulb temperature at the inlet of tower, the
enthalpy increase of the air stream can be
obtained from a psychometric chart. Air and
Water flow rates have to be in the proper
range for uniform flow distribution. In case
of recirculation of the air discharge, the inlet
wet bulb may be 1 or 2F above the
atmospheric wet bulb temperature.
b. From a heat and mass balance the dry air rate
and the prevailing L/G ratio in the tower can
be calculated
[LG = Dh {C (t t )}
Next, the corresponding KaVL value has to be
established. This is simply done by plotting the
calculated L/G and approach on the demand curve
for the proper wet bulb and range.
Cooling Tower Design
It is important to recall three key points in cooling
tower design:
1.
A change in wet bulb temperature (due to

atmospheric conditions) will not change the
tower characteristics KaVL
2. A change in cooling range will not change
KaVL.
3. Only a change in the L/G ratio will change
KaVL
Cooling towers are designed according to the
highest geographic wet bulb temperatures. This
temperature will
dictate the minimum
117

performance available by the tower. As the wet

bulb temperature decreases, so will the available
cooling water temperature.
Following steps are done by engineers in cooling
tower design:
1. Plant engineer defines the cooling water flow
rate, and the inlet and outlet water
temperatures for the tower.
2. Manufacturer designs the tower to be able to
meet this criteria on a "worst case
scenario"(i.e. during the hottest months). The
tower characteristic curves and the estimate
is given to the plant engineer.
3. Plant engineer reviews bids and makes a
selection.
Once a tower characteristic has been established
between the plant engineer and the manufacturer,
the manufacturer must design a tower that
matches the value. The required tower size will be
a function of:
1. Cooling range
2. Approach to wet bulb temperature
3. Mass flow rate of water
4. Web bulb temperature
5. Air velocity through tower or individual
tower Cell
6. Tower height
Operation Considerations
Water Make-up
Water losses include evaporation, drift (water
entrained in discharge vapor), and blowdown
(water released to discard solids). Drift losses are
estimated to be between 0.1 and 0.2% of water
supply.
Evaporation Loss = 0.00085 * water flow rate
(t t )
From Eq. (1) i.e. D = E(C 1)
BlowdownLoss = Evaporation Loss/ (cycles1)
Total Losses = Drift Losses + Evaporation Losses
+ Blowdown Losses.
Cold Weather Operation
Even during cold weather months, the plant
engineer should maintain the design water flow
rate and heat load in each cell of the cooling
tower. If less water is needed due to temperature
changes (i.e. the water is colder), one or more
cells should be turned off to maintain the design
flow in the other cells. The water in the base of
the tower should be maintained between 60 and
70 by adjusting air volume if necessary. Usual
practice is to run the fans at half speed or turn
them off during colder months to maintain this
temperature range.
RESULT ANALYSIS
With new modification in designing a cooling
tower i.e. to increase the factor Cycles of
concentration (COC), we gradually decrease the
blow down rate. The following graph of bleed
rate vs. COC is obtained by empirically changing
the design data of cooling tower.
Fig. 7 Bleed Rate vs. Cycles of Concentration
The diminishing returns curve indicates that

major gains in water conservation can be
achieved by increasing the cycles from two to
three. As we approach higher cycles, however, the
incremental gains decrease. From a practical
view, windage, leaks, and other uncontrolled
losses limit the cycles to a maximum of about 10.
This is a reasonable goal for most cooling towers
and would further suggest that cooling towers
operating below 10 cycles of Concentrations are
less than 100% efficient as measured by makeup
consumption and waste water generation.
The table data assume that 10 cycles of
concentration represent 100% cooling tower
efficiency for comparison purposes.
Table 1. Dependability of COC on Efficiency.
Cycles Of
Cooling Tower
Concentration
Water Efficiency
(%)
10
100
98.8
97.4
96.4
93.8
90.0
84.4
75.0
2
56.3
These figures suggest that cooling towers that
operate at fewer than five cycles of concentration
(less than 90% efficient) are not achieving their
full potential and would benefit from retrofits that
would reduce freshwater consumption and
118

decrease waste. Towers operating at six to eight

cycles are acceptable for most applications.
Towers in the 9-10 cycles range have reached
their peak. Achieving more than 10 cycles would
be difficult while deriving a reasonable return on
investment, unless zero discharge is the ultimate
goal.
CONSEQUENCES
C*=Salt
concentration
in
system/Salt
concentration in makeup water. So for increasing
the efficiency of cooling tower the factor C* is to
be increased. As per above formula if C* is
increased then the salt conc. In the system rises to
an unacceptable level of pH i.e. greater than 8.5
as per Pollution Control Board. To meet the
requirements of Pollution Control Board requisite
amount of acid solution (generally sulphuric acid)
is added to the blow down before draining it into
the water body.
Draw-off (or blowdown) is used principally to
control the buildup of these minerals. The
chemistry of the makeup water including the
amount of dissolved minerals can vary widely.
Makeup waters low in dissolved minerals such as
those from surface water supplies (lakes, rivers
etc.) tend to be aggressive to metals (corrosive).
Makeup waters from groundwater supplies
(wells) are usually higher in minerals and tend to
be scaling (deposit Minerals). Increasing the
amount of minerals present in the water by
cycling can make waterless aggressive to piping
however excessive levels of minerals can cause
scaling problems.
As the cycles of concentration increase the water
may not be able to hold the minerals in solution.
When the solubility of these minerals has been
exceeded they can precipitate out as mineral
solids and cause fouling and heat exchange
problems in the cooling tower or the heat
exchangers. The temperatures of the recirculating
water, piping and heat exchange surfaces
determine if and where minerals will precipitate
from the recirculating water.
The use of water treatment chemicals,
pretreatment such as water softening, pH
adjustment, and other techniques can affect the
acceptable range of cycles of Concentration.
Besides treating the circulating cooling water in
large industrial cooling tower systems to
minimize scaling and fouling, the water should be
filtered and also be dosed with biocides and
algaecides to prevent growths that could interfere
with the continuous flow of the water. For closed

loop evaporative towers, corrosion inhibitors may
be used, but caution should be taken to meet local
environmental regulations as some inhibitors use
chromates.
CONCLUSIONS
Hence to reduce blow-down a proposal of
increasing the factor cycle of concentration is
recommended but keeping in view the other
complications caused by increased factor cycle of
concentration. An optimized factor is chosen
which is 3 i.e. C*=3.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is well known that behind every success there
stand some persons other than one that has
Successes. We are thankful to all those persons
who have directly or indirectly supported and
helped us in successful completion for this work.
We express our deepest gratitude and thanks to
Prof. Adil Khan, for all valuable time and for
consistent encouragement and valuable guidance,
their interest and suggestion were the monitoring
factors in completing.
We would like to express our special gratitude
and thanks to industry persons Sir. B.L.Sahu and
Sir. G.C.Joshi of KAKRAPAR ATOMIC
POWER STATION for giving attention and time.
Our thanks and appreciations also go to our
colleague in developing this research paper and
people who have willingly helped us with their
abilities.
REFERENCES
1.
Bureau Of Energy Efficiency, Chapter no. 7,

pp-135-151.
2.
Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual,

Cooling Tower Technical Site of Daeil Aqua
Co., Ltd. For Cooling Tower Engineers,
Operators and Purchasers.
3.
Praveen Verma, Water Treatment Vol 6,

Chapter (13-31).
119

120

Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessel of

Hemispherical and Ellipsoidal End
Connection Using Finite Element Analysis
Kamlesh R. Parmar
Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology, Limda, Baroda
PG student, Mechanical Engineering Department,
kams.mech@gmail.com
Adil A. Khan
Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology, Limda, Baroda
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,
adilamankhan@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper presents analysis results of stress analysis in pressure vessel of hemispherical and ellipsoidal end connection.
The results are obtained from 3-D finite element analysis. Hemispherical and ellipsoidal end connection configurations are
considered and Von-Mises stresses, membrane stresses, total displacements and total mass of model are obtained for both
connections. The connections are the weakest areas where high stresses are seen. The finite element method software is
used to analyze shell connection to Shell-end connections. These connections are highly stressed joints.
KEY WORDS
Hemispherical end connection; ellipsoidal
connection; stress; finite element analysis.
end
NOMENCLATURE
D
Inner diameter of pressure vessel, mm
h
Height of ellipsoidal end connection, mm
P
Internal pressure, MPa
t
Thickness of shell end connection, mm
INTRODUCTION
A pressure vessel is a leak-proof container
designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure
substantially different from the ambient pressure.
Pressure vessels may theoretically be almost of any
shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres,
cylinders, and cones are usually employed. A
common design is a cylinder with hemispherical
end caps called end connections. A spherical shape
is difficult to manufacture, therefore more
expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical
with 2:1 semi-elliptical end connections or end
caps on each end [2].
Design of pressure vessel is considered because of

the most likely mode of damage or failure, the
method of stress analysis employed and
significance of the results and the selection of
material type and its linear-nonlinear behavior as a
result of the external forces on the vessel. The
Theories of failures considered by the bodies like
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME section VIII Div-2, 2007) standard for
pressure vessels are considered here [6]. Pressure
vessels are characterized by the existence of
stresses along three axes. First of all, due to
pressure, there is a principal stress directed as the
pressure itself and thus orthogonal to the wall of
the vessel, while two additional principal stresses
act on the plane orthogonal to the previous one. In
the case of cylindrical elements the first of such
stresses is radial; the other two are directed,
respectively, along the circumference and along the
axis of the cylinder. The most generally accepted
failure theories for ductile materials, such as steel
used to build pressure vessels, are the well-known
theory of maximum shear stress or GuestTresca,
121

and the one known as distortion energy theory or

HuberHencky [6].
The simplified thin shell methods, illustrated by
application to a pressure vessel that has many of
the geometric and operational features of a
pressurized vessel were used. The studies of major
sensitive areas were performed for a pressure
vessel in his research work on pressure vessels [4].
The cylindrical pressure vessel hemispherical,
torospherical and ellipsoidal end connections,
involving the partial differential equations for the
classical theory of thin shells of revolution
axisymmetric in character were attempted, using a
step-by-step integration procedure and a
segmentation technique. The numerical results
were obtained with generalized computer program
developed in FORTRAN IV and he compared the
results with ASME code [5]. The development of
tooling for the deep drawing of pressure vessel end
closures (PVECs) can be a time-consuming and
expensive process. Authors proposed that Finite
element (FE) modeling of this process has the
potential to reduce these costs [3]. In pressure
vessels the center lines of the cylinder and dome
portions often do not coincide at their junction. To
predict accurately the stress and displacement
distributions around the discontinuity, an iterative
finite element scheme was developed using a
conical shell finite element. The method was
applied to two types of pressure vessels, one with
hemispherical end domes and the other with
ellipsoidal end domes. The method yielded
satisfactory results and show good convergence [7].
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PRESSURE VESSEL
OF HEMISPHERICAL END CONNECTION
AND ELLIPSOIDAL END CONNECTION:
The connections are the weakest areas where high
stresses are seen. There are some conventional
formulas which are used for the calculation of
stresses in these areas.
ASME section VIII div 2 has realized the power of

Finite element method and has used it to analyze
all the critical areas where weld and bolted
connections are plotted and are difficult to analyze
via conventional formulas. Finite element method
[1]
is used to solve these types of problems. ProMechanica software is used to analyze shell
connection to shell-end connections. These
connections are highly stressed joints.
Diameter and thickness are the governing

parameters for geometry of hemispherical end. The
most important part which is considered in FE
modeling here, is the consideration of joining the
hemispherical end of thickness 25 mm with inner
diameter 5000 mm to that of the shell with inner
diameter of 5000 mm but of thickness 50 mm. The
welding strength is modeled in a typical way as
explained here under.
The number of curves resulting to surface is
modeled and the increasing thickness shell
property is assigned to these separate shell element
from 25 mm of hemispherical end to 50 mm of the
shell. To make it more clearly here I have modeled
the hemispherical end with 3 curves with
increasing thickness from 25, 35, and 45 which is
then connected to the shell of 50 mm thickness.
The diagram below depicts the assumption of
modeling clearly.
The mid surface shell model is modeled with the
diameter of 5050 mm (considering the thickness of
50 mm of the shell) and the radius of mid-surface
hemispherical end is 2512.5 considering the
thickness of 25 mm. the joining of the two nontangential arcs is done using small line segment
tangential to the hemispherical end while is in
touch with the shell. The line is defined with the
property of shell with thickness of 40 mm
encompassing the strength of the weld joining the
two base metals.
Fig.1 Hemispherical end connection

The sub-structured model is prepared for the same
shown below, and Von- Mises stresses are plotted
under loading condition of hydrostatic test. i.e.
internal pressure of 2 MPa is applied on the substructured model.
Shell with Hemispherical End Connection
122

Fig.2 Sub-structured
meshed
hemispherical type pressure vessel
model
for
Fig.5 Ellipsoidal end connection
Fig.3 Results of Von-Mises Stresses
The use ellipsoidal end results in the lengthwise

reduction of the vessel. As the length of the
hemispherical end is x the length of ellipsoidal end
will be x/2 mm resulting the reduction in the cost
of the material.
Fig.4 Results of total displacement

Shell with Ellipsoidal End Connection
This case which is analyzed is when the
hemispherical end changed to ellipsoidal end
connection with the cylindrical vessel.The model
was prepared with similar modeling practice of
using three surfaces where one is allotted the
thickness of 45 mm, the second which is of 35 mm
thickness and the connection which is of 25 mm
thickness.
Fig.6 Sub-structured meshed model for ellipsoidal

type pressure vessel
123

of ellipsoidal end connection is 0.7 times that of

hemispherical end connection which saves 2726 kg
of material as show in shown in table 1. Thus
ellipsoidal end connection is most favorable in
industry.
Fig.7 Results of Von- Mises Stresses
Fig.8 Results of total displacement
RESULTS
Table 1. Results obtained from stress analysis
Description
Hemispherical
end vessel
Ellipsoidal
end vessel
Von- Mises stresses

(MPa)
110-130
220-240
Membrane stresses
(MPa)
90-110
180-195
Total displacement
(mm)
1.359
7.39
Total mass (Tonne)
9.045
6.319
REFERENCES
1. Haideri, F (2009). CAD/CAM and
automation, Sixth revised and enlarged
edition, Nirali prakashan, pp. 228-235.
2. Harvey, JF (1985). Pressure vessels, Theory
and design of pressure vessel, Van nostrand
Reinhold Company, pp 1-24.
3. Kirby, DS and Wild, PM (2000). Deep
drawing of pressure vessel end closures: Finite
element simulation and validation, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, Vol 103,
pp. 247-260.
4. Meyer, JE (1996). Pressure vessel stress
analysis, Structure design notes topic C.
5. Ramesh, CK, Kant, T and Jadhav, VB (1974).
Elastic analysis of cylindrical pressure
vessels with various end closures, Int. J. Pres.
Ves. & Piping, Vol 2, pp. 143-154.
6. Rules for construction of Pressure vessels,
Division 2: Alternative rules, ASME boiler
and pressure vessel code, section VIII,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
2007edition.
7. Srinatha, HR, Venkateshwara rao, G and Raju,
IS (1975). Discontinuity stress analysis of
pressure vessel using the finite element
method, Nuclear Engineering and Design,
Vol 35, pp.309-314.
CONCLUSION
From the stress analysis of hemispherical end
connection and ellipsoidal end connection, VonMises stresses and Membrane stresses of
ellipsoidal end connection are almost double than
hemispherical end connection. Total Displacement
of ellipsoidal end connection is 5.437 times greater
than hemispherical end connection as shown in
table 1. But in an allowable range of stresses as
depicted by ASME section VIII Div-2, the weight
124

Flow Induced Vibration in Shell and Tube

Heat Exchanger
Chirag J. Patel
Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology, Limda, Baroda.
chiragp3@gmail.com
Adil A. Khan
Assitant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,
ABSTRACT
Flow induced vibrations in Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger are inherent with any design of the exchanger. Because of a
large number of variables involved and inadequate information on certain crucible parameters such as flow pattern of shell
side fluid, it is very difficult to conclude with certainty as to what would be the response of an exchanger to flow induced
vibrations in actual operating conditions. This paper describes the mechanisms of flow induced vibrations and their causes.
The remedies for such problems both as long term measures (Which can be employed at design stage) and short term
measure (for stop gap arrangement in running plant).
KEY WORDS
Heat Exchanger; Flow Induced Vibration; Natural
Frequency; HTRI
NOMENCLATURE
Cn
do
E
F
Fn
gc
Sr
V
We
Frequency Constant
outside diameter of tube, mm
Modulus of elasticity, kg/m2
Vortex Shedding Frequency, Hz
Straight Tube Natural Frequency, Hz
gravitational constant
Strouhal number
cross flow velocity, m/s
effective weight per unit length
INTRODUCTION
Heat exchangers are extensively employed in
process industries and thermal & nuclear power
generation units. Shell and tube heat exchanger in
their manifestations undoubtedly the most widely
and unfired heat transfer equipment in the chemical
processing industries. The STHE provides a
comparatively large ratio of heat transfer to volume

and weight .It provides this surface in a form which
is relatively easy to construct in a wide range of
sizes and which is mechanically rugged enough to
withstand normal shop fabrication stresses,
shipping and field erection stresses and normal
operating condition.[1]
A very serious problem in the mechanical design of
heat exchanger is flow induced vibration of the
tubes. The tubes may vibrate against the baffles,
which can eventually cut holes in the tubes. In
extreme cases, the tubes can strike adjacent tubes,
literally knocking holes in other. Vibration is
caused by repeated and unbalanced forces being
applied to the tube. Flow induced vibration became
a serious problem by late 1960 and , and as a result,
design procedures for shell and tube heat
exchangers were revised to include an study of this
phenomena. Flow induced vibration may revel
itself in the form of either a loud noise, which has
been known as reach 110 decibels at 1 m range, or
an increase in shell side pressure loss which may
be nearly double the expected value
Nowadays there are lots of government bodies like
HTFS (Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service) and
125

Heat Transfer Research Inc.(HTRI) and by

computer service companies such as B-JAC
International. These programs offer design and
simulation of STHE.HTRI uses a rigorous
structural analysis approach to calculate the tube
natural frequencies for various modes and offers
flexibility in the geometries it can handle.
HTRI(Xvib)
calculates
multispan
natural
frequencies for straight tubes and structural
analysis. Although Xist automatically checks all its
cases for vibration. some cases require an in depth
analysis. Xvib is designed to help the expert user
analyze these cases.
The analysis includes
calculation of tube deflections for the first and
higher modes to predict potential vibration
problems by considering fluid elastic instability
and vortex shedding.[1][2]
induced vibration. Vortex shedding is fluid

mechanical in nature and does not depend on any
movement of the tube. When Shell side fluid flows
across heat exchanger tubes, alternately varying
Karmans vortex street will come into being
downward stream of tube, which generates periodic
changing exciting forces, which direction is
perpendicular to fluid flow, and results in vibration
of tubes.[3]
STRAIGHT
FREQUENCIES
Fig 1.Vortex Shedding in Tube
TUBE
NATURAL
Tubes vibrate at discrete frequencies depending

primarily on their geometry and material of
construction. The lowest frequency at which tubes
vibrate is called the natural frequency. Several
different approaches can be used to predict the
natural frequency of straight tubes. Most start with
the assumption of a uniform beam which is
clamped at least at one end with intermediate
supports along its length. The rigorous of a uniform
considers spans of unequal length between
supports. A somewhat less accurate, but normally
adequate approach by MacDuff and Felgar
assumes that all span are of equal length. Although
the approach can consider different types of
supports at the ends and in between, it is usual to
assume clamped ends and simple intermediate
supports for the prediction of the natural frequency.
This method is presented by the following
equation.[4]
f n 0.04944Cn
MECHANICS
VIBRATION
EIg c
We L4
OF
Chen has shown vortex shedding frequency can be

predicted
by
dimensionless
Strouhal
number.Strouhal number is an integral part of
fundamental of Fluid Mechanics. Shedding of
Vortices from isolated tubes in a fluid medium is
correlated by Strouhal Number.
The Strouhal number is given as,
Sr
f do
V
For a particular heat exchanger at defined

operating condition:
Sr=Constant
do=Constant
Therefore, Vortex shedding frequency directly
proportional to cross flow velocity. It is function of
tube field layout and tube pitch ratio. Strouhal
number are high for 45o and 60o layout.
FLOW-INDUCED
Generally, there are several main mechanisms for

flow induced vibration in heat exchanger as
follows:
Vortex Shedding
Fig.2 Strouhal number for tube layout
The use of vortex shedding Frequencies is one of
earliest recognized predictive methods for flowThe Indian Journal of Technical Education, (Special Issue for NCEVT12) April 2012
126

The work carried out in this regard shows that the

vortex shedding frequency gets locked-in when it
reaches 0.8 of the natural frequency of the tube. As
the velocity is increased the vortices continue to be
shed at the natural frequency even though the
frequency calculated from above equation (based
on strouhal number) is much higher than the
natural frequency. It is therefore, advisable to keep
the vortex shedding frequency less than 80 percent
of the natural frequency of the tube.[3]
may come into being and be reflected repeatedly

by inner wall of heat exchanger. Meanwhile, as gas
flows across tube bundle, Karmans vortex street
comes into being behind tubes. And when
frequency of vortex street accords with the
frequency of acoustic standing waves, the couple
will come and all the kinetic energy of flow media
will be transmuted to acoustic pressure waves,
thereby vibration and strong noise will appear in
heat exchanger.
Fluid-Elastic Excitation
CAUSES OF VIBRATION FAILURE IN STHE
When fluid flows across tube bundle, due to the

complexity of flow condition, some certain tube in
bank may take instant movement, thereby the flow
field around it changes and the equilibrium of
forces on adjacent tubes is broken, which makes
tubes move and begin vibrating. When flow rate
increases to a certain degree, work of fluid elastic
force on tube bundle will be larger than the work
consumed by damping action of tubes, then
amplitude of tube will increase rapidly and cause
tubes to collide with each other and be
destructed.[4]
Damage due to striking with baffle hole: Vibration

of Heat exchanger tubes can cause thining of tube
wall at the baffle due to periodic striking of the
tubes with the baffles and consequently their
wearing out at the striking locations results in tube
failure.
Turbulent Buffeting
Flow induced noise or acoustic: Vibration can also

damage the shell, its foundation and or pipings..
Acoustic vibration can occur when shell side fluid
is a low density gas column which causes the
acoustic vibration.[5][6]
Turbulent buffeting relates to the fluctuating forces

acting on the tubes under extremely turbulent
cross-flow conditions for the fluids at high
Reynolds number
ftb ((ur do )/ (Pl Pt )) (3.05(1 (do / Pt ))2 0.28)

The turbulence at their natural frequency from the
wide spectrum of frequencies present.[3][4]
Fluid-Elastic Whirling
Fluid-elastic whirling describes a self-excited form
of vibration in which the tubes vibrate with a large
whirling motion. The momentary displacement of
a tube within a bank from its equilibrium position
alters their positions in vibratory manner. Once
fluid-elastic whirling begins, a run away
condition develops if the energy absorbed by the
tube from the fluid exceeds that which can be
dissipated by damping.[3]
Acoustic Resonance
Acoustic resonance occurs only on the condition
that shell-side fluid is gas. When gas flow across
tube bundle, acoustic standing waves, which is
perpendicular to both tubes and flow direction,
Tube to tube collisions: The high amplitude

vibration can cause collisions of one tube with
another at mid-span. As a result of this tube may
get flattened and this may finally result in tube
failure.
Tube to tube-sheet joint failure: Tube to tube-sheet

joints are made either by tube expansion in tube
sheet or by strength welding of the tube or by a
combination of two. Tubesheet holes have
clearance with reference to tube outside diameter
as specified in TEMA (Tubuler Exchanger
Manufacturer Association.).
Remedies
The solution for minimize the Flow induced
vibration is not allowing to match the flow
induced vibration frequency with the natural
frequencies of the tubes .Because of large numbers
of variable involved, it is very difficult to calculate
both these frequency required degree of accuracy.
Even the frequencies of flow induced vibration due
to different phenomena vary widely. Remedies to
minimize flow induced vibrations are discussed in
two groups, namely the Process design precautions
and the Mechanical design precautions.
127

PROCESS DESIGN PRECAUTIONS
CONCLUSIONS
For large heat exchanger with high flow rate, it is

often more economical to omit tubes in the baffle
window area. This provides for better cross flow
while providing support for all tubes at every
baffle. This no-tube in window baffle design is
helpful in reducing flow induced vibration.
For providing adequate damping to the vibrating
tubes it is advisable to design exchange with liquid
on shell and gases on the tube side. Gas flow on
shell side should only be allowed when
unavoidable
because
of
other
practical
consideration.
The cross flow velocity may vary along the length
of the tube because of flow distribution. Therefore
the velocity that should be used when calculating
the exciting force should be taken at the region
where it is highest.
At low Reynolds numbers at large pitch to
diameter ration of tubes the transverse component
of cyclic force, due to vortex-shedding phenomena
is more than stream wise component. The
transverse component also increases with triangular
pitch as compared to square pitch of the tube
layout. Therefore, due care should exercised while
selecting pitch to diameter ration and triangular vs
square pitch for tube sheet holes layout.
There is a significant role of vibration on STHE.

Natural frequency and vortex shedding are the
main factors for causing vibrations. By applying
proper precaution techniques at various stages of
operations vibration can be minimize or eliminate.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
MECHANICAL DESIGN PRECAUTIONS
Variable baffle spacing lowers the natural
frequency of a tube and increases the resonant
amplitude. Therefore, the selection should be made
to keep uniform baffle spacing. It should be kept in
mind that the tensile stress in tubes increases their
natural frequency whereas compressive stress in
tubes decreases it. This consideration is very
significant specially in fixed tube sheet exchanger
where standard design practices allow compressive
loading as high as half the buckling load.
6.
Chenoweth JM and Kistler RS (1973) Tube

Vibrations in Shell and Tube HeatExchangers
presented at ASME winter Annual Meeting,
pp 122-146.
Eisinger FL (1979) Prevention and Cure of
Flow- Induced Vibration Problems In Tubuler
Heat Exchangers.Presented at the Third
National Congress On Pressure Vessel and
Piping Technology, San Francisco, California,
pp 47-68.
Gawande SH, Keste AA, Navale
LG, Milndkumar
NR, Sonawane VJ,
Ubarhande UB(2011) Design optimization of
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger by Vibration
Analysis.
Kakkan S (1999) Heat Exchanger
Selection,Rating and Thermal design pp 290310
Leong KC, Tho KC and Leong YC (1998)
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Design
Software For Educational Applications, pp
217-223.
Negi BS, (1984) Vibration in Tubuler Heat
Exchanger pp 37-43
A thick baffle provides better support to the tubes

and thereby increases their natural frequency of
vibration. This effect is more predominant if baffle
holes are machined with closer clearance than
those recommended in TEMA.
Due to constant hitting of the tube against baffle
hole a notch is produced on the tube which
eventually leads to tube cut. This can be prevented
by using a baffle material softer than the tube
material.[6]
128

Design Validation of Shell and Tube Heat

Exchanger by HTRI Xchanger Software
Nirmal S. Parmar
nirmalparmar88@gmail.com
Adil A. Khan
Assitant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,
ABSTRACT
This paper is intended to assist anyone with some general technical experience, but perhaps limited specific knowledge of
heat transfer equipment. A characteristic of heat exchanger design is the procedure of specifying a design, heat transfer
area and pressure drops and checking whether the assumed design satisfies all requirements or not. The purpose of this
paper is how to design the shell-and-tube heat exchanger which is the majority type of liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger.
General design considerations and design procedure are also illustrated in this paper. In design calculation HTRI software
is used to verify manually calculated results. In this paper attempt is made to overcome some major theoretical assumptions
and serve practical approach as much as possible for shell tube heat exchanger design. It is hoped that the software will
bridge the gap between engineering fundamentals and the existing industry practice of shell and tube heat exchanger
design.
KEY WORDS
Heat exchanger, HTRI, pressure drop, fouling, heat
transfer coefficient, LMTD, EMTD
NOMENCLATURE
Ao = heat transfer area based on the outside surface
area of tubes, m2
Ai = heat transfer area based on the inside surface
area of tubes, m2
As = crossflow area at or near shell centerline, m2
Aw = area for flow through baffle window, m2
C = clearance between tubes, m
CL = tube layout constant
CTP = tube pass constant
Ds = shell inner diameter, m
Dw = equivalent diameter of baffle window, m
do = tube outer diameter, m
di = tube inner diameter, m
F = correction factor to LMTD for non counter
flow systems
fi = friction factor for flow across an ideal tube

bank
G = mass velocity, kg/m2s
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
hi = tube side heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
hid = shell side heat transfer coefficient for ideal
tube bank, W/m2K
he = shell side heat transfer coefficient for heat
exchanger, W/m2K
ks = thermal conductivity of shell side, W/mK
kt = thermal conductivity of tube side, W/mK
L = effective tube length of heat exchanger
between tube sheets, m
ms = shell side mass flow rate, kg/s
mt = tube side mass flow rate, kg/s
Nt = total number of tubes or total number of holes
in tube sheet
Nu = Nusselt number
P = perimeter, m
P = pressure drop, Kpa
Pr = Prandtl number
PT = pitch size, m
Q = heat load duty of heat exchanger, W
R = thermal resistance
129

Re = Reynolds Number
T = absolute temperature, oC, K
T = temperature difference, oC, K
Uc = overall heat transfer coefficient for clean
surface based on total external surface area, W/m2k
Uf = overall heat transfer coefficient for fouled
surface based on total external surface area, W/m2k
Uo = overall heat transfer coefficient based on total
external surface area, W/m2k
um = average velocity of fluid, m/s
INTRODUCTION
The heat exchanger is equipment that allows heat
transference between two fluids at different
temperatures. Heat exchangers are extensively used
in industry due to their wide variety of construction
and applications in heat transfer processes for
producing conventional energy such as condensers,
heaters, boilers or steam generators. They provide
an adequate surface for heat transference to occur
and their mechanical and thermal characteristics
allow high pressure and high temperature
processes.
In recent years, new softwares for design of heat
exchangers has been focusing in adapting the
equipment to the required process and new
solutions have been found that make the design
time shorter.[1]
Q = UoAoTm
The overall heat transfer coefficient Uo based on

the O.D. of tubes can be estimated from the
estimated values of individual heat transfer
coefficients, the wall and fouling resistance and the
overall surface efficiency using equation
R fi
R fo
A 1
1
1
o
Ao Rw
Uo
Ai i hi i
o o ho
(2)
For the single tube pass, purely countercurrent heat

exchanger, F= 1.00. For preliminary design shell
with any even number of tube side passes, F may
be estimated as 0.9
Heat load can be estimated from the heat balance
as:
Q = (mCp)c (Tc2 Tc1) = (mCp)h (Th2 Th1)
If one stream changes phase:
(3)
Q = mhfg
(4)
LMTD (Log Mean

Method) calculation:
A selected shell and tube heat exchanger must

satisfy the process requirements with the allowable
pressure drops until the next scheduled cleaning of
the plant
The following are the major assumptions made for
the pressure drop analysis;
1. Flow is steady and isothermal, and fluid
properties are independents of time.
2. Fluid density is dependent on the local
temperature only or is treated as constant.
3. The pressure at a point in the fluid is
independent of direction.
4. Body force is caused only by gravity.
5. There are no energy sink or sources along
streamline; flow stream mechanical energy
dissipation is idealized as zero.
6. The friction factor is considered as constant with
passage flow length.[4]
Preliminary Estimation of Unit Size:
Heat transfer or the size of heat exchanger
Temperature
Difference
If three temperatures are known, the fourth one can

be found from the heat balance,
Tlm
BASIC DESIGN PROCEDURE
(1)
(T h 1 T c 2 ) ( T h 2 T c 1 )
(T T c 2 )
ln h 1
(T h 2 T c 1 )
(5)
Heat transfer area can be calculated from equation
(1). Number of tubes of diameter (do), shell
diameter (Ds) to accommodate the number of tubes
(Nt), with given tube length (L) can be estimated,
(6)
Ao e N t L
One can find the shell diameter (Ds), which would

contain the right number of tubes (Nt), of diameter
(dt).
The total number of tubes can be predicted in fair
approximation as function of the shell diameter by
taking the shell circle and dividing it by the
projected area of the tube layout pertaining to a
single tube A1.
N t (C T P )
Ds2
4 Ai
(7)
Where CTP is the tube count calculation constant

that accounts for the incomplete coverage of the
shell diameter by the tubes.
130

Based on fixed tube sheet the following values are

suggested:
Shell Side Pressure Drop:

Kern suggested following correlations for the shell
side heat transfer coefficient;
One tube pass:

Two tube pass:
Three tube pass:
ho De
DG
0.36 e s
k

CTP = 0.93
CTP = 0.90
CTP = 0.85
A1 = (CL) (PT)2
(8)
Where CL is the tube layout constant:

CL = 1.0 for 90o and 45o
CL = 0.87 for 30o and 60o
For, 400 Re s
c p 3 b

k w
0.14
(15)
s Ds
1 10 6
The equivalent diameter (De) can be given by

For square pitch;
Equation (7) can be written as:
De
2
CTP Ds
N t 0 .8 7 5
2
2
C L (P r ) d o
0.55
(9)
Where PR is the Tube Pitch Ratio (PR = PT/do).

The shell diameter in terms of main construction
diameter can be obtained as from equations (6) and
(9),
4 2 d o2
P
do T
4
(16)
For triangular pitch;

De
4
do
PT 2 3 d o 2
4
8
(17)
Bundle cross flow area As , at the centre of the

shell;
D s 0.6 37
C L Ao (Pr ) d o
CTP
L
1/ 2
(10)
As
Tube Side Pressure Drop:

The tube side pressure drop can be calculated by
knowing the number of tube passes (Np) and length
(L) oh heat exchanger,
The pressure drop for the tube side fluid is given
by equation
Pt 4 f
Pt 4 f
LN
di
LN
di
um
2
G i2
2
DsC B
PT
(18)
Where, C = clearance between adjacent tubes

B = baffle spacing
PT = pitch of tubes
Ds = equivalent diameter
(11)
Shell side mass flow rate Gs;
(12)
m
Gs
As
(19)
Where, m = mass flow rate

The change of direction in the passes introduction
in the passes introduction an additional pressure
drop due to sudden expansions and contractions
that the tube fluid experiences during a return that
is accounted for allowing four velocity head per
pass
Pt 4 N p
um 2
2
(13)
The total pressure drop of the side becomes:
LN p
um2
Pt 4 f
4N p
di
This method is based on Kern theory. The shell

side pressure drop depends on the number of tubes,
the number of times the fluid passes the tube
bundle between the baffles and the length of each
crossing.
The pressure drop on the shell side is calculated by
the following expression:
Ps f
(14)
G s 2 ( N b 1) D s
2 D s s
(20)
Where, s = (b/ s) 0.14

Nb = Number of baffles
131

(Nb + 1) = Number of times fluid passes to

the tube bundle
Re
Th2 (c)
Friction factor (f) calculated from:
TUBE SIDE
P (kpa)
h (W/m2-K)
Re
(21)
f e x p ( o .5 7 6 0 .1 9 ln R e s )
Where,
sDs
The correlation has

obtained on actual
coefficient also takes
account.[2][4]
400 R es
(22)
1 106
been tested based on data

exchangers. The friction
entrance and exit losses into
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Data for feed water cooler is shown in table taken
from the CCPL (Charisma Career Pvt. Ltd.). Both
fluids are in liquid phase. It is liquid to liquid heat
transfer process. There is counter flow in heat
exchanger. It is assumed that shell and tube are
made of carbon steel.
SHELL SIDE:
Mass flow rate (kg/s)
ID (m)
Inlet temperature (oC)
Fouling factor (m2-K/W)
TUBE SIDE:
Inlet temperature (oC)
Outlet temperature (oC)
Mass flow rate (kg/s)
ID (m)
OD (m)
Length (m)
Pitch (m)
Tube layout
Tube count
Sour water
3.6575
0.475
45.9
0.000334
Cooling water
33
37
8.1737
0.025
0.027
0.6
0.032
90o
106
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
36.97
37.00
0.08
35.53
5006.38
33918.17
37.15
5203.40
34900.00
4.36
3.78
2.81
757.95
728.79
3.85
Uf (W/m21656.10
1601.79
3.39
K)
5.20
4.60
13.04
Uc (W/m2-K)
0.1365
0.1360
0.37
EMTD (c)
Heat
exchanged
(Q) (MW)
Table 1: calculated and HTRI Xist results
Manually calculated results are based on inlet and
outlet conditions as well as with major assumption
explained earlier. While HTRI calculate the results
at different point on the length from the inlet of
heat exchanger.(figure:1 to 6) The fluid properties,
heat flux , pressure drop etc, are iterated at these
points which gives inherent results of the heat
exchanger design.[3]
Figure 1: Liquid thermal conductivity v/s

temperature
This problem is solved by theory based calculation

as well as by HTRI Xchanger.
Calculated outputs and HTRI Xchanger software
outputs are shown in table 1;
Property
SHELL
SIDE
P (kpa)
h (W/m2-K)
Calculated
results
HTRI
results
Error
(%)
Figure 2: Liquid density v/s temperature
6.82
2696.97
10706.23
5.92
2758.60
10476.00
13.19
2..23
2.14
132

Thus how this software designing approach

overcome some assumption made in theories.
Figure3: Bulk tempreture v/s length from inlet
Figure 4 shows the overall heat transfer coefficient

distribution along the length from the inlet. Its
almost near to the calculated values. Figure 5
shows the graph of the Reynolds number, in which
shell side Reynolds number is almost constant but
there is little variation at tube side as shown in
graph. Figure 6 shows the duty curve for shell and
tube side along length from inlet. So these results
are very useful to understand inside process of heat
exchanger.[3][5]
CONCLUSION
This paper identifies the advantages of having the
appropriate exchanger designing software. Optimal
design condition can be obtained in less time.
Number of iterations and their comparison can be
analyzed easily.
Figure 4: Overall U v/s length from inlet
There is gradual variation in thermal conductivity,

Bulk temperature and density of the fluid in HTRI
results. In theories it is assumed that fluid
properties kept constant and process is isothermal.
So it may cause for result variation. As shown in
result table-1 there is 4.5% average error variation
in results.
REFERENCES
1.
Figure 5: Reynolds number v/s lenth from inlet
2.
3.
4.
5.
Figure 6: Duty v/s length from the inlet
Arturo R L, Miguel T V & Pedro Q D.

(2011) The Design Of Heat Exchanger,
science research. Vol 3 pp 911-920
Kakkan, S (1999). Heat Exchangers
Selection, Rating and Thermal Design.
pp 263-274
Leong kc & Toh kc (1998), shell and
tube heat exchanger design software for
educational applications, int.j.engng.ed.
vol14 pp 217-234
Shah, RK (2003). Fundamental of heat
exchanger design Rochster Institute of
Technology. pp 381
Su Thet Mon Than, (2008) Heat
Exchanger Design, world academy of
science engineering and technology. pp
604-611
Figures 1 to 6 shows few results of HTRI Xchanger

for given problem. Figures 1, 2 & 3 shows
variation in properties of the fluids. There is
gradual increase in liquid thermal conductivity and
gradual decrease in density of cooling water. In
theoretical approach these values are kept constant.
133

134

Design Methodology of Wiped Film

Evaporator (WFE) for Herbal Products
Vijaykumar C Patel
Mechanical Department Research Student L.D.R.P Institute of technology & Research,
Gandhinagar-382015, India
vp7259@gmail.com
Prof. Alkesh Mavani

Mechanical Department L.D.R.P Institute of technology & Research
Gandhinagar-382015, India
ammtimes@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Now a day, the entire world is taking interest in herbal products. These products are perishable in nature & storage of them
required tremendous effect. In cold storage plant, to store such products required lots of power consumption. The electrical
energy is costlier & produced using fossil fuel, which is one of the causes for pollution. In case of failure of power supply,
the chances of destruction of such commodity is possible therefore this recover of this problem on design of Wiped Film
Evaporator for herbal products.
INTRODUCTION
a minimum amount of metallic surface area. This

requirement, more than all other factors, determines
the type, size, and cost of the evaporator system.
The process by which any substance is converted

from a liquid state into, and carried off in, vapor; as,
the evaporation of water, of ether, of camphor. The
transformation of a portion of a fluid into vapor, in
order to obtain the fixed matter contained in it in a
state of greater consistence. That which is evaporated
vapors [6].
2. Achieve the specified separation of liquid and

vapor and do it with the simplest devices available.
Separation may be important for several reasons:
value of the product otherwise lost; pollution; fouling
and corrosion of the equipment downstream with
which the vapor is contacted.
Keywords-Component; Herbal products, Evaporator
Equipment used in evaporation, the process of boiling

a liquid in order to reduce its volume it is called
Evaporator.
FUNCTION OF AN EVAPORATOR
The main function of an evaporator is to concentrate
a solution or to recover a solvent. The evaporator
design consists of three principal elements: heat
transfer, vapor-liquid separation, and efficient
utilization of energy. For evaporators to be efficient,
the equipment selected and used must be able to
accomplish several things.
1. Transfer large amounts of heat to the solution with
3. Make efficient use of the available energy. This

may take several forms. Evaporator performance
often is rated on the basis of steam economy, pounds
of solvent evaporated per pound of steam used. Heat
is required to raise the feed temperature from its
initial value to that of the boiling liquid, to provide
the energy required to separate liquid solvent from
the feed, and to vaporize the solvent. The greatest
increase in energy economy is achieved by re-using
the vaporized solvent as a heating medium. Energy
efficiency may be increased by exchanging heat
between the entering feed and the leaving residue or
condensate. When this method is used, each
evaporator is known as an effect.
135

4. Meet the conditions imposed by the liquid being

evaporated or by the solution being concentrated.
Factors that must be considered include product
quality, salting and scaling, corrosion, foaming,
product degradation, holdup, and the need for special
types of construction. Between the entering feed and
the leaving residue or condensate. When this method
is used, each evaporator is known as an effect [4].
Types of Evaporator [3]
Evaporators are broadly classified to four
different categories
Evaporators in which heating medium is separated
from the evaporating liquid by tubular heating
surfaces.
Evaporators in which heating medium is confined by
coils, jackets, double walls etc.
Evaporators in which heating medium is brought into
direct contact with the evaporating fluid.
Evaporators in which heating is done with solar
radiation.
The different types of evaporators
-Horizontal tube evaporators
-Horizontal spray film evaporators
-Short tube vertical evaporators
-Basket type evaporators
-Inclined tube evaporators
-Long tube vertical evaporators
-Rising or climbing film evaporators
-Falling film evaporators
-Rising falling film evaporators
-Forced circulation evaporators
-Plate evaporators
-Mechanically aided evaporators
-Agitated vessels
-Scraped surface evaporators
-Agitated thin film evaporators (WFE)
Wiped Film Evaporator Principle
The wiped film evaporator (WFE), also known as an
agitated thin-film evaporator (ATFE) is a device
often used to purify liquids with viscosities up to 105
poise, to separate emperature-sensitive mixtures, or
in general to provide short residence times in heated
zones. Unfortunately, the heat and mass transfer
mechanisms involved in wiped film evaporators are

poorly understood. Users of the technology must rely
on equipment vendors and experience for guidance.
Wiped filmed evaporators are designed to spread a
thin layer or film of liquid on one side of a metallic
wall, with heat supplied to the other side. The unique
feature of this equipment is not the thin film itself,
but rather the mechanical wiping device for
producing and agitating the film. This mechanical
concept permits the processing of high-viscosity
liquids, liquids with suspended solids, or situations
requiring liquid rates too small to keep the thermal
surface of a falling-film evaporator uniformly wet.
Most wfes are vertical cylinders (Figure 1) where the
feed material is distributed to the inner surface. As
the liquid flows downward, axially arranged blades
or roller wipers distribute the liquid as a thin film,
which is constantly mixed. This type of equipment
can operate at very low pressure and provides
minimum pressure drop [4].
Thin-film evaporation is applied in heat exchangers
called thin-film or thin-layer evaporators. Actually
thin-layer evaporators may be considered as heat and
mass exchangers, since molecules from liquid phase
are transferred to gas phase during process of
vaporization and the movement of molecules from
gas phase to liquid phase is probable during process
of condensation. These kinds of devices are
commonly applied in chemical, pharmaceutical and
food industries since 1950. Vertical thin-layer
evaporator, example of which is presented in Fig.1, is
characterized by small pressure drop and short
residence time of the phases in the apparatus, which
means also that there is short contact time of the
liquid with hot surface of the evaporator wall. These
features of the evaporator cause that it is applied for
the concentration of heat sensitive liquid solutions
especially with high viscosity. Because of low value
of pressure drop during gas flow inside the
evaporator the boiling temperature of liquid, which is
evaporated, depends only on its composition and
does not depend on liquid position in the evaporator,
which is of great importance in case of evaporation at
low pressure. There are two main types of the thinlayer evaporator, which will be considered below,
namely: static type thin-layer evaporator and
mechanically agitated thin-layer evaporator. All types
are constituted by vertical cylinder heated from the
outside, inside which liquid flows off gravitationally
136

on the heated surface. During that flow vaporization

of liquid takes place.
Wiped Film Evaporator History
If liquid flows off freely, by means of gravity force,
without any disturbance, it means, without any
mechanical action on flowing liquid inside the
evaporator, then such an apparatus is called static
type thin-layer evaporator. If the evaporator is
equipped with blades that mix the liquid flowing
inside the evaporator, then such an apparatus is called
mechanically agitated thin-layer evaporator or
mechanical thin-layer evaporator.
The blades applied in the evaporator distribute liquid
uniformly on the evaporator wall, which prevents the
appearance of dry places on the heated surface of the
evaporator. The blades could be fixed rigidly to the
shaft of the mixer or they could be mounted to the
rotating shaft in such a way that the blades swing
freely and scrape the surface of the evaporator wall.
The pressure exerted by the blade on the surface of
evaporation depends on revolution speed of the shaft
equipped with moving blades.
This kind of evaporator is especially suitable for
evaporation of liquid solutions that produce crystals
during the process of evaporation (Dziak &
Skoczylas, 1996). Vertical section of the mechanical
thin-layer evaporator equipped with rotor possessing
rigidly fixed blades One can find in the literature
mathematical models of hydrodynamics of thin layer
flow of liquid over a vertical wall (El Haj Assad M.
& Lampinen M. J., 2002; Chen F.C. & Gao Z., 2004;
Ludwig et al., 2008).
There are many works that deal with heat transfer
during the process of heating and evaporation of
liquids in thin-layer evaporators. Most of them are
devoted to individual heat transfer coefficients
determination in case of one component liquid
treating (Chun K.R. & Seban R.A., 1971; Skoczylas
A., 1978; Alhusseini A. Et al., 1998).
There are mathematical equations that allow
determination of individual heat transfer coefficients
depending on the conditions of heat transfer.
Mechanism of evaporation is quite complicated and
depends on many factors such as: liquid physical
properties, the roughness of the surface (where
vapour bubbles are formed), heat load. Because of
that the equations, presented by different authors, for

calculation of the individual heat transfer coefficients
could give the results that sometimes differ
substantially and one should be careful applying
them. Mass and Heat Transfer During Thin-Film
Evaporation of Liquid Solutions Even more
complicated is the process of evaporation of liquid
solutions i.e. Liquid that contains more than one
component.
At some circumstances during the process of liquid
solution evaporation the gradient of concentration in
liquid phase appears and it causes some additional
difficulties in heat and mass transfer analysis of the
process of evaporation [2].
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

WIPED FILM EVAPORATOR [1]
OF
Evaporation
at
low
operating
temperature
Short residence time (few seconds)
High heat transfer coefficients
Low pressure drop on vapor side
No degradation or loss of active
ingredients
Self cleaning\wiping of the heat
transfer surface
Suitable for viscous liquids
Continuous operation
Low maintenance
APPLICATION OF WIPE FILMEVAPORATOR
WFE is widely applied in heat exchange engineering.
Especially to thermo-sensitive materials in short heatexchanging time, WFE makes for heat exchanging
and distilling to complex products by different
designs.
WFE has been used in the following field by
evaporating for concentration, solvent doffing, vapor
extraction, reaction, off-gas and deodorization, etc.
Which achieves good effect:
Medicines: antibiotics, sugar solution, tripterygium,
radix astragali and other Chinese herbs;
methylimidazole, mono-nitrilamine and other
intermediates.
137

considered.
Light and food industry: fruit juice, meat liquor,
pigment, essence, spice, enzymatic products, lactic
acid, xylose, cotn sweetener and potassium sorbate,
etc.
Lipid and daily chemicals: lecithin, VE, fish liver
oil, oleic acid, glycerol, fatty acid, waste lubricant,
lkyl-amylose glycoside and ether-alcohol sulphate,
etc.
Composed resin: polyamide resins, epoxies resins,
polyoxymethylene (POM), PPS, PBT, propylene
formic acid ester.
Composed fiber: PTA, DMT, carbon fiber, polytetrahydrofuran and polyether of polyhydric alcohols,
etc.
Petrochemicals: TDI, MDI, trimethyl-hydroquinone,
trioxylmethyl propane and sodium hydroxide, etc.
Pesticide: herbicides such as acetochlor, proprochlor,
chlorpyrifos, furan powder, and cartentrazone etc.
Insecticides, weedicides and acaricides.
Wastewater: wastewater contains abio-salts.

DESIGN METHODOLOGY OF WIPED FILM
EVAPORATOR
The first criterion that a wiped film evaporator should
satisfy is that the fulfillment of the process
requirements. The design specifications may contains
all the necessary detailed information on flow rates of
steams; operating pressures; pressure drop limitation
for both streams; temperatures; size; length; & other
design constraints such as cost, type of materials,
arrangements of different components. The wiped
film evaporator design provides missing information
based on experiences, judgment, and the
requirements of customer.
Based on the problem specifications, the evaporator
construction type, flow arrangement, surface or core
geometry, and materials must be selected. In the
selection of wiped film evaporator, the operating
pressures & temperature levels, maintenance
requirements, reliability, safety, availability &
manufacturability of surfaces, & cost must be
Thermal design of wiped film evaporator may be

classified as sizing (design problem) or rating
(performance analysis). In the sizing problem, the
surface area & evaporator dimensions are to be
determined; inputs to the sizing problem are flow
rates , inlet temperature, outlet temperature, surface
geometries, pressure drop limitations, and thermo
physical properties of steam & materials.
In the rating problem, evaporator configuration is
selected by approximate sizing. Therefore, inputs to
the rating problem evaporator surface geometry &
dimensions, fluid flow rates, inlet temperatures, and
pressure drop limitations.
The fluid outlet temperatures, total heat transferred &
pressure drop for both of streams through the
evaporator are to be calculated in the
rating(performance analysis). If the rating gives
acceptable performance with pressure drop in both
streams, this evaporator configuration may be
considered a solution to the problem. It is often
possible to a find a number of variant configuration
that will meet these requirements; the choice must be
made on other criteria, usually cost of evaporator.
Rating is the computational process (hand method or
computer method) by which one determines the
thermal performance & pressure drops for two
streams in evaporator.
The selection criterion is that the evaporator must
withstand the service conditions of the plant
environment. Therefore after thermal design analysis,
mechanical design is conducted, which includes the
calculation of tubes, shell, and arrangements the
evaporator must resist corrosion by the service &
process streams & by the environment; this is a
mostly a matter of proper material selection. A proper
design of inlet & outlet nozzles & connections,
supporting materials,
Manifolds are to be made. Thermal stress calculation
must be performed under steady state & transmit
operating conditions. The additional important factor
that should be considered & checked in the design are
flow vibration, and the level of velocities to eliminate
or minimizing fouling & erosion.
Another criterion is the maintenance requirement.
The configuration & placement of the evaporator
138

must be properly chosen to permit cleaning as

required & placement of tubes, gaskets, and any other
components that are especially vulnerable to
corrosion, erosion, vibration, or aging. Operating
problems under severe climatic conditions (freezing)
& transportation of the unit should also be
considered.
5.
6.
iii. CED
iv. HMT Analysis
v. F.O.S [ Factor of Safety]
Instrumentation & Control
Costing
i. Optimum cost
ii. Maintenance Cost
iii. Return to investment
There may be limitation on evaporator diameter,

length, weight, or tube, matrix core specifications due
to size requirements. Lifting & servicing capabilities,
& availability of replacement tubes & gaskets.
After the mechanical design is completed, the final
cost analysis to arrive at an optimum solution must be
considered.
An overall optimum design, in general, is the one that
meets the performance requirements at a minimum
cost, which includes capital cost (the cozy of
materials, manufacturing, testing, shipment, and
installation) and operating & maintenance costs (the
cost of fluid pumping powers, repairs, and cleaning).
There are many interdependent factors that must be
considered while designing and optimizing a
evaporator.
1.
a.
2.
3.
4.
Fig 1 Wiped Film Evaporator
Heat & Mass transfer Analysis
Passes
a.
b.
c.
d.
Fluid working conditions.
Single stage
Multistage
Single effect
Multi effect
i. Tubing
ii. Shell capacity
iii. NTU method
iv. Energy & Mass balance.
Machine Design
i. Shell Thickness
ii. Tubing thickness
iii. Installation thickness
iv. Overall dimensions
v. All components Material
selection.
Analysis
i. Material properties
ii. FEM & FEA stress
analysis
REFERENCE
1.
http://www.brainyquote.com/words/ev/evap
oration162073.html#ixzz1iovheois
2.
http://www.wxhysh.com/products/prod9.ht
m
3.
http://www.dalalengineering.com/wiped_fil
m_evaporator.aspx
4.
Jacinto Lopez-Toledo, Heat and Mass

Transfer Characteristics of a Wiped Film
Evaporator The University Of Texas at
Austin
5.
Janusz Dziak, Mass & Heat Transfer

during Thin Film Evaporation of Liquid
solution
Wroclaw
University
of
Technology, Poland.
139

F=Fouling factor
6.
R.K.Shah
and
Dusan
P.
SekulicFundamentals of Heat exchanger
design published by john wiley & sons,
Hoboken, New Jersey
Q = Heat transfer rate

Ms= mass of steam consumption
Hfg=Specific Enthalpy of evaporation
7.
V.Jaishree Optimization of a multiple

Effect Evaporator SystemDepartment Of
Chemical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Rourkela, India.
APPENDIX
Number of tubes =
Pitch ratio: PT/do=1.25 < PT/do=1.50
, A1= (CL) PT2
Nt =
CL= tube layout constant

Following equations can be used for Wiped Film
Evaporator design.
= 1.0 for 900 & 450
Number of Heat Transfer Unit (NTU Method)
= 0.87 for 300 & 600
Capacity Ratio= C*= Cmin /Cmax

Cmin = Smaller of the two magnitudes of Ch & Cc
Cmax = Smaller of the two magnitudes of Ch & Cc
CTP= tube count calculation constant

Square pitch De =
Pressure drop calculation: (Tube side)
Exchanger Heat Transfer Effectiveness

Effectiveness = (Th1- Th2)/( Th1- Tc1) = (Tc2- Tc1)/(
Th1- Tc1)
Th1 = Hot fluid inlet temperature
Th2 = Hot fluid outlet temperature
Tc1 = cold fluid inlet temperature
Tc2 = cold fluid outlet temperature
T1 = Th1-Th2 = Tc2-Tc1
Rate of Heat Transfer Q = mh Cph (Th1-Th2)
Heat Transfer co-efficient U=150-1200 W/m2k
(Assumed)
(um2/2)
pt = (
Atp=
, Np = no. Of passes
Di = inside diameter of tube, = density

Um= mean velocity
Re= umdi/, =kinetic viscosity
F = (1.58 ln (Re) 3.28)-2 , Ao= dolnt
Pressure drop calculation: (shell side):
Re=
f= exp (0.576-0.19(ln (Re)))
Total heat transfer rate Q between two fluids.

Q = UAFT
T = temp. Difference = Th - Tc
ps=
P- +ve denotes pressure drop
140

P- -ve denotes pressure recovery or rise
From motor duty, T/D = 3
Mass & enthalpy balance:
T= Tank diameter, D= Impeller diameter
Q= (mf-mp) Hv+ mp Hp- mf Hf
HP (Power) = (2t (RPM))/33000
Mf mass flow rate of feed-1000 kg/h
Speed of Shaft N= Q/ (NqD3), D = Propeller

Diameter
Mp mass flow rate of product-350 kg/hr

Height of the tank H= 3tank diameter
Hv enthalpies of vapor -2676 kj/kg
Hp& Hf enthalpies of feed & ethylene glycol
Min. Distance between agitator & tank bottom = 2

propeller
Motor duty = S1
Diameter
Motor service factor = 1.15
Blade tip velocity Uv2 = k D N
141

142

Performance Comparison of 4-Stroke

Multi- Cylinder CI-Engine using Neem
Biodiesel and Diesel as Fuel
Nityam P. Oza
4th Semester PG student, Automobile Engineering, Government Engineering College, Bhuj
nityamoza@gmail.com
Dr. Pravin P. Rathod

Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Government Engineering College, Bhuj
pravinprathod@gmail.com
Prof. Nikul K. Patel

Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, M S U, Baroda
nikulatmsu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Biodiesel made from non edible oil is good alternative to diesel fuel, which meets almost total demand of
transportation and agriculture industry. Biodiesel has advantages of renewability, less effect on environment
and can be used in current diesel engine without any modification. Experimental investigations have been
carried out to examine properties, performance and emission of B20 fuel (blend of 20% neem biodiesel and
80% petroleum diesel by volume) and compared to diesel fuel. A four stroke, four cylinder indirect injection
water cooled CI engine is used to measure the performance. Results are taken at six different loads starting
from no load to maximum 12 kW at constant speed of 1500 RPM. From the experiment it is found that
properties of biodiesel are comparative to diesel. Engine performance parameters are very close and sometimes
found superior to diesel. Pollutants emissions are less at all loads. Use of biodiesel relives problem of current
degrading quality of environment and further renewability will save foreign currency by reducing import of
crude oil. Biodiesel can be produced locally and current facility to transport and storage diesel fuel need not
modify, further relives the problems associated with other alternative fuel like ethanol, methanol, LPG, CNG,
hydrogen.
KEYWORDS: Bio-diesel; Neem; CI Engine; Blend;
Methyl Ester
1. INTRODUCTION
In India, Around 32 million hectare of waste land
suitable for production of non-edible vegetable oil
and comparable property of this oil to diesel
compelled many researchers to investigate
potential and performance of vegetable oil using
Compression Ignition engine (Biswas, 2002). It is
estimated that in India, yearly potential of neem oil
is 500 million tonnes (Padhi and Singh, 2011).
India imported about 2/3rd of its petroleum
requirements last year, which involved a cost of
approximately Rs. 80,000 crores in foreign
exchange. Even 5% replacement of petroleum fuel

by bio-fuel can help India save Rs.4000 crores per
year in foreign exchange (Oza - Patel and Rathod,
2012). It is utmost important that the options for
substitution of petroleum fuels be explored to
control this burgeoning import bill. Bio-diesel is
fatty acid methyl or ethyl ester made from virgin or
used vegetable oils (both edible & non-edible) and
animal fats. The main commodity sources for biodiesel in India can be non-edible oils obtained from
plant species such as Jatropha Curcas, Karanj,
Neem, Mahua etc..
Bio-diesel contains no
petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with
petroleum diesel to create a bio-diesel blend or can
be used in its pure form. Just like petroleum diesel,
bio-diesel operates in compression ignition engine;
143

which essentially require very little or no engine

modifications because bio-diesel has properties
similar to petroleum diesel fuels. Bio-diesel is
considered clean fuel since it has almost no
sulphur, no aromatics and has about 10 %/wt. built
in oxygen, which helps it to burn fully. Its higher
cetane number improves the ignition quality even
when blended in the petroleum diesel. Now a day,
blending of 10 to 20%/Vol. of biodiesel with diesel
is more favourable because of mainly two reasons.
One is current production of biodiesel does not
meet present demand of diesel and other is better or
similar engine performance as diesel can be
obtained without any engine modification.
the exhaust gas analyser is shown in Table 2.

Measurement of HC, NO, NO2, CO, SO2, Excess
air and flue gas temperature can be possible with
the analyser. Data can be transferred to computer
and stored. Also printer port provided can print the
data also.
Table 2 Exhaust Gas Analyser Specification
Parameter
O2
CO
NO
NO2
HC
Range
0-25 %
0-2 %
0-4000 ppm
0-500 ppm
0-2 %
Resolution
0.1 %
0.005 %
1 ppm
1 ppm
0.1%
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND TEST

PROCEDURE
A four cylinder, four stroke, naturally aspirated,
indirect injection, water cooled CI engine have
been used to carry out experimental investigations.
The specification of the engine is given in Table 1.
Fuel is supplied through 100 ml burette for good

accuracy.
Table 1 Engine Specification

Particulars
Make &
Model
General
Details
Bore
Stroke
Capacity
Compression
Ratio
Max. Power
Max. Torque
Clearance
Volume
Specification
Stride Engine 1.5 E2 DSL make
Four stroke, Four cylinder,
Compression ignition,
73 mm
88.9 mm
1489 cm3
23:1
26.6 kw@4000 rpm
8.5 kg at 2250 rpm
16.913 cm3 / cylinder
Figure 1 Engine test setup
Figure 2. Exhaust Gas Analyser

The eddy current dynamometer is used to load the
engine. The load on engine is varied by changing
excitation current with the control panel. The water
flow is measured with the help of rota meter. Data
acquisition system is used to measure temperatures
of cooling water at inlet and outlet, Exhaust gas
temperature before and after exhaust gas
calorimeter, inlet air temperature and load on the
engine. The data is recorded and stored at 5
seconds interval. The experiment are carried out
with B20 fuel and compared with diesel. Speed is
kept constant at 1500 RPM and load is varied from
no load to full load. With the help of burette and
stop watch, time taken for 10 ml fuel consumption
is measured at constant load and speed. From these
data brake thermal efficiency and brake specific
fuel consumption is calculated. Different
temperatures and load are recorded with data
acquisition system. At the same time emission data
are recorded.
A six gas Exhaust gas analyser is used to measure

emission data of the engine. The specification of
144

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

0.025
From figure 3 it is seen that calorific value of diesel

fuel is 41807kJ/Kg and that of biodiesel is
37802kJ/Kg. Based on above calorific value for
B20 blend has been calculated and it is
40947kJ/Kg. Lower calorific value of biodiesel is
mainly due to oxygen content of biodiesel and
increases brake specific fuel consumption compare
to diesel.
Sulpher Content ( % by Vol.)
Fuel Properties
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
Diesel
Biodiesel
B20
Fuel
50000
Figure 5 Sulphur Content of Various Fuels

0.816. B20 has specific density of 0.8186. Due to
higher specific density specific fuel consumption
will be less than diesel but due to lower calorific
value specific fuel consumption will increase Table
3 compares the, water content and flash point
temperature for diesel, biodiesel and B20 fuel. Ash
Calorific Value (kJ/Kg)
40000
30000
20000
10000
1.0
0
Diesel
Biodiesel
B20
0.8
Figure 3 Calorific Values of Various Fuels
Kinematic Viscosity (cSt)
Specific Demsity
Fuel
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Diesel
Biodiesel
B20
Fuel
Figure 6 Specific Density of Various Fuels

Table 3 Other Properties of Various Fuels
0
Diesel
Biodiesel
B20
Sr. No
Property
Diesel
Biodiesel
B20
Ash Content
(%w/w)
0.02
0.05
0.026
Carbon
Residue
(%w/w)
0.1
0.15
0.11
Water Content
(%w/V)
0.005
0.19
0.042
Flash Point
(0C)
44
116
44
Fuel
Figure 4 Kinematic Viscosity of Various Fuels

Kinematic viscosity for pure biodiesel and B20 are
7.2 cSt and 4.2 cSt respectively, where as for diesel
kinematic viscosity measured is 3.7cSt. This is
shown in figure 4. Due to higher kinematic
viscosity bio diesel requires higher injection
pressure than diesel. From figure 5 it is seen that
sulphur content of biodiesel is 0.01%w/w which is
half of diesel that is 0.02%w/w. Due to low sulphur
content biodiesel can meet stringent euro norms.
Figure 6 shows specific density of diesel, biodiesel
and B20 fuel.
Biodiesel has little higher specific density
compared to diesel. Specific density of biodiesel is
0.8308 where as diesel has specific density of
content and carbon residue value for diesel is

0.02% w/w and 0.1% w/w respectively, which is
lower than the biodiesel. Flash point of diesel is
44C which is lower compared to 116C of the
145

0.35
Diesel
B20
0.25
Diesel
B20
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0
10
12
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 8 Variation in Break Specific Fuel

Consumption with Brake Power
400
350
Diesel
B20
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
10
12
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 9 Variation in Exhaust Gas Temperature

with Brake Power
Engine Emission Parameters
Figures 10, 11 and 12 compare emissions of
Carbon monoxide, Oxides of Nitrogen and
Hydrocarbon Emission using diesel and B20 fuel at
varying brake power. The maximum value of CO
emission with diesel fuel is 0.051% by Vol. found
at brake power of 11.26kW.
0.20
0.08
0.15
0.07
Diesel
B20
0.10
CO ( % by Vol.)
Brake Thermal Efficiency
0.30
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption ( Kg/kW-h)
Figures 7, 8 and 9 compares Brake thermal

efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption and
exhaust gas temperature with diesel and B20 at
varying brake power. BTE with B20 fuel is
maximum 0.3272 at brake power of 9.60 kW.
Maximum BTE with diesel fuel is measured 0.318
at brake power of 9.85 kW. Higher brake thermal
efficiency of B20 fuel is contributed towards
oxygen content of biodiesel helps in complete
combustion of fuel. Reduction in CO percentage
further strengthens above reason. Minimum BSFC
for diesel fuel is 0.2764Kg/kW-h and minimum
BSFC for B20 fuel is 0.2933Kg/kW-h. In spite of
higher specific density of B20, lower calorific
value of biodiesel results in higher value of brake
specific fuel consumption compared to diesel. EGT
measured maximum at full load for both fuel and is
351.12C and 355.56C for B20 and diesel fuel
respectively. Reduction is EGT is may be due to
higher cetane number and more water content of
B20 compare to diesel. Due to lower EGT using
B20 fuel, emission of NOX is less and losses due to
variable specific heat and dissociation are reduced.
This is another reason of higher brake thermal
efficiency of B20 compared to diesel. Moreover,
during part load operation the EGT with B20 fuel
is considerably less and hence it results in 1-2%
higher brake thermal efficiency than diesel shown
in figure 7.
0.45
Engine Performance Parameters
0.50
Exhaust Gas Temperature ( C)
biodiesel. Hence it is safer to handle biodiesel

during transport and storage. Water content of
biodiesel is higher than diesel which may
contribute to lower NOx emission and exhaust gas
temperature.
0.05
0.00
10
0.06
0.05
0.04
12
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 7 Variation in Break Thermal Efficiency

with Brake Power
0.03
0.02
0
10
12
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 10 Variation in CO Emission with Brake

Power
146

Maximum value of NOx emission with diesel fuel

is 301 PPM is found at brake power of 11.26kW.
Biodiesel emits maximum 292 PPM of NO at brake
power of 11.41kW.
350
0.06
Diesel
B20
0.05
HC ( % by Vol.)
B20 fuel emits maximum 0.056% /Vol. of CO at

brake power of 11.41kW except no load. At no
load condition CO emission are 0.074% /Vol. with
diesel and 0.050% /Vol. with B20 fuel. The
minimum value of CO emission with diesel fuel is
0.032% /Vol. is found at brake power of 5.7kW.
Biodiesel emits minimum 0.030% /Vol. of CO at
brake power of 5.43kW. Emission of CO is less
with B20 fuel compared to diesel at all load as
shown in figure 10. CO emission is considerable
less with biodiesel in part load range and
approaches to diesel as load increases further.
There are two main property kinematic viscosity
and oxygen content of fuel which play significant
role in pollutant emissions. Biodiesel contains
inbuilt oxygen which helps in complete combustion
of biodiesel results in lower amount of CO
emission compared to diesel. However, higher
kinematic viscosity of biodiesel results in higher
droplet diameter and hence incomplete combustion,
this reflects in as load increases CO emission using
biodiesel approaches that of diesel.
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0
10
12
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 12 Variation in Hydrocarbon Emission with

Brake Power
considerable, which reduces as load increases
further. Reasons behind CO emission again set the
trend.
4. Conclusions
From the above results it can be concluded that
biodiesel can be a good alternative for diesel fuel
due to following reason.
Use of blended fuel results in higher brake

thermal efficiency compared to diesel.
B20 has less impact on environment compared

to diesel. Emission of CO, NOX and SO2 is less
with B20 fuel compared to diesel. Moreover,
biodiesel is less volatile results in lower
emission of unburned hydrocarbons.
Higher flash point of biodiesel increases safety

during transport and storage of fuel.
Above all, biodiesel is renewable fuel and

India has tremendous potential for production
of biodiesel which may help India to emerge
as energy independent country.
300
Diesel
B20
NOx (PPM)
250
200
150
100
50
0
10
12
Brake Power (kW)
Figure 11 Variation in NOx Emission with Brake

Power
This difference may be attributed towards lower
maximum temperature during cycle using B20 as
fuel compared to diesel. Reduced emission of NOx
may be attributed towards the good ignition quality
and higher water content of B20 fuel compared to
diesel. Variation of HC with brake power is shown
in figure 12. Emission of HC is low using B20 as
fuel at all loads. Further, at part load difference in
HC emission is
However future research is required to solve

problems of high viscosity and less volatility of
biodiesel compared to diesel. Current potential of
raw material for biodiesel production is insufficient
to completely eliminate use of diesel demands for
search of new kind of feed stocks to be developed.
Research should be carried out to find impact on
lubricating oil properties and wear of engine.
147

REFERENCES
A Swarna Kumari et al., Experimental
Investigations of Diesel Engine Using Neem oil,
Journal
of
Engineering
and
Research
Studies/October-December,2011, pp: 44-47
B. B. Ghosh et al., Synthesis of Bio-diesel from
Oils of Jatropha, Karanj and Putranjiva to Utilize in
Ricardo Engine and its Performance & Emission
Measurement , 4th BSME-ASME International
Conference on Thermal Engineering, December
27-29, pp: 731-738
Dilip Biswas, Bio-diesel as Automobile Fuel,
September 2002
Dr. Archana S., Basic Statistics on Indian
Petroleum & Natural Gas 2009-10 October 2010.
Dr. Tiwari, Report of Committee on Development
of Biofuel Planning commission of India, April
2003,
Gandhi P., M. Tech. Thesis, Effect of Hydrogen
Enrichment on the Performance Emissions and
Combustion Parameters of A Complete Bio fuelled
Diesel Engine, National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela, 2011
diesel in India: A review, Journal of Chemical and

Pharmaceutical Research, 2011, pp: 39-49
Siddalingappa R. Hotti and Omprakash Hebbal,
Performance and Combustion Characteristics of
Single Cylinder Diesel Engine Running on Karanj
Oil/Diesel Fuel Blends, Scientific Research
Journal, April 2011, pp: 371-375
Sivalakshmi S. and Balusamyb T.,Experimental
investigation on a diesel engine using neem oil and
its methyl ester, Thermal Science, 2011, pp: 54-58
T.
Venkateswara
et
al.,
Experimental
Investigation of Pongamia, Jatropha and Neem
Methyl Ester as Bio-diesel on C. I. Engine, Jordan
Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,
June-2008, pp: 117-122
Praksh N. Et al., Optimization of Karanj Oil
Transesterification, Indian Journal of Chemical
Technology, September-2006, pp: 505-509
Venkatesan M.,Perfromance and emission
characteristics of Jatropha biodiesel in dual fuel
mode with CNG in a single cylinder four stroke
diesel engine, International Journal of Applied
Engineering Research, Dindigul, Volume 1, No 4,
2011
Herath Gunatilake, Economy-Wide Impacts of

Bio-diesel Production and Use in India: A
Computable General Equilibrium, May 2011
Jacob wall, Effect of Hydrogen Enriched
Hydrocarbon Combustion on Emission and
Performance, January 2009,
N. Oza et al., A Review of Recent Research on
Non Edible Vegetable Oil as Fuel for CI Engine,
Journal of Engineering Research and Studies,
Vol.III/ Issue I/January-March, 2012, pp 84-86
Rajit S., Ph. D. Thesis, Process Standardization,
Characterization and Experimental Investigation on
the Performance of Bio-diesel Fuelled CI Engine
Thapar University, 2011
S. Hawash et al., Optimization of Biodiesel
Production from Jatropha Oil by Heterogeneous
Base Catalysed Transesterification, International
Journal of Engineering Science and Technology,
June 2011, pp: 5242-5251
Saroj K. Padhi and R. K. Singh, Non-edible oils
as the potential source for the production of bio-
148

Single Fiber Friction and Strength TestingInnovation and Challenges

G. A. Gandhi
Image Institute of Technology, Matar, Kheda
gandhighanshyam@yahoo.co.in
P. B. Jhala
Institute for Plasma Research, Gandhinagar
pbjhala@ipr.res.in
ABSTRACT
As no instrument was available for measurement of friction between two single fibers, a fiber friction tester was developed
at NID based on the formula derived by the Swedish Institute for Textile Research, Gothenburg. The frictional properties &
the strength of dyed polyester staple yarns & cotton melang yarns deteriorate during dyeing. Hence, a good instrument was
needed to test the friction & strength of fibers. At NID, digital compact & low cost instrument was developed to measure the
fiber friction & strength of fibers. The friction & tenacity of various wool fibers was tested with this instrument & it was
found to give results with good accuracy & reliability.
KEY WORDS: Fiber; friction; breaking strength;

spin ability;
WHY FIBER FRICTION TESTS

Fiber-to-fiber friction is one of the important
parameters which decide its spinnability and quality
of end product. It is a useful data for textile industry
in optimizing processing parameters. Spinning mills
in the market for fiber-dyed polyester and blends
know that the frictional properties and the strength
of the polyester staple fiber deteriorate during
dyeing. Similarly the cotton spinning mills working
on mlange yarns need to optimize their dyeing
parameters to keep fiber damage during dyeing to
minimum. Therefore development of a good and
sturdy instrument to test the friction of fibers is a
felt need of the Indian spinning mills.
Fiber friction is generally measured as the force
required to overcome cohesion of a sliver test
specimen held in a fixed position between two
slowly separating clamps as per ASTM-D 261299[1] Method. This gives cohesive tenacity which is
considered as a measure of the cohesion of the
fibers and is expressed as gram force per denier.
However, this is an indirect method of measuring
fictional force in a bundle of Fibers.
Woolmark, UK [2] has an in-house test method

STD-21 for single woolen fiber friction
measurement. It utilizes the principal of Constant
Rate of Extension (CRE) with a very sensitive load
cell. Individual fibers are wrapped around either a
glass or a metal rod and the frictional properties of
the fiber moving against it are measured in grams.
The measurements are usually carried out against
and along the direction of the scales to give two
values. This method, too, is not a measurement of
friction between two single
fibers. Northern
India Textile Research Association (NITRA) [3]
jointly with Indian Institute of Technology (IIT),
New Delhi, has designed and developed a Friction
Tester for measuring the frictional properties of
staple fibers as well as of fabrics. But it refers to
relative movement between two layers of fibers or
fabrics where a known load with standard foot area
is placed over the two layers of fibers or fabrics, and
one layer is displaced against the other. Thus, it is a
measure of friction between two tufts of fibers
rather than between single fibers.
In view of the above, and to fulfill the felt need for
measuring the increase in the friction of Angora
149

Wool fiber after plasma treatment, NID designed

and developed a Single Fiber Friction cum Strength
Tester (SFFST) as shown in Fig 1. This tester
measures the friction between two single fibers as
well as the strength and elongation at break of
single fiber. It is a digital based ergonomically
designed instrument for computer compatibility and
user friendly interface.
WORKING PRINCIPLES
As a Friction Tester
n=
d=
along the twist; (it corresponds to

static friction), mg
Number of turns in the twist
Fiber diameter, mm
As, shown in Fig 2, two fibers under the test are

held vertically in specially designed movable
clamps at the upper ends, one of which is attached
to a transducer which senses and displays the force
exerted on that fiber while the lower ends are
attached to an initial load (p1). The loads are equal
in both the fibers. These fibers are given a
Predetermined twist by way of number of turns,
without introducing any tension in the fibers. One
fiber is then pulled against the other fiber by
moving the transducer.
Fig 1: Single Fiber Friction cum Strength Tester

Single Fiber Friction Tester works on the principle
of measurement of friction in twist of two fibers
with a well defined line contact as per the theory
developed by the Swedish Institute for Textile
Research, Gothenburg, Sweden [4, 5]. The force
necessary to slide the fibers in twist gives a measure
of the friction between fibers using the formula
given below.
l[ln {p2 / p1}]
= ------------------22 n2d
Where, =
Co-efficient of Friction
l=
Twist length, mm
p1 =
Initial force, mg
p2 =
Maximum force, to move the fiber
Fig 2: Fiber Friction Test

The amount of force thus applied is much lower
than the breaking load. The amount of force
required to move the fiber against the other along
the twist is governed by static friction. Once this is
overcome, the force then required is lower than the
former force, governed by dynamic friction. The
maximum force (p2) required to slide the fiber is
registered using peak hold facility provided in the
electronic circuit and displayed. This load (p2) is
greater than load (p1). These values are utilized
along with fiber diameter, number of turns in twist
150

Friction and Tenacity of Wool Fibers

Fiber
Properties
Angor
a
Breaking
Elongation
%
The fiber under test is held between two clamps,

one end being held in the stationary clamp and the
other end held in the moveable clamp attached to
the transducer as shown in Fig 3. The tension / force
is imparted to the fiber by moving the other end
attached to the transducer and is increased gradually
by stretching the fiber till it breaks. The value of
force exerted is recorded and displayed by the
circuit which as a provision of peak hold facility.
The ratio of breaking load to fibers cross sectional
area gives the value of breaking tenacity (strength).
The instrument also has a facility to measure and
record the vertical travel of the moveable clamp
which along with original sample length gives the
percentage elongation at break.
Table: 1
Tenacity
cN/d
As a Breaking Strength Tester
without shedding losses and without generating

static electricity.
Coefficient
of
Friction
and twist length to compute the value of co-efficient

of friction using the above formula. The value of (p2
p1) is directly displayed on the instrument panel.
0.18
1.98
31.4
0.33
2.02
20
0.30
0.38
1.03
-
20.10
-
Untreated
Plasma
Treated
Merino
Marwari(Gujarat)
The test results of Angora Fiber Friction with C.V.

of 6.3% as shown in Table 2, confirms the good
accuracy of measurement. Test results of Angora
Fiber strength with C.V.
17.69% is shown in
Table 3. This is attributed to factors like variation in
Fiber diameter at all points along its length and
percentage of dead fibers in samples. Also, the test
results of extension at break of Angora Fiber with
C.V of 45.17 % is shown in Table 4. This high C.V
is mainly due natural fibers not having identical
properties within fibers.
Table:2 Angora Fiber Coefficient of Friction
a= =
Sr
P2-P1
P1
Kx
a-
No
mg
mg
ln(P2/P1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Note:
Fig 3: Fiber Strength Test

Friction and Tenacity of different wool fibers were
measured on the SFFST and the results are given in
Table 1. The results show that Angora Wool has the
lowest friction value while Marwari Wool has the
highest. Also, the usefulness of the plasma
treatment to Angora Wool, which enhances its
friction to the level of Marino Wool, is brought out
well. Such an increase in friction is necessary for
ease in mechanical processing of Angora Fibers
(a-)2
2700
0.3176
-0.01584
2.509056 x 10-4
1460
2960
1310
2810
1080
2580
1400
2900
1260
2760
1270
2770
1330
2830
1200
2700
1310
2810
C.V. = .30%
0.3673
0.3392
0.2931
0.3563
0.3295
0.3315
0.3431
0.3176
0.3392
0.03386
0.00576
-0.04034
0.02286
-0.00394
-0.00194
0.00966
-0.01584
0.00576
11.469960 x 10-4
0.331776 x 10-4
16.273156 x 10-4
5.225796 x 10-4
0.155236 x 10-4
0.037636 x 10-4
0.933156 x 10-4
2.509056 x 10-4
0.331776 x 10-4
1200
Table:3 Angora Fiber Breaking Strength

Breaking
load, gm
(a)
1
2.71
2
3.36
3
3.51
4
4.30
5
3.02
6
4.07
7
4.81
8
4.52
9
3.87
10
3.53
Note: C.V. = 17.69%
Sr.
No.
a-
gm
(a-)2
-1.06
-0.41
-0.26
0.53
-0.75
0.30
1.04
0.75
0.10
-0.24
1.1236
0.1681
0.0676
0.2809
0.5625
0.0900
1.0816
0.5625
0.0100
0.0576
151

Table:4 Angora Fiber Percentage Extension

Sampl
Extensio
%
Sr
e
n at
Extensio
No
a-
Length
Break
n
.
mm
mm
(a)
1
47
7.0
14.89
5.192
2
50
15.0
30.00
9.918
3
65
10.5
16.15
3.932
14.91
4
58
3.0
5.17
2
13.24
5
48
16.0
33.33
8
10.21
6
66
20.0
30.30
8
7
61
12.5
20.49
0.408
8
38
5.0
13.16
6.922
9
32
7.5
23.44
3.358
10
54
7.5
13.89
6.192
Note: C.V. = 45.17%
measuring the frictional characteristics of staple

fibers and fabrics; Resume of Papers, 43rd Joint
Technological
Conference,
at
NITRA,
Ghaziabad, March 2002
(a-)2
4.
26.956864
98.366724
15.460624
222.36774
4
175.50950
4
104.40752
4
0.166464
47.914084
11.276164
38.340864
CONCLUSION
SFFST is a digital, compact and low cost instrument
for measurement of Single Fiber Friction as well as
strength and elongation at break. It has fairly good
accuracy and reliability. As it is a digital based
instrument, it provides computer compatibility for
data integration in textile testing laboratory. It is
useful for mills and process houses working with
cotton, woolen / worsted and manmade fibers /
filaments like polyester and viscose in optimization
of process parameters. It can also be used in the hair
care industry in the development of products.
5.
Gralen Nils and Olosfsson Bertil. Swedish

Institute for Textile Research, Gothenburg,
Sweden,
Textile Research Journal, Vol 17, Sept 1947, pp
486 -496
6.
Gralen Nils and Lindburg Joel, Swedish Institute

for Textile Research, Gothenburg, Sweden,
Measurement of friction between Single Fibers;
Part II Frictional properties of Wool Fibers
measured by the Fiber Twist Method.
7.
Textile Research Journal, Vol 18, May 1948, pp

287 - 301
8.
Jhala P. B. and Gandhi G. A. Single Fiber

Friction cum Strength Tester, Journal of the
Textile Association, September October 2009,
pp 99 - 102
Indian Patent has been filed for this instrument and

it has been recently licensed for commercial
manufacture. This new development will be
welcomed by the Indian textile Industry, especially
because its market price is Nano which will be
paid back within a couple of years at the most.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Director, NID and the
Principal, IETI for permission to publish this paper in
IJTE National Conference. The financial support for the
John Bissell Chair at NID by Ford Foundation is also
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1.
Standard Test Method for Fiber Cohesion in

Sliver and Top (Static Test) ASTM-D 2612-99
2.
Woolmark
Textile
www.wool.com
3.
Das A, Istiaque S. M and Sharma Vikas. Design

and Development of a friction tester for
Testing
Services,
152

Comparative Investigation of the Damped

System Natural Frequency with Bump
Test and FE Modal Analysis
Anant.J.Sheth
Mechanical Engineering Dept.,L.D.College of Engineering, Abad.
Shethanant1981@gmail.com
S.S.Pathan
Asst. Prof. Mechanical engineering Dept.,L.D.College of Engineering, Abad.
Pathan_ss@yahoo.co.in.
ABSTRACT
System consists of an infinite natural frequency. To avoid resonance condition it is required that the excitation
frequency must not be any of the system natural frequency. Here an attempt is made to determine the natural frequency
of a lightly damped system with the Bump Test and by FE modal analysis. The values of the natural frequency
determined by both the methods are found nearer. Long-time waveform data are collected with the Bump test and the
common frequencies repeated in the response are found closer to the FE modal analysis natural frequency.
KEY WORDS: Bump test; FE modal analysis;

Natural frequency.
INTRODUCTION: Whenever the excitation

frequency matches with any of the natural
frequency resonance occurs. Thus for the safe
operation of any system the excitation frequency
must not meet the natural frequency of the
system. Bump test is one of the useful vibration
analysis techniques to help identify resonance
frequencies. It requires bumping' (i.e. hitting)
the machine structure when the machine is not
running. The impact could be done with the
hammer having a force transducer. In case such
hammer is not available, we can do bumping of
the system with the wooden mallet. FE modal
viscoelastic material. The bump test is the trial
and error method. The instrument waits for a
trigger and the operator applies the trigger. The
impact made does play a crucial role in the
determination of the correct natural frequency.
Manually, you have to judge whether the data
recorded is to be kept for the final FRF or not?
Natural frequencies are seen as high level humps
in the vibration spectrum, usually with a broad
base at the bottom (DLI Eng Corp, 2004).
analysis is the numerical method to determine the

natural frequency numerically. There are mainly
three methods (Kenneth) to determine the modal
parameters; they are (1) FE modal analysis (2)
Experimental modal analysis (3) Operational
modal analysis. The FE modal analysis is the
numerical method which is fast and economical
(Rieger).Sheth and Pathan (2011) foundthat for
the complex car door structure the natural
frequency determined numerically are found
closer with the value determined by experimental
methods. Here for the lightly damped system the
bump test is performed. Rubber bush is the
damping element and its larger deformation is
restricted. The numerical analysis is performed
by
considering
it
as
a
linear
FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING: For most
of the analysis firstly the CAD model is prepared
and then it is imported to the FE environment. In
our case the modelling of the system is done by
using the ANSYS modelling aid.
The actual system is an assembly of a stud 5 cm
long with M10 thread. A cylindrical mass having
diameter 5 cm and a centrally blind tapped hole.
A rubber bush having outer diameter 3 cm and
153

height 1.5 cm. the length of the cylindrical part at

the end of the stud is 1.6 cm.
determined without the damping element i.e. in

the absence of the rubber bush.
Fig. 3 System without the Damping element and

Fig. 1 Actual damped system
with constraints.
With the change of the stud location in the
cylindrical part the natural frequency of the
damped system changes. The two nut are used to
restrict the large deformation of the rubber bush.
FE MODAL ANALYSIS RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION:
For both the cases the natural frequencies and
mode shapes are determined. The rubber bush is
a viscoelastic material thus exhibit geometric
non-linearity under a large deformation. Here the
large deformation of the damping element is
restricted by the two nuts on either side of the
rubber bush. Thus for the analysis we are not
supposed to consider the geometric non-linearity.
The natural frequencies for the system without
the damping element are 293.46, 294.15, and
547.76 for the first three modes. For the system
with the rubber bush as a damping element we
are getting frequencies 250.44, 256.82 and
510.19 for the nineteen, twenty and twenty-one
modes.
Fig. 2 FE model of the damped system

For the meshing of the metal parts Solid 45
element is used and for the rubber bush part the
solid 186 element is used with the approximate
linear modulus of elasticity 10E8 and the density
945 kg/m3. The bush is a lightly damped element
and the damping constant considered is 0.05 [5].
All Degree of freedom at the washer (base) are
restricted. The natural frequencies are also
154

Fig 4 Mode shape at the frequency 250.442 Hz.
Fig 5 Mode shape at the frequency 256.823 Hz.
iteration are the natural frequency of the system.

Following are the results for the five test impacts.
Fig. 7 Bump Test result with five iterations.
Table 1. Natural frequency from Bump Test

Sr.No
Fig 6 Mode shape at the frequency 510.19Hz.

Here in Fig 4 and 5 the modes are the bending
mode and in the Fig 6 the torsional mode is
found.
BUMP TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
For the performance of the bump test the VibExpert FFT analyzer is used. The accelerometer
probe with the magnetic end is attached to the
surface of the cylindrical part.
The impact is madeon the system as waiting for
trigger message appear on the FFT screen. With
such successive five impacts, the analyzer gives a
final response. Natural frequencies are seen as
high level humps in the vibration spectrum,
usually with a broad base at the bottom. The
natural frequencies are recorded. The test is
performed for more number of times forthe
accuracy of the natural frequency value. The
repeated natural frequencies mostly in all the test
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Frequency
(Hz)
158
168
172
203
207
210
245
253
257
260
272
279
283
316
335
347
No. of times
repeated
2
2
2
3
2
3
4
3
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
From the data in Table 1 we found the natural

frequencies of the system under investigation.
For determining the natural frequency the
response is to be looked manually, and the
frequency which is repeated for many times is
becoming the important natural frequency. All
the remaining peak are also natural frequencies
but the most critical frequencies are determined
by doing the post process analysis manually.
Following are the bump test results. From this
spectrum the frequencies are determined and list
of the frequency for the respective impact are
155

obtained.
Fig. 12 Frequency response for the impact-5.

Fig.8 Frequency response for the impact-1.
CONCLUSION: For a lightly damped structure
the natural frequency are determined both by the
FE modal analysis and Bump test. Large
deformation of the viscoelastic damping agent is
restricted and with the linear approximation the
natural
frequency
are
numerically
determined.The natural frequency values by both
the methods are found closer. The natural
frequency of the structure under investigation is
245 Hz.
REFRENCES:
DLI
Engineering
corporation
(2004).
Determination of structural resonant
frequencies Application note DCA-31 Bump
test.
Kenneth, AR (1983). Experimental modal
analysis, Structural modifications and FEM
analysis on a desktop computers, Structural
measurement systems, San Jose, California.
Rieger, NF. The relationship between finite
element analysis and modal analysis, Stress
Technology Incorporated, Rochester, New York.
Sheth, AJ and Pathan SS (2011). On the
determination and comparison of the natural
frequencies by Experimental and Numerical (FE
Modal Analysis) methods. International
Journal Of Research in Engineering and Applied
Science. ISSN:2249-3905, Vol. 2.

156

A Review of Design and Development of

Concrete Planetary Mixer
Amit Kumar S. Patel (Student, ME Sem-IV)
Shankalchand Patel College of Engineering, Visnagar, Mehsana, Gujarat, India
amit_saff@yahoo.com
Prof. Dhaval A. Patel (Associate professor)

Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Shankalchand Patel College of Engineering, Visnagar, Mehsana, Gujarat, India
dapatel.mech@spcevng.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Machine selected was originally developed by reverse engineering and all bought out items and structural parts are selected
from experience and trial and error bases. Different models are made based on the maximum possible mixing speed and mixing
capacity requited to be as per requirement of customer. The current problem with the machine is that no standard code of
practices is available or developed which demands for the standard design procedure, a selection procedure for all critical
bought out items, and cross check of the design of structural members.
The structural members as column & base frame are modeled & analyzed in Solid Works version 2011, a CAD based FEM tool.
The main problem with the design of components having plated structure is, the plates are available in limited standard
thickness. So it is required to find the pair or combination of standard thickness of plates which can give the best performance
that is possible by making design scenarios.
Also in designing foundation of any machine the dynamic & static loads acting on pockets of foundation. The reaction forces are
transmitted systematically through different structural components on base to get the maximum force acting on foundation bolts
and pockets. The aim of this work is to give a fast and easy to use tool capable of predicting the behavior and the useful life of
concrete mixers through geometrical and physical parameters.
KEY WORDS: Design of planetary mixer using solid

work software, development in mixing blade, design for
top dished cover. Design of shell (aggregate).
INTRODUCTION
The two main categories of mixers are: batch mixers
and continuous mixers. The first type produces
concrete one batch at a time, while the second
produces concrete at a constant rate. The first type
needs to be emptied completely after each mixing
cycle, cleaned and then reloaded with the raw
materials for the next batch. In the second type, as the
name indicates, the raw materials are continuously
loaded at one end as the fresh concrete exits the other
end.
Batch mixers are the most common type. Different
types of batch mixers can be distinguished by looking
at the orientation of the axis rotation: horizontal or
inclined (drum mixers) or vertical (pan mixes) Long
term usage of a mixer leads to wear on the blades
and/or scraper, the build-up of materials (hardened

mortar or cement paste) on the blades, the container,
and/or the scraper.
To avoid this situation, the concrete mixer should be
thoroughly cleaned at the end of each day of
operation and the blades and scraper should be
changed on a regular basis.
The mixing process also includes the mixing energy
that is the energy needed to mix a concrete batch; it is
determined by the product of the power consumed
during cycle and the duration of cycle the mixer
presented in this paper is a batch mixer with a
vertical axis. The working rotation motion is
planetary and its aim is to physically and chemically
mix multiple components in order to make a
homogeneous mixture. Actually the mixer distributes
all the constituents uniformly in the tank without
favoring one or the other.
157

A description of the fundamental components of the
machine is given followed by the development of a
model based method that focuses on the most
stressed part of the mixer: the gear reduction unit.
The mixing tank is constructed in extremely thick
sheet steel mounted on a channel section frame
arranged in such a way as to allow for several
discharge openings. The entire tank is protected by a
casing to prevent dust escaping and the mixing
operation will be interrupted by a micro-switch if the
door at the front is opened.
The mixing arms are peripheral and constructed with
steel drill rods and can be adjusted to allow
regulation of the blades. A box in spheroidal graphite
cast iron containing three gear pairs and a bridge
frame is mounted on the top of the tank so that it is
suspended at a suitable height to support the arms and
blades. One shaft of the gear reduction unit is
attached to the motor and another is moving the
epicycloidal step-up gearing that moves the arms and
generates the mixing.
The first and third gear pair is helicoidal and the
second is a straight-tooth gear. This is because the
second pair is under less stress. The gears work in an
oil bath so that the best lubrication is guaranteed on
the tooth contour.
Fig: 1- mixing system

Mixing device
Driven by the fearing system, the blades fixed on
mixing arms and the scrapers on scraping arms crush
and overturn the material to complete the compelling
mixing.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST

MECHANICAL HAZARDS
1. Risk of loss of stability
2. Risk of breakage during operation
3. Risks due to surfaces, edges or corners
4. Selection of a protective device risks
moving elements
5. Fire
6. Explosion
7. Vibrations
8. Radiation
9. External radiation
DETAIL SYSTEM PROCEDURE OF
PLANETARY MIXER
Fig:-2-mixing shaft assembly

Gearing system
The power transmission is realized by a hard surface
gearbox which is designed specially by our company
(This technique has been patented). Fluid clutch is
installed between the motor and the gearbox (This
item is optional). The Fluid clutch can ensure the
mixer startup smoothly and it can keep the mixer start
158

up normally even in the full load condition.
The dust collecting device is working together with
the mixer in order to protect the working condition.
Control system
The control system can automatically control the
process of dosing, mixing, and discharging.
Fig: 3-gearing system

PRODUCTIONN SEQUENCE
The driving force provided by gearbox drives the
mixing arms to do not only a revolution but also a
rotation, and drives the scraping arms have a
revolution. By this drive mode, the mixing action not
only has a rotation but also has a revolution, the more
complex of the motion track, the more turbulent the
mixing is, and then the mixer works more effectively,
its mixing more homogeneous.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Motion track
Start-up of the empty mixer.

Loading of aggregates (sand, gravel and similar
granulometries).
Loading of cement (powder).
Loading of additives (powder if present).
Introduction of water.
Mixing.
Unloading.
The revolution and rotation speed of the blades have

been extensively studied and tested to give the mixer
a high output without causing the segregation of
materials with different grain size and weight. The
movement of the material inside the trough is smooth
and continuous. As shown in the picture, the blades
track covers the while bottom of the trough after a
cycle.
Fig 5: Mixture evolution with type of microstructure

in various states stages.
DETAIL STUDY AND WORK:
Fig: 4-motion study of four different points
(1) MATERIAL SELECTION:

Material selection are based on
(1)A viability of materials.
(2) Suitability of materials for the working condition
in service.
(3) The cost of materials.
Discharging device
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
According to different demands of customers, the
discharging door can be opened by hydraulic,
pneumatic. The number of the discharging door is
three at most. And there is special sealing device on
the discharging door to ensure the sealing reliable.
Compo
nent
MS
CI
EN8
SS304
C
Mn
0.23
0.9
3.25
1.44
0.36-0.44
0.6-1
0.08
2.6
Dust collecting device
0.05 Max
0.075
0.05
0.03
159

P
Fe
0.04
99.59
-----89.265
1.59
1.54
0.05
97.4698.84
0.1-0.4
---
0.045
66.3774
0.75-1
18-20
Si
Cr
-----------
Ni
------
2.84
----
8-10.5
TABLE-1: Chemical composition of different

materials
(2) DESIGN OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY
DESIGN OF SHELL:
Fig 7- Erosive wear blade

In the interaction between concrete and blade, blade
should be failure due to corrosion, wear during the
mixing of materials
To overcome the problem by design the new blade
with different materials. Blade material should be
cast iron which may be NY-HARDED.so its hardness
is about 550600 MPa.
Fig: 6 design of mixer shell using solid works

In which we are assume the height of shell and
determine the outer diameter of the shell as well as
thickness of the shell in different load condition.
DESIGN OF SHELL BOTTOM PLATE:
Here we determine the diameter of the bottom plate
and thickness of the plate in different load condition.
DESIGN OF TOP DISHED COVER OF SHELL:
Here Semi ellipsoidal head is selected For the cost
reduction. More strength. Also we calculate the
diameter and cover plate thickness which is based on
gear box mounting in steady state and under mixing
condition.
DESIGN OF MIXING BLADE
Fig8;. New proposed blade.

DESIGN OF DISCHARG GATE
In which the existing manually operated discharge
gate should be replaced by the hydraulically operated
discharge gate should be design by final mix material
discharging capacity of the mixer.
In which for operating discharge gate should be done
thought hydraulic cylinder which may be selected
from the its manufacturing companys catalogs.
LITERATURE REVIEW:
(1) M.C.Valigi, I.gasperini has studies on
Simulation and predicting useful life in steady states
and in perturbed conditions in Planetary vertical
concrete mixers and they are conclude that and
160

develop A simple, flexible and inexpensive
instrument was created and set up. It is a useful
support for designers because it reliably simulates the
behavior of the gear reduction unit and the mixer in
both steady state conditions and under conditions
where the mixer is used in an improper way
(inadequate cleaning of the tank). The results
achieved are considered exhaustive with regard to
operational conditions for the gear reduction unit, to
synthesize setting only one parameter, an analysis of
useful life was predicted by Miners law summation.
The length of useful life for a concrete mixer
obtained during the simulations was compared to
actual recorded data, obtained from customer
sources. The comparison showed that the proposed
model-based method provides important support for
traditional design procedures.
The model based-method tool could be modified and
adapted to other mixers or to accurately measure
resisting torque using a troptometer under any
working conditions. In addiction, the useful life could
be evaluated using rain-flow matrices and adopting a
fluid-dynamic model simulating the action of
concrete mix on the blades.
fresh concrete. In that sense, this transition time can

be seen as an indicator of mixing difficulty for a
given mixer. The influence of the mix-design and that
of the liquid loading sequence on the mixing
behavior are investigated; three sets of experiments
are used for the assessment of the model. It is shown
that one key parameter is the theology of the mixture
at the fluidity time.
After the conclude that the microstructure evolution
during mixing. It is shown here that five mixture
states may be considered: dry powder, dry granules,
wet granules, and granular suspension including
agglomerates and dispersed granular suspension.
Agglomerates are defined here as clusters of very
fine particles bounded by cohesion forces and/or a
hydrate membrane. Granules are larger micro
structural elements, made of agglomerates and
coarser elements, bonded by liquid bridges.
The mixing kinetics mechanism proposed here
consists in four mixing stages: granules growth,
granules opalescence, and granules dissolution and
agglomerates
dispersion.
The
mixing-stages
correspond to the mixture transformation following
the above presented five successive mixture states.
Fig: 9- Comparison between perturbed and steadystate torque.

Fig: 10- Attempt of schematic representation of the
maximum cohesion and fluidity lines trends.
(2) B.Cazacliu, N.Roquet has study on concrete
mixing kinetics by means of power measurement.
they introduces a new model for concrete mixing
kinetics. The model defines five successive stages
through which the mixture characteristics change. It
is also shown that the time-variation of the mixer
power consumption is a relevant tool to identify the
transient stages of the mixture during mixing. In
particular, it detects the instant when maximum
cohesive paste occurs and identifies the fluidity time.
The fluidity time is the instant when mixture turns to
(3) Raimundo K. Vieira, Rafael C. Soares,

Samantha C. Pinheiro, Octavio A. Paiva, Jose O.
Eleuterio, Raimundo P. Vasconcelos has studies on
Completely random experimental design with
mixture and process variables for optimization of
rubberized concrete and A completely random
experimental design has been used to simultaneously
optimize process variables and cementitious mixture
components for rubberized concrete. In this study the
161

concrete is composed of only three mixture
components, cement, aggregate (including fine and
coarse) and water, and two process variables, size of
rubber (chips of waste truck tires) and percentage
rubber that replaced the aggregate in concrete, were
varied. The calculations of regression and residual
ANOVA sums of squares for regression and lack of
fit are illustrated. These values are shown to be useful
for model development. Two different models were
evaluated. The bilinearlinear model has no lack of
fit and is preferred. The significant terms in this
model are capable of describing how the process
response surfaces change as mixture level conditions
are varied. Optimum condition in the rubberized
concrete, considering the level of the variable studied
is: 2.4 mm size of rubber, 2.5% rubber that replaced
the aggregate, 16% of cement, 76% of aggregate and
8% of water. The optimum mixture conditions with
2.5% of rubber show a concrete value of compressive
strength above 20 MPa can generate concrete suitable
for use in structures.
They conclude that the CRED method has been
proven to be quite useful into simplifying operational
procedures in which a large number of experiments
are required. Model development does not present
lack of fit. The combined process-mixture variable
model is capable of explaining how the process
responds to surfaces and optimum process variable
levels vary as they are changed in mixture conditions.
SUMMARY
From the above study, we realize that as new
design and development of concrete planetary mixer
such work has been done on development way.we
have a plan to do an design work for this mixer with
parameter as mixing speed,selection of right kind of
blade ,mounting arrangement and analyze structural
components as column and frame are modeled &
analyzed by CAD based FEM tool Solid Works.
A simple, flexible and inexpensive instrument was
created and set up.
UNSOLVED PROBLEMS
During the design of the concrete planetary mixer, in
this paper does not include the design and analysis of
the following parts:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Motor
Hydraulic cylinder
Planetary gearbox
Deep groove ball bearings.
oil seals
In this research work we cover the all above data

selected from the its manufacturing companys
catalogs.
FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK
This paper work is found out the basic design
procedure for machine components so that advance
study of components may become future work of the
paper. In reference to which some of the future works
are suggested here:
(1) Mixing forces analysis
During the mixing of concrete mortars, blade and
other parts are subjected to different types of stresses
which are to be required to analyze.
(2) Calculation of power consumption
Power consumption is required to calculate for every
stage of mixing system to evaluate the supply system.
By which mixing stage power to be consumpted is
more which to be calculate.
(3) Dead weight
During the mixing process slides due to elasticity of
mixing arm of dead weight vibrates, which affects the
mixing process. Dead weights are provided for safety
purpose.
(4) Foundation Design
The force acting on foundation pocket is calculated in
last F.E.M study, based on which foundation is
required to design.
REFERENCES
M.C.Valigi, I.gasperini (2007) Planetary vertical
concrete mixers: Simulation and predicting useful life
in steady states and in perturbed conditions.
Simulation and Modeling Practice and Theory
15(2007)1211-1223.
B.Cazacliu, N.Roquet (2009) Concrete mixing
kinetics by means of power measurement Cement
and Concrete Research 39 (2009) 182-194.
Veronique Collin, Pierre-Henri Jezequel (2009)
Mixing of concrete or mortars: Distributive
aspects Cement and Concrete Research 39 (2009)
678-686.
Raimundo K. Vieira, Rafael C. Soares, Samantha C.
Pinheiro, Octavio A. Paiva, Jose O. Eleuterio,
Raimundo P. Vasconcelos(2010) Completely
random experimental design with mixture and
process variables for optimization of rubberized
concrete. Construction and Building Materials
24(2010)1754-1760.
162

http://www.sciencedirect.com
21.08.2011.
as
accessed
on
Reddy K.Balaveera, K. Mahadevan, Design Data

Handbook - Third Edition.
Industrial reference of Neptune Industries Ltd.
Mehsana.
C.F.Ferraris (2001) Concrete mixing methods and
concrete mixers: state of art, Journal of Research of
the National Institute of Standards and Technology
106(2).
J.A. Collins, Failure of Materials in Mechanical
Design Analysis, Prediction, Prevention, John
Wiley & Sons, 1993.
Benhabib Beno Manufacturing - Design,
Production, Automation & Integration
SKF user guide for bearing selection
Shingh Sadhu. Handbook for mechanical
engineering
http://www.hydraulicspnuemattics.com
Sharma P.C., A text book of production
engineering by P.C. Sharma, S.Chand Publication
ISBN: 81-219-0421-8.
163

164

Development of Test Rig for Measurement

of Friction Power - A Review
Ajaykumar Ukabhai Kanjhariya
L D College of engineering, Ahmadabad, India
kanjhariyaajay@gmail.com
Prof. D U Panchal
L D College of engineering, Ahmadabad, India
ABSTRACT
World market has become most competitive with increasing fuel prices & strict pollution norms. This is pointing towards
two different areas of research in automobile engineering. One is search of cheap long lasting alternate fuel & another is
fuel efficiency improvement in the existing engine or engine system segments or new coming segments of automobiles. The
tribological consideration in the contacts formed by piston ring assembly has attracted more attention over several
decades. @ 13-17% of total frictional losses observed in I.C. engine and 35-50% of total friction losses is due to PRA
system. This paper reports a set of experiments were carried out on developed experimental setup at laboratory scale to
measure PRA friction of multi cylinder 800 cc engine system indirectly by measurement of power consumption by Strip
Method. In experiment the fabricated test rig of 800 cc multi cylinder internal combustion engine system with crank
mechanism and without gear box is used. . Crank shaft is coupled with induction motor to drive the engine. A.C. motor with
different pulleys is used to vary the engine speed. The temperatures at different locations are measured by RTD temperature
sensors. The experimental results and observations are carried out under different operating conditions in speed ranges
from 600 rpm to 2400 rpm.
Keywords- Piston Ring Assembly, Friction Losses,
Power Consumption
INTRODUCTION
The petroleum and automotive industries are facing tough
international competition, government regulations, and
rapid technological changes. Global originally equipment
manufacturers (OEM) and fuel and lubricant additive
manufacturers are attempting to meet the challenges of
changing consumer needs and new legislation for a cleaner
environment and energy conservation. In todays scenario,
energy efficiency is considered as top most criteria of
management for each and every OEM in this deadly
competitive environment. Higher energy-conserving
engine oils and better fuel efficient vehicles will become
increasingly important in the face of both the saving of
natural resources and the lowering of engine friction.
TYPES OF PISTON RINGS & RING PACKS
COMPOSITION
Piston rings form a ring-pack, typically consisting of 2-5
rings, with the number of rings dependent upon engine
type and specification, although usually comprising 2-4

compression rings, which provide the sealing capability,
and 0-3 oil-control rings [5]. The function of each ring and
the force distribution at the ring/liner interface is largely
determined by the profile of the ring face in contact with
the liner. Figure below shows a number of commonly used
face profiles. For compression rings these include plain
rectangular, barrel- and taper-faced profiles, with each
designed to provide gas sealing and in some cases perform
additional tasks such as oil scraping and shortening of the
running-in time. Oil-control rings have different profiles,
generally consisting of two lands and an inserted ring
expander or coil spring to bolster ring pre-tension. These
rings offer little in the way of sealing ability and instead
are designed to distribute oil evenly on the cylinder liner
and scrape off surplus oil to be returned to the crankcase.
The additional forces acting on these rings mean that
although they control the oil film they experience the
harshest lubricating conditions of the ring-pack as they
operate on average with thinner oil films than compression
rings. The need for an oil-control ring depends upon the
165

engine type and the method of lubrication. For four-stroke,
trunk-piston engines, where the ring-pack is lubricated by
splash lubrication, oil mists or pressurized supply, an oil
control ring is necessary to distribute oil evenly. However,
for two-stroke, crosshead diesels the total-loss ring-pack
lubrication system means that an oil-control ring is not
required. For this type of engine the ring-pack consists of
several compression rings [1].
FIGURE 1: Typical face profiles of compression and oilcontrol rings [1]

FUNDAMENTALS OF PISTON RING PACK &
CYLINDER LINER INTERFACE
The piston seal is an essential component in the operation
of engines. Its primary role is to separate the hostile
environment of the combustion chamber from the
scavenge air space in two-stroke engines and the crankcase
in four-stroke engines. The piston ring-pack generally
consists of a number of split metal rings which sit loosely
in circumferential grooves cut into the piston body to form
a labyrinth seal. The functions of a piston ring are to seal
off the combustion pressure, to distribute and control the
oil, to transfer heat, and to stabilize the piston. The piston
is designed for thermal expansion, with a desired gap
between the piston surface and liner wall. The rings and
the ring grooves form a labyrinth seal, which relatively
well isolates the combustion chamber from the crankcase.
This is demonstrated by the schematics in Figure below.
Figure 2: Construction and nomenclature of typical piston

and ring assembly
FRICTON MECHANISM IN PRA

The piston skirt is a load-bearing surface which keeps the
piston properly aligned within the cylinder bore. The
piston lands and skirt carry the side load which is present
when the connecting rod is at an angle to the cylinder axis.
The rings control the lubrication between these surfaces
and the liner. Two types of rings--compression and oil
rings-perform the following tasks: (1) seal the clearance
between the piston and cylinder to retain gas pressure and
minimize blow by; (2) meter adequate lubricant to the
cylinder surface to sustain high thrust and gas force loads
at high surface speed and at the same time control oil
consumption to acceptable limits; and (3) control piston
temperatures by assisting in heat transfer to the cylinder
walls and coolant. Automobile engines normally use three
rings, though two-ring designs exist. Larger diesel engines
may use four rings.
Many designs of compression ring are employed, the
differences between them being in the cross-sectional
shapes (and hence relative flexibility) and in their use of
wear-resistant surface treatments. Top compression rings
are usually made of cast iron. The axial profiles are chosen
to facilitate hydrodynamic lubrication. Common shapes
are a rectangular cross section with inner and outer edges
chamfered to prevent sticking in the groove, or with a
barrel-shaped working surface which can accommodate
the rotation of the piston which occurs with short piston
skirts. Wear-resistant coatings (either a hard chromiumplated overlay or a molybdenum-filled inlay) are usually
applied to the outer ring surface. The second compression
ring serves principally to reduce the pressure drop across
the top ring. Since the operating environment is less
arduous, the second ring can be made more flexible to give
better oil control. The objective is to compensate for the
torsional deflection of the ring under load so that top edge
contact with the cylinder liner is avoided. Top-edge
contact tends to pump toward the combustion chamber,
detracting from the performance of the oil control ring.
Bottom-edge contact provides an oil scraping action on the
down stroke. The oil control ring meters and distributes the
oil directed onto the cylinder liner by the crankshaft
system, returning excess oil to the crankcase sump. It must
exert exert sufficient pressure against the cylinder, possess
suitably shaped wiping edges (usually two thin steel rings),
and provide adequate oil drainage. Slotted or composite
rings are normally used [4].
The tension in all the piston rings holds them out against
the cylinder wall and hence contributes to friction. The gas
pressure behind the compression ring increases this radial
force. The gas pressures behind the second ring are
substantially lower than behind the first ring. The gas
pressures behind the rings are a function of speed and load.
An approximate rule for estimating ring friction is that
each compression ring contributes about 7 kPa MEP. Oil
rings, due to their substantially higher ring tension, operate
under boundary lubrication; they contribute about twice
the friction of each compression ring [4]. Piston rings are
perhaps the most complicated & are dominant source of
engine rubbing friction. The components contribute to
friction are oil ring, piston ring, piston pin & skirt. The
166

forces acting on the piston assembly include: static ring
tension (which depends on ring design and materials); the
gas pressure forces (which depend on engine load); the
inertia forces (which are related to component mass and
engine speed). The major design factors which influence
piston assembly friction are the following: ring width, ring
face profile, ring tension, ring gap (which governs interring gas pressure), liner temperature, ring land width and
clearances, skirt geometry, skirt-bore clearance [4]. Other
parameters are oil viscosity, lubricant formulation,
condition and availability, etc. The ring interfaces are
subjected to severe and rapid variations of the mentioned
variables, particularly sliding speed, applied load,
temperature and lubricant availability, and the result is that
in a single piston stroke it may experience boundary,
mixed and full film lubrication regimes.
Different scientist have studied and explained friction
phenomenon in PRA with different theories and developed
mathematical formula either based on experimental results
or by simulation of a model. The stribeck diagram Fig 4
shows the variation of friction coefficient v/s duty
parameter for various regimes of lubrication in different
parts of the engine. The non-dimensional duty parameter
S depends on piston speed (u), oil viscosity () and load
per unit length (w / l). [2]
S= oil x u / (w / l)
The characteristics of these are briefly explained in Table
below and are represented by means of the modified
Stribeck diagram. Film thickness ratio is the ratio of
lubricant film thickness, itself a function of geometry,
speed, load and oil viscosity, to the composite surface
roughness [1].
The piston skirt is a load-bearing surface which keeps the
piston properly aligned within the cylinder bore. The
piston lands and skirt carry the side load which is present
when the connecting rod is at an angle to the cylinder axis.
The rings control the lubrication between these surfaces
and the liner. Two types of rings--compression and oil
rings-perform the following tasks: (1) seal the clearance
between the piston and cylinder to retain gas pressure and
minimize blow by; (2) meter adequate lubricant to the
cylinder surface to sustain high thrust and gas force loads
at high surface speed and at the same time control oil
consumption to acceptable limits; and (3) control piston
temperatures by assisting in heat transfer to the cylinder
walls and coolant. Automobile engines normally use three
rings, though two-ring designs exist. Larger diesel engines
may use four rings.
Many designs of compression ring are employed, the
differences between them being in the cross-sectional
shapes (and hence relative flexibility) and in their use of
wear-resistant surface treatments. Top compression rings
are usually made of cast iron. The axial profiles are chosen
to facilitate hydrodynamic lubrication. Common shapes
are a rectangular cross section with inner and outer edges
chamfered to prevent sticking in the groove, or with a

barrel-shaped working surface which can accommodate
the rotation of the piston which occurs with short piston
skirts. Wear-resistant coatings (either a hard chromiumplated overlay or a molybdenum-filled inlay) are usually
applied to the outer ring surface. The second compression
ring serves principally to reduce the pressure drop across
the top ring. Since the operating environment is less
arduous, the second ring can be made more flexible to give
better oil control. The objective is to compensate for the
tensional deflection of the ring under load so that top edge
contact with the cylinder liner is avoided. Top-edge
contact tends to pump toward the combustion chamber,
detracting from the performance of the oil control ring.
Bottom-edge contact provides an oil scraping action on the
down stroke. The oil control ring meters and distributes the
oil directed onto the cylinder liner by the crankshaft
system, returning excess oil to the crankcase sump. It must
exert exert sufficient pressure against the cylinder, possess
suitably shaped wiping edges (usually two thin steel rings),
and provide adequate oil drainage. Slotted or composite
rings are normally used [4].
The tension in all the piston rings holds them out against
the cylinder wall and hence contributes to friction. The gas
pressure behind the compression ring increases this radial
force. The gas pressures behind the second ring are
substantially lower than behind the first ring. The gas
pressures behind the rings are a function of speed and load.
An approximate rule for estimating ring friction is that
each compression ring contributes about 7 kPa MEP. Oil
rings, due to their substantially higher ring tension, operate
under boundary lubrication; they contribute about twice
the friction of each compression ring [4]. Piston rings are
perhaps the most complicated & are dominant source of
engine rubbing friction. The components contribute to
friction are oil ring, piston ring, piston pin & skirt. The
forces acting on the piston assembly include: static ring
tension (which depends on ring design and materials); the
gas pressure forces (which depend on engine load); the
inertia forces (which are related to component mass and
engine speed). The major design factors which influence
piston assembly friction are the following: ring width, ring
face profile, ring tension, ring gap (which governs interring gas pressure), liner temperature, ring land width and
clearances, skirt geometry, skirt-bore clearance [4]. Other
parameters are oil viscosity, lubricant formulation,
condition and availability, etc. The ring interfaces are
subjected to severe and rapid variations of the mentioned
variables, particularly sliding speed, applied load,
temperature and lubricant availability, and the result is that
in a single piston stroke it may experience boundary,
mixed and full film lubrication regimes.
167

Different scientist have studied and explained friction
phenomenon in PRA with different theories and developed
mathematical formula either based on experimental results
or by simulation of a model. The stribeck diagram Fig 4
shows the variation of friction coefficient v/s duty
parameter for various regimes of lubrication in different
parts of the engine. The non-dimensional duty parameter
S depends on piston speed (u), oil viscosity () and load
per unit length (w / l): S= oil x u / (w / l) [2].
The characteristics of these are briefly explained in Table
below and are represented by means of the modified
Stribeck diagram. Film thickness ratio is the ratio of
lubricant film thickness, itself a function of geometry,
speed, load and oil viscosity, to the composite surface
roughness [1].
FIGURE: 4 Modified Stribeck diagram for variation of

friction co-efficient
DETAILS OF TEST UNIT & ENGINE
FIGURE :3 Stribeck diagram for variation of friction coefficient
Development of test unit with mentioned engine will be

developed. Whole engine with cooling system (radiator)
will be coupled to A.C. motor by following arrangement
which is shown as a layout diagram for the test unit. Motor
and engine will be mounted on a fabricated base frame
which gives support with minimum vibrations passing to
system. In the literature survey it was found that the test
unit with VFD was developed. Market survey suggest the
cost of VFD for the unit is much higher which serves the
purpose of speed variation with accrete speed requirement.
i.e. if 1500 rpm is required at output shaft then VFD will
give the exact figure. But by the need of friction power
measurement, it was decided to develop & design a step
pulley as shown with coupling and bearing housing which
can be connected to crank shaft of engine with belt drive.
This development will also give the speed variations
required for the performance.
168

Table 1: Engine specifications for maruti franty

(catalogue)
Type
4 stroke cycle, water cooled

SOHC (1C2V)
No. of cylinders
Piston displacement/
swept volume
796 cc
Maximum output
(Std.,AC)
37 bhp at 5000 rpm
Maximum torque
(Std.,AC)
59 Nm at 2500 rpm
Power Transmission Std.

AC
4-forward, all synchromesh, 1

reverse
Cylinder bore size
68.505 68.520 mm [12]
Stroke length
72 mm [12]
Compression ratio
8.7 : 1 [12]
PT 100 type temperature sensors ranging from 0C -250 C

will be used.
Locations of Nine Temperature Sensors are as mentioned
below:
T1 Bearing temp, T2 Cylinder 1 (centre ), T3
Cylinder 3 (centre), T4 Oil temp, T5 Spark Plug, T6
Cylinder 1 (TDC), T7 Cylinder 1 (BDC), T8 Cylinder
3 (TDC), T9 Cylinder 3 (BDC)
Motor specifications:
A 3~phase AC induction motor, 440 V will be used to run
engine with stepped pulley. 7.5 kW with ~3000 rpm AC
motor will be used for this purpose for speed variations.
Motor specifications:
A 3~phase AC induction motor, 440 V will be used to run

engine with stepped pulley. 7.5 kW with ~3000 rpm AC
motor will be used for this purpose for speed variations.
The test sequences to conduct the experiment on Multi
Cylinder IC Engine test unit are as follows.
1. First of all select the operating condition and
lubricating oil.
2. Prepare the engine for selected operating condition.
3. Check the foundation of test rig.
4. Check coupling, pulley and belt for proper alignment.
5. Install kry-card/ clip-on meter on the motor for
electrical parameters measurement.
6. Measure the dimensions of all three piston rings
perfectly with suitable measuring instrument. Also
take the weight on minute weight scale for all three
rings.
7. Set the pulley belt in proper required speed (rpm)
position & switch on the power supply. Motor will
start to operate engine. Check for vibration & ensure
safety first.
8. Initially the system is to be run for at least 5 to 10
minutes, so that the system get stabilize & the
lubricating oil can reach properly up to the surface of
piston ring & cylinder liner.
9. After getting the stable condition of the system,
record the actual power consumed by the system, rpm
of the system and also the temperature of different
nine locations of an engine.
10. Now change the belt on next pulley different rpm of
the system and allow time to get stabilize the system.
Switch off the power supply before change of belt.
11. Then further record the actual power consumed by
the system, rpm of the system and also the
temperature of different nine locations of an engine.
12. Supply nitrogen pressure of 9.5 to 10 bars by nitrogen
cylinder and control valve (hand operated or
automatic) and take reading of power consumption
for above mentioned steps (optional).
13. Take reading of all speed variation possible by
stepped pulley available with repeating step 10 & 11.
14. Run the system for at least 4 hours continuously
afterwards with all three rings (standard condition)
with and without pressure condition. Stop & check
the piston ring weight and dimensions.
Then switch off the power supply & allow the system to
come in rest condition. Now repeat the same procedure for
another measurement.
CONCLUSION
Mechanical losses contribute to 20% of total losses from
the engine. Piston ring assembly system contributes almost
45-50% of these mechanical losses which are major culprit
of the system for loss of performance and power. Ring
geometry, velocity, lubrication, gas pressure & number of
rings plays an important role in the frictional losses. The
experiment carried out under different operating condition
it can be concluded that frictional power loss contribution
by individual piston ring varies under different speed.
Nature of curve of power consumption of PRA system
with is in line with Stribeck curve nature, which means
initially the system operates in boundary or mixed
169

lubrication condition and later on mixed to hydrodynamic
lubrication condition. Performance effect of change in
piston ring geometry can also be experimented and
compared with standard set of PRA system performance.
Motorized method is comparatively simple method to the
others. Effect of different lubricants and coolants under
different conditions will be give particular Ideal condition
where friction power minimum.
REFERENCES
Journal Papers
[I] C.M. Taylor, Automobile engine tribologydesign
considerations for efficiency and durability, Elsevier, Wear
221 1998. PP. 18.
[II]Bhatt D V et al., Experimental study of friction under
diff. variables on piston cylinder assembly- a case study,
SVNIT, Surat.
[III]Murat Kapsiz et al., Friction and wear studies between
cylinder liner and piston ring pair using Taguchi design
method, Sakarya University Technical Education Faculty,
Mechanical Education Department, 54187 Sakarya,
Turkey, Advances in Engineering Software 42 (2011) PP.
595603.
[IV]A Shah et al., Experimental Study and Analysis Of
Temperature Variation in Multicylinder Motorized Engine
Test- Rig Under Different Lubricants -A Case Study,
Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2009
Vol II, WCE 2009, London, U.K. July 1 - 3, 2009
[V]D V Bhatt et al., Prediction of Oil Film Thickness in
Piston Ring - Cylinder Assembly in an I C Engine: A
Review , Proceedings of the World Congress on
Engineering, ISBN:978-988-18210-1-0, Vol II WCE
2009, July 1 - 3, 2009.
170

Application of Concurrent Engineering for

Investment Casting Dies
Prof. Gunjan Bhatt
Institute of Diploma Studies, Nirma University. Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.
E-mail: gunjan.bhatt@nirmauni.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Tooling development is an important activity bridging product design and manufacturing activities, and is often a bottleneck
in new product development. Ever-shrinking product life cycles have made it necessary to explore, adopt and adapt new
technologies to produce quality tooling in a shorter time while remaining competitive. This paper describes three
technologies in the context of the investment casting sector: (1) solid modelling of cast components, (2) optimization of
casting method design and (3) rapid tooling of patterns and dies. According to the concept of concurrent engineering, a
CAD/CAE/CAM integrated system for investment casting dies is established and applied. The platform of the UG NX
CAD/CAM software and the AutoCAST simulation software is used to establish concurrent engineering concept. This
integrated system has been applied successfully in the design and manufacture of investment casting die of automobile part.
The use of this integrated system can shorten the cycle of die design and manufacture, and result in the production of high
quality investment castings in a shorter time. The lead-time of investment castings is shortened greatly.
KEYWORDS: Investment Casting; Integrated

CAD/CAE/CAM system; Investment Casting Dies;
Simulation of solidification; Concurrent Engineering
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of Investment Casting Process
At present, the concept of direct/ net shape
manufacturing is gaining much importance in the
context of lead-time and cost reduction. Many of
the injection moldings are being produced as ready
to assembly stage. However, in metal casting, the
concept of net shape manufacturing is still
evolving. Castings are usually manufactured to
near net shape and then finished for assembly.
Precision casting methods such as investment
casting and pressure die casting enable near net
shape parts.
However, in the present scenario, investmentcasting application is rapidly increased specifically
for near net shape manufacturing of complex and
small engineering components. Investment casting

is a method of producing high quality casting. It is
especially useful for providing casting in
geometrys which could not be forged or machined,
or where machining would be too wasteful of
material. The application of investment castings is
expanding continuously. Investment castings are
used in agricultural equipments, automobile
components, dentistry and dental tools, guns and
armaments, machine tool components, electronic
hardware and radar, etc. Investment casting process
follows the sequence as shown in figure 1.
Fig. 1 Investment Casting Process Sequence
171

1.2 Characteristics
Process
of
Investment
Casting
Almost any alloy can be cast

Because of the exceptional surface finish
possible and expected, minute defects can
cause rejection of castings and scrap rates
can be high.
Environmentally good
Extremely good surface finish
High complex shapes can cast
High dimensional accuracy and
consistency can be obtained
High integrity castings
High production rates, particularly for
small components
Long or short runs can be accommodated
Machining can be eliminated due to close
tolerances achieved
Minimum shot blast and grinding required
Process is expensive because costly
refractories and binders are used and
many operations are needed to make a
mould
Specialised equipment needed along with
trained manpower.
1.3 Die for Investment Casting
In investment casting, tooling comprises the wax
pattern and associated tooling. Wax patterns are
manufactured using machined aluminium or steel
die by injection molding. Following are the steps
for die design:
Addition of Shrinkage allowance
Applying draft
Selecting the best orientation of the
investment casting part in the die
Determining the parting line,
Identifying features that have to be
produced by cores,
Design of cores (including their supports
or core-prints),
Design of core boxes to produce the cores,
Design of risers to provide feed metal
(number, location, shape, dimensions),
Design of gating system to lead molten
metal into the die,
Layout of cavities in the die
Design of other systems (including
ejection of wax pattern from die, injection
plate, etc.)
2. CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
In ancient times (circa 1000 AD), it would take 3-4
months to make a bronze casting idol through
investment casting, starting from the carving of a
wax statue, covering with clay, drying in the sun,
dewaxing, metal pouring, demoulding, and finally
finishing the casting. In the last century, which
witnessed manufacture of castings on a large scale,
the lead-time for developing a typical casting was
however, not very different: about 8-12 weeks..
Such lead-times are no longer acceptable. With
rapidly compressing product development times
(typically 12-15 months for a new automobile),
OEMs now expect a new casting to be developed
in days, not weeks and months. This is however,
easier said than done, since the demand for shorter
lead-time is also accompanied by the need for
quality assurance and cost reduction. All these
cannot be simultaneously achieved unless new
technologies (like CAD and simulation) and
methodologies (like design for manufacture and
concurrent engineering) are employed for casting
development.
Due to the cutting edge competition a shorter
development cycle of new investment casting
products is required. How to produce high quality
investment castings in a shorter period with a lower
cost has become an important and urgent task of
investment casting foundry. The concept of
concurrent engineering can be introduced into
investment
casting
production,
and
the
CAD/CAE/CAM integrated system of investment
casting dies can be established. In the concurrent
engineering process, the first step is to create a
solid modelling of investment cast part for use in
all aspects of the production process. The next step
is to design the investment casting process, which
includes the design of gating system, feeding
system and whole set of investment casting dies. In
order to avoid defects in the casting, by means of
the casting simulation software the numerical
simulation of metal flow and solidification in the
dies, i.e. the CAE, is performed. The database also
provides the data which are needed in the
generation of the cavity roughing and finishing
CNC programs for die manufacturing by CAM,
and is connected to the coordinate measuring
machines (CMMs) for measuring. Due to the use of
a unitary database of 3D model in the whole
period, all these steps can be performed
simultaneously. The lead-time and whole cycle of
172

design and manufacturing can be shortened greatly.

Therefore, investment casters have paid more and
more attention to the CAD/CAE/CAM integrated
system of dies, which embodies the concurrent
engineering concepts of modern advanced
manufacturing technique.
software and an investment casting expert system

are included in it.
Due to the complex shape of investment castings,
the large-scale CAD/CAM software is required for
the 3D solid modelling and manufacturing. A
number of solid modelling systems are available
today are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Solid Modeling (3D CAD) Systems
Fig. 2 Application of Concurrent Engineering
CAD (Computer Aided Design)/CAM (Computer

Aided Manufacturing)/CAE (Computer Aided
Engineering)/CAI
(Computer
Aided
Inspection)/CAPP (Computer Aided Production
Planning) and many other activities can go
simultaneously after preparation of 3D model. This
saves lot of time in various activities as shown in
figure 2.
3. ESTABLISHMENT OF CONCURRENT
ENGINEERING
FOR
INVESTMENT
CASTING DIES:
Systems
AUTOCAD MD
CADCEUS
CADKEY
CIMATRON
I-DEAS
IronCAD
ProENGINEER
SOLIDEDGE
UNIGRAPHICS NX
SOLIDWORKS
Metal flow and solidification of investment

castings are simulated with the use of CAE
simulation software. Simulation is useful for
optimizing the design of gating and feeding
systems respectively. Casting model is the main
input for simulation. Some of the well-known
casting simulation systems currently available to
foundry engineers are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Casting Simulation Systems

Systems
AutoCAST
AFSOLID
CastCAE
FLOW-3D
EKK
MAGMASoft
PROCAST
Nova-Solid/Flow
SIMTEC
Fig. 3 Integrated CAD/CAE/CAM systems for

investment casting die
The general scheme of CAD/CAE/CAM integrated

system of investment casting dies is shown in
figure 1. CAD/CAM software, CAE simulation
WWW
Autodesk.com
Unisys.co.jp
Cadkey.com
Cimatron.com
Sdrc.com
Ironcad.com
Ptc.com
Solid-edge.com
Siemens.com
Solidworks.com
WWW
Adva-reason.com
Afsinc.org
Castech.fi
Flow3d.com
Ic.net/-ekk
Magmasoft.com
Ues-software.com
Novacast.se
Simtec-inc.com
The procedure for carrying out a casting

solidification simulation program analysis is listed
below:
Using the casting drawing, determine model
scale and element size.
Make the solid model of the casting.
173

Make the solid model of the proposed

production method with feeders, chills,
insulators etc.
Carry out thermal analysis to establish the
order of solidification.
Carry out solidification simulation to a set
quality standard, for the selected alloy
incorporating shrinkage percentage, ingate
effects, etc. this results in the model being
changed to the predicted final shape of the
casting showing size, shape and location of
shrinkage cavities in castings and feeders.
Examine the predicted shrinkage by viewing
and plotting of 3D X-rays and selection of
the model in 2D slices or 3D sections and
relating predicted defects to solidification
contours and required quality standards.
If the predicted defects do not meet the
required quality standard, develop an
improved production method and repeat the
procedures. These trial-and-error sampling
procedures can be carried out very rapidly,
allowing the casting engineer to indulge in any
number of what-if experiments.
In this paper the platform of the UG NX
CAD/CAM software, the AutoCAST simulation
software, and a primary expert system for the
design of investment casting process are used to
establish the CAD/CAE/CAM integrated system of
investment casting dies. CAE simulation softwares,
in particular, AutoCAST, are used to get wax
injection moulding parameters such as filling
parameters, temperature profiles, freeze time,
speed, and pressure. The results of this research
were compared with conventional wax model
production methods.
4. APPLICATION OF THE CAD/CAE/CAM
INTEGRATED SYSTEM FOR INVESTMENT
CASTING DIES
Fig. 4 Solid Model of Automobile (Tractor) Part
4.2 Design for Investment Casting Die

Standard parts and raw materials which will be
used for manufacturing die are shown in table 3.
Die is designed for two cavities. So the production
is increased at 50%.
Table 3. Die Components
Part Name
Material
Std. Dowel
Hardened Steel
Std. Bush
Hardened Steel
Std. Dowel
Hardened Steel
Block
Aluminium
Injection Plate
Mild Steel
Core
Aluminium
Copper
Hardened Steel
Copper
Block
for
Qty.
Electrode
Std. Dowel
4.2.1 Core Design: Core is designed with the help

of Unigraphics solid modeling features and
operations (as shown in figure 5).
4.1 Solid Modelling

First the 3D solid modelling of a part is created,
and then the 3D modelling of the investment
casting including the information of machining
allowance, shrinkage and taper is formed by using
the UG NX CAD/CAM software (shown as fig. 2).
The data of machining allowance, shrinkage and
taper are chosen from Database I in accordance
with the accuracy and surface rating of the parts,
the structure of the parts and the type of alloy.
Fig. 5 Solid Model of Core
174

4.2.2 Determination of Parting Line: The parting

line is the intersection of parting surface (the
surface separating the die halves) of a casting die
with the object or die cavity. The main objective of
parting line is to split the component in such a way
so as to reduce core and slides to absolute
minimum. Here parting line is generated at centre
line of the product. So the die is consisting of
mainly two parts. Figure 6 shows following design
details.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The metal flow and solidification in the dies is

simulated with the use of AutoCAST software. The
simulation results of several technological schemes
are analyzed. The problems occurring in the metal
flow and solidification can be observed directly
through the simulation. The defects of shrinkage
cavities and porosity are basically eliminated. The
design of the investment casting process is
optimized with the help of CAE simulation and
analysis as shown in figure 8.
Two cavities for two wax patterns

Core guides for two cores
Two gates for two cavities
Runner for two cavities
Two opening grooves
Injection Plate groove
Fig. 8 Optimisation of casting method design
4.4 CAM for Die

Fig. 6 Multicavity Investment Casting Die
4.2.3Final Design of Die: Finally the 3D solid

modelling of the whole set of investment casting
dies, including cores, gating system, feeding
system, injection plate, etc. are all completed as
shown in figure 7.
On the basis of the data of the 3D solid modelling

of the cavities of investment casting dies, with the
use of the MANUFACTURING module of the UG
NX CAD/CAM software, the operation table of
machining including the machining parameters,
cutters, cutter path, etc. is listed, and the NC
(numerical control) cutting procedures and the CL
(cutter locate) data files are also created as shown
in figure 9.
Fig. 9 Setting the machining parameters and toolpath

generation
Fig. 7 The 3D model of Investment Casting Die in open

state
4.3 CAE Casting Simulation and Analysis
Furthermore, due to the use of module of an NCcheck, the cutter path in machining is checked and
the instantaneous machining process can be
visualized. The CL data file of each NC cutting
procedure is revised until a satisfactory result is
reached. The CAM is realized as soon as these data
files are post-processed and transferred into the NC
175

machine code. The cutter path in the machining of

the core and the electrode for Electric Discharge
Machine for machining die cavity is shown in
figure 11 and 12 respectively.
with the use of the AutoCAST software; the

technological scheme and process parameters of
investment casting are also revised and optimized.
Fig. 13 Multicavity Investment Casting Die for

Automobile Component
Fig. 11 Toolpath Verification for Core
Fig. 14 Investment Casting Die for Pump Casing
Fig. 12 Toolpath Verification for Electrode for EDM
5. INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLES
Figure 13 and 14 shows some of the dies which are
manufactured using concurrent engineering
concept, an integrated CAD/CAE/CAM system by
one well-known foundry in western India in its inhouse toolroom. This concept will help ensure
high, repeatable quality, a competitive price,
optimized weight and shorter lead times throughout
the life of the product. That will enable OEM to
launch the product in time.
6. BENEFITS
With the help of the UG NX CAD/CAM software
and a primary expert system package, the 3D solid
modeling of investment casting and the design of
technological scheme of investment casting process
are created. Next the simulation and analysis of
metal flow and solidification in dies are performed
With the help of the UG NX CAD/CAM software

and a primary expert system package, the 3D solid
modeling of investment casting and the design of
technological scheme of investment casting process
are created. Next the simulation and analysis of
metal flow and solidification in dies are performed
with the use of the AutoCAST software; the
technological scheme and process parameters of
investment casting are also revised and optimized.
Then the 3D solid modeling of whole set of dies is
completed. Finally the CAM machining data of the
complex surface of dies and cores are created and
the CAM of whole set of dies is completed on the
CNC machines. Due to the use of a unitary
database of the 3D model over the whole period,
some steps may be performed simultaneously, and
the design and manufacturing cycle of the dies can
be shortened obviously.
The method design and process parameters of
investment casting process are revised and further
optimized by using the CAE simulation, and the
176

quality of the investment castings improved greatly

in a shorter time.
7. CONCLUSION
The increasing frequency of new product
introductions is putting pressure on component
suppliers to reduce their lead time from order to
supply. This is most apparent in the case of
automobile components. In the early 80s, new car
models were introduced every 3-4 years, which is
now down to 12-18 months. Concurrent
engineering, an integrated CAD/CAE/CAM system
of investment casting dies can be used successfully
in the design and manufacturing of investment
casting dies of parts such as automobile
components, machine tool components, etc.
Investment Casting Process Journal of Materials

Processing Technology, Vol. 135, pp. 291300.
T. R. Vijayaram, S. Sulaiman, A.M.S. Hamouda,
M.H.M. Ahmad, (2006) - Numerical Simulation
of Casting Solidification in Permanent Metallic
Molds Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Vol.178, pp. 2933.
The cycle of design and manufacturing of

investment casting dies are shortened obviously.
The process parameters and technological scheme
of investment castings can be optimized with the
help of CAE simulation.
This results in the production of investment
castings of consistently high quality in a shorter
time, and the lead-time is shortened greatly.
REFERENCES
A.P. Reddy, S.S. Pande and B. Ravi, (Jan 1994),
"Computer Aided Design of Die Casting Dies,"
42nd Indian Foundry Congress, Institute of Indian
Foundrymen, Ahmedabad .
Dr. B. Ravi, R. C. Creese, D. Ramesh,(1999) Design for Casting A New Paradigm for
Preventing Potential Problems Transactions of the
American Foundry Society, Vol. 107.
Dr. B. Ravi, (Oct. 1999), - "Computer-Aided
Design of Tooling for Casting Process," National
Conference on Pattern and Die Manufacturing
Technology, Arkey, Pune.
Kermanpur, Sh. Mahmoudi, A. Hajipour, (2008) Numerical Simulation of Metal Flow and
Solidification in the Multi-Cavity Casting Moulds
of Automotive omponents Journal of materials
processing technology, Vol. 206, pp. 6268.
Nagahanumaiah, B. Ravi and N.P. Mukherjee,
(Sept. 2003), - "Tool Path Planning for Investment
Casting of Functional Prototypes/Production
Molds," National Conference on Investment
Casting, CMERI, Durgapur.
Shuhua Yue, Guoxiang Wang, Fei Yin, Yixin
Wang, Jiangbo Yang, (2003)- Modeling of
177

178

MMCs: A New Era of Advanced Materials

a Review
Hemant Panchal
Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Vadodara, Gujarat (INDIA)
E-mail: hnp.15.met@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) materials, a vast group of material, is applicable in many area of daily life for quite some
time. Often it is not realized that the application makes use of composite materials. These materials are produced in situ
from the conventional production and processing of metals. Materials like cast iron with graphite or steel with high carbide
content, as well as tungsten carbides, consisting of carbides and metallic binders, also belong to this group of composite
materials. Aluminium is most popular among all other metals for matrix material named Aluminium Metal Matrix Composite (AMMC) which generates other of highly advanced materials called light weight metals having high strength to weight
ratio. Substantial progress in the development of light metal matrix composites has been achieved in recent decades, so that
they could be introduced into the most important applications. Especially in the automotive industry and aerospace engineering, MMCs have been used commercially in forms with appreciably all good properties. This paper gives an idea about
this great innovation of advance material (MMCs) which almost changed recent scenario of engineering world.
KEY WORDS:
Matrix Composites; Aluminium;

Fiber; Whisker; Squeeze Casting;
INTRODUCTION
The term Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) includes various types of system, and also a wide
range of scales and microstructures. Among all,
reinforcing composites by ceramic constituent is,
although there are exceptions to this and MMCs
can be taken to include materials reinforced with
relatively soft and/or compliant phases, such as
graphitic flakes, carbide particles, etc. MMC types
are commonly subdivided according to whether the
reinforcement is in the form of (a) particles, which
are at least approximately equiaxed, (b) short fibers
(with or without a degree of alignment) or (c) long
aligned fibers. In this article, a brief overview is
given different area of processing. These innovative materials open up unlimited possibilities for
modern material science and development; dependent on the application, the characteristics of
MMCs can be designed into the material. From this
potential, metal matrix composites fulfill all the
desired conceptions of the designer. If the conventional materials do not fulfill the current demands
of properties and standards or solution of problem,
then MMC material group becomes interesting for
use as constructional and functional materials.
However, the technology of MMCs is in competition with other modern material technologies, for
example powder metallurgy. The advantages of the
composite materials are only realized when there is
a reasonable cost performance relationship in the
component production.
The possibility of combining various material systems (metal nonmetal) gives the opportunity for
unlimited variation. The properties of these new
materials are basically determined by the properties
of their single components. The reinforcement of
metals can have many different objectives. The
reinforcement of light metals (such as Al, Mg)
opens up the possibility of application of these materials in areas where weight reduction has first
priority. Besides light weight property, there are
other so many properties can be achieved by composite materials, viz:
179

Increase in creep resistance at higher temperatures compared to that of conventional alloys,

Increase in yield strength and tensile strength
at room temperature and above while maintaining the minimum ductility or rather
toughness,
Increase in fatigue strength, especially at
higher temperatures,
Improvement of corrosion resistance,
Improvement of thermal shock resistance,
Reduction of thermal elongation.
Increase in Youngs modulus, etc.
For other applications different development objectives are given, which differ from those mentioned
before. For example, in medical technology, mechanical properties, like extreme corrosion resistance and low degradation as well as biocompatibility are expected. Although increasing development activities have led to system solutions using
metal composite materials, the use of especially
innovative systems, particularly in the area of light
metals, has not been realized.
The reason for this is insufficient process stability
and reliability, combined with production and
processing problems and inadequate economic
efficiency. Application areas, like traffic engineering, are very cost orientated and conservative and
the industry is not willing to pay additional costs
for the use of such materials. For all these reasons
metal matrix composites are only at the beginning
of the evolution curve of modern materials. Metal
matrix composites can be classified in various
ways. One classification is the consideration of
type and contribution of reinforcement components
in particle-, layer-, fiber- and penetration composite materials. Fiber composite materials can be
further classified into continuous fiber composite
materials (multi- and monofilament) and short fibers or, rather, whisker composite material. (Karl
Ulrich Kainer, 2006)
TYPES OF MMCs
MMCs can be divided into various categories
based on the reinforcements primarily involved and
associated issues related to processing - particularly the specifics of chemical compatibility, as in
figure 1.
Metal Matrix CompoMacro Composites/

Structural CompoStructural
Laminates
Micro Composites
Sandwich Particle
Structure Reinforced
Fiber Reinforced
Dispersion Large
Strengthen Particles
Discontinues
Fiber (Short)
Continues
Fiber
Hybrid
Random
Aligne
d
Fig. 1 Classification of Metal Composite Material
Fig. 2 Scematic representation of different types of

MMCs
Particulate MMCs
As we can see from classification of the composite
materials (fig. 1), the micro composite materials
can further classifies into two main division asDispersion Strengthens
In this composite material we add fine particles to
the matrix materials. When the load is applied to
this composite the dislocation lines will developed
which then pass through the composite. In the dispersion strengthen composite materials, the binding
of the particles is not desired & hence no binder
used during manufacturing of same. The load applied to the composite is shared by the particles
which ultimately increase the overall strength of
the composite.
Particle (or) Particulate Reinforced Composite
Particle (or) particulate composite can be defined
180

as, A material consisting of one (or) more constituents suspended in the matrix of another material.
These particles are either metallic (or) nonmetallic.Here in this type of composite the particles are bind together by use of binders. Hence if
we apply the load which will be share by the particles it self. Since the dislocation movement is
again hindered by particles, the strengthening will
achieve depending on particle size & the binding
quality.
The few main difference between the dispersion
strengthen and particle reinforced composites are
as listed below,
elastic properties of the matrix & particles.

Particulate MMC is developed and used for different industrial applications. While these are often
focused on Al alloy matrices, Ti-, Fe- and Mgbased systems are also of interest. The particulate
is most commonly SiC or Al2O3, but others (TiB2,
B4C, SiO2, TiC, WC, BN, ZrO2, W, etc) have been
investigated. Chemical reaction during processing
can occur in some cases. Silicon carbide can be
particularly problematic in Al- and Ti-based
MMCs.
From classification of the composite materials (fig.

1), the micro composite materials can further classifies into two main division as-
In dispersion strengthen composite, the particles are not bind by use of binder which is
not true in case of particle reinforced composite materials,
In dispersion strengthen composite, the particle size is some what finer than that of the
particle reinforced composite materials. In later the particle size is not less than 1 micron &
volume fraction is about 20 to 30 per cent by
weight in given matrix
In dispersion strengthen composite, the load is
not shared by the particle which is wrong
statements in case of particle reinforced composite materials.
The properties of particle reinforcing composite

materials depending on,
Particle size, i.e., particles should be equiaxed

for better bonding. Volume faction of reinforcing phase, i.e., higher the volume fraction better the properties of the composite
Distribution of reinforcing phase, i.e., it should
be uniform for good properties
Bonding between particle to particle as well as
between particles & matrix
The importance of matrix phase in particle reinforced composite materials is intermediate between
Dispersion Strengthen composite materials & fiber
reinforced composite materials where its only
function is to transmit the load to the reinforcing
fiber which are the primary load bearing constituent. In particle reinforced composite materials, the
matrix & dispersed particle share the load. Microstructurally, particulate reinforced composite continue where at same time the dispersion strengthen
composite material leave off. Strengthening of particle reinforced composite occurs initially when the
dispersed particles restrict the matrix deformation
by mechanical restraint. The magnitude of restraint
is unknown & complex, but it is a function of the
Fiber MMCs
Continues Fiber Composite

Several long fiber MMCs systems have been investigated and some have been used in certain applications. However, as a consequence of processing
difficulties and of constraints on ductility and
toughness, this usage has in general remained limited. The term multifilament refers to relatively
small diameter (~5-30 m diameter) fibers, which
are flexible enough to be handled as tows or bundles. These can be woven, braided, filament wound
etc. The materials concerned include carbon, SiC
and various oxides. Other multifilaments are in
common use, but most are either unable to survive
the elevated temperatures involved in MMC production (eg polymeric and organic fibers) or are of
limited interest for MMCs because of relatively
poor mechanical properties such as stiffness or
creep resistance (eg glass fibers). Multifilament
MMCs can be produced by melt infiltration, although problems can arise with unidirectionally
aligned fibers if applied melt pressure transverse to
the fiber axis brings them into close contact so that
the melt is unable to penetrate
The fiber having generally aspect ratio (l/d) is 20 to
100 times. The continuous fiber composites are
those in which the fiber length is more than 20 to
100 times than its critical length (lc). Such composite materials have unidirectional properties; refer
fig. 3(a).
Discontinues (short) Fiber Composite
The discontinuous or short fibers have aspect ratio
less than 20 to 100 times than its critical length (lc).
These type of composite can be classified into two
categories, -
181

Cermets
a)
Aligned short fibers composite; has the short

fiber oriented in one direction only which
pusses unidirectional properties, refer fig.
3(b).
b) Random short fibers composite; has the short

fiber oriented in random directions which give
all directional properties refer fig. 3(c).
c)
Hybrid; Hybrid name is it self indicating that it

is the mixer of more than one type of constituents. Generally the hybrid composite consist
more than one type of reinforcing constituent,
e.g., glass fiber and polymer fiber, etc
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3. Different types of fiber reinforced composites: (a)

Aligned Long Fibers, (b) Aligned Short Fibers and (c)
Random Short Fibers
Short fiber MMCs first attracted widespread attention in the mid-1980s, with the development of Al
diesel engine pistons selectively reinforced with
short alumina (for example ICIs Saffil) fibers.
Other rather similar (alumino-silicate) fibers have
also been employed for applications of this type.
These fibers have a fine-grained polycrystalline
microstructure. Typical fiber diameters are a few
microns and they are initially produced in lengths
of several hundred microns. Components are commonly produced by melt infiltration
The so-called whiskers which result when fine,
slender fibers are produced as monocrystals created
considerable interest as early as the 1960s. Whiskers are usually1 m in diameter, with aspect ratios
of up to several hundred. Their tensile strengths are
often very high. While they were originally expensive to manufacture, relatively cheap methods for
the production of SiC whiskers have been developed. However, while excellent properties have
been reported for whisker-reinforced MMCs, work
in this area tailed off in the early 1990s and there
has been little commercial exploitation. This is
largely a consequence of handling difficulties.
These commonly arise with very fine fibers, which
tend to form tenacious ball-like structures and are
difficult to orient in a controlled way. However, the
most significant problem of this type concerns perceived health hazards. Whiskers and whisker fragments in the slightly sub-micron size range can
become airborne very readily and are likely to
reach and damage the lungs.
Cermets, which have microstructures comprising

an assembly of ceramic particles bonded together
by a small proportion of a metallic phase, can be
regarded as a special type of MMC. A key to the
success of cermets in industrial applications concerns their ease of processing. They are commonly
produced by blending of ceramic and metallic
powders, followed by liquid phase sintering. Typically, the ceramic particles are 110 m in diameter. Blending involves a milling operation which
tends to coat the ceramic particles with metal. This
is usually followed by cold isostatic pressing or
injection moulding to give the required shape and
then holding at a suitable temperature under vacuum, inert gas or hydrogen. During liquid phase
sintering, particle rearrangement occurs, driven by
capillarity forces. These may effect densification,
depending on the degree of wetting. In some cases,
notably for the oxide-based cermets, it is often necessary to impose uniaxial or hydrostatic pressure
in order to eliminate porosity. This is reminiscent
of melt infiltration processes used to form MMCs,
but the very high ceramic content and fine scale of
the structure means that in the absence of wetting
very high pressure might be necessary to ensure
that liquid flowed into all the cavities.
PROCESSING OF MMCs
A flow chart of the routes currently used for MMC
processing is given in Fig. 4. The individual composite production operations are briefly described
in 3 of this article. As depicted in Fig.4, processes
can be classified according to whether the matrix is
in the liquid, solid or vapor phase while it is being
combined with the reinforcement. The individual
composite production operations are briefly outlined below under these groupings.
Metal Matrix Composite Processing Techniques
Solid
State
Method
Liquid
State
Method
Powder Metal- Foil Diffulurgy Method sion Bonding
Duralcan
Process (Liquid Casting
Technique)
Reactive
Processing
Vapour
Phase
Method
In Situ
Method
Pressure Pressure
less Tech- Technique
nique
Injection
Tech-
Stir
Casting
Squeeze Casting
(Pressure Infiltration Technique)
Fig. 4 Classification of Metal Composite Material
182

Solid State Processing

a) Powder Blending and Consolidation
Blending of metallic powder with ceramic fibers or
particulate is a versatile technique for MMC production. This is usually followed by cold compaction, canning, evacuation, degassing and a high
temperature consolidation stage such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) or extrusion. Achieving a homogeneous mixture can be difficult, particularly
with fibers. A feature of much powder route material is the presence of fine oxide particles, usually
present in Al-MMCs in the form of plate-like particles a few tens of nm thick, constituting about
0.05-0.5vol%, depending on powder history and
processing conditions. This fine oxide tends to act
as a dispersion strengthening agent and often has a
strong influence on the matrix properties, particularly at high temperature. MMCs produced by
powder blending are commonly extruded. This can
generate alignment of fibers parallel to the extrusion axis, but often at the expense of progressive
fiber fragmentation. The degree of fiber fracture
decreases with increasing temperature and decreasing local strain rate. Other microstructural features
of extruded MMCs include the formation of ceramic-enriched bands parallel to the extrusion axis.
The mechanism of band formation is still unclear,
but it appears to involve the concentration of shear
strain in regions where ceramic particles or fibers
accumulate. However, extrusion of consolidated
MMCs, such as castings, can reduce the level of
clustering and inhomogeneities in the material. In
general, the microstructural changes occurring in
MMCs during forming processes are explicable in
terms of local temperatures, stresses and strain
rates. Processes such as rolling and forging involve
high deviatoric strains being imposed quickly, and
hence can cause damage such as cavitation, particle
fracture and macroscopic cracking, particularly at
low temperature. Very high temperatures, and the
possibility of matrix liquation, on the other hand,
can cause macroscopic defects such as hot tearing
or hot shortness. In contrast to these forming
processes, Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) generates
no deviatoric stresses (volume averaged, i.e. almost
equal stress from all directions) and so is unlikely
to give rise to either microstructural or macroscopic defects. It is an attractive method for removing
residual porosity, which can include surfaceconnected porosity as long as some form of encapsulation is provided. It has been quite widely applied to MMCs. However, it can be very difficult to
remove residual porosity in regions of very high
ceramic content, such as within particle clusters,

and the absence of any macroscopic shear stresses
means that such clusters are not readily dispersed
during HIP. Furthermore, the oxide skins which
normally coat powder particles of aluminium or
magnesium are usually left intact by HIP, leading
to poor inter-particle bonding.
b) Diffusion Bonding of Foils
Monofilament-reinforced MMCs are mainly produced by the foil-fiber-foil (diffusion bonding)
route or by the evaporation of relatively thick layers of matrix material onto the surface of the fiber.
Work in this area is very much oriented towards
titanium and titanium-based matrices. Fortunately,
titanium diffusion bonds to itself very readily,
mainly because it dissolves its own surface oxide
layer at elevated temperature in controlled atmospheres. Titanium reinforced with long fibers is
commercially produced by the placement of arrays
of fibers between thin metallic foils, often involving a filament winding operation, followed by hot
pressing. One of the main problems lies in avoiding
excessive chemical reaction at the fiber/metal interface. Additions of Al, Mo or V slow the kinetics of
interfacial reaction, but also tend to make the rolling of thin foils more difficult. In general, the foilfiber-foil route is cumbersome and obtaining high
fiber volume fractions and homogeneous fiber distributions is difficult unless special techniques are
used. Also, the process becomes difficult when the
objective is to produce parts of complex shape.
Diffusion bonding has also been used to fabricate
laminates composed of alternate layers of metal
and ceramic.
Liquid State Processing
a) Pressure less technique
(i) Duralcan Process (Liquid Casting Techniqe);
in which the ceramic particles and aluminium are
melted and mixed followed by addition of proprietary treated ceramic particles. The melt is stirred
just above the liquidus temperature generally
between 600 and 700 C and then molten bath
shaped into either extrusion blanks or foundry ingot or rolling booms or rolling ingots. The Duracan
process of making particulate composites by liquid
metal casting involves the use of around 10 m
particles. Too small particles, e.g., less than 4 m,
will results in the very large interface region and
thus very viscous melts.
183

(ii) Reactive Processing; which is can be useful

for certain reactive metal alloys as Al-Mg to infiltrate ceramic perform. For an Al-Mg alloy, the
process takes place between 750 and 1000 C in a
nitrogen rich atmosphere. Several processes have
been developed in which constituents are brought
together under conditions such that a chemical
reaction occurs while the mixture consolidates. In
some such processes, liquid metal is introduced
and progressively oxidises. For example, the directional oxidation of aluminium is exploited in several processes patented under the Dimox tradename. Other processes consist of blending several
elemental powders, and reacting these by heating
with transient formation of a liquid phase; one important class of such processes are the XD and
Lanxide PrimaxTM processes.
(iii) Injection Technique; in which the molten
metal is prepare in crucible. The ceramic particles
are added by hollow tube into bath along with the
inert gas. After fix amount of particle added, the
inert gas supply is further supply to agitate the bath
for predetermine time. Then this melt is casted in
to foundry ingots.
(iv) Stir Casting; this technique is more or less
similar to the previous technique with the exception here that the agitation method. In this method,
the agitation is done by means of the impeller. The
inert gas purging may done for removing the entrapped gas bubbles. This is very common method
to make MMCs. This method involves stirring the
melt with solid ceramic particles and then allowing
the mixture to solidify. This can usually be done
using fairly conventional processing equipment and
can be carried out on a continuous or semicontinuous basis. A concern is to ensure that good
particle wetting occurs. Difficulties can arise from
the increase in viscosity on adding particles or,
especially, fibers to a melt. However, this increase
is typically only by a factor of 2 or so with up to
about 20 volume percentage particulate, provided
the particles remain well-dispersed. This is reduced
when solidification is rapid, both as a result of a
refinement in the scale of the structure and because
there is a critical growth velocity, above which
solid particles should be enveloped rather than
pushed. Stir casting usually involves prolonged
liquid-ceramic contact, which can cause substantial
interfacial reaction.
b) Pressure technique
(i) Squeeze Infiltration (pressure infiltration); in
which liquid metal is injected into the interstices of
an assembly of short fibers, usually called a preform. Commonly, the preform is designed with a
specific shape to form an integral part of a finished
product in the as-cast form. Preforms are commonly fabricated by sedimentation of short fibers from
liquid suspension. The process can also be adapted
for production of particulate MMCs. In order for
the preform to retain its integrity and shape, it is
often necessary for a binder to be used. Various
silica- and alumina-based mixtures have been popular as high temperature binders. The binding agent
is normally introduced via the suspension liquid, so
that it deposits or precipitates out on the fibers,
often forming preferentially at fiber contact points,
where it serves to lock the fiber array into a strong
network.
The pressure required for infiltration can readily be
calculated on the basis of the necessary meniscus
curvature and corrections can be made for
melt/fiber wetting. In practice, substantial pressures
in the MPa range are likely to be needed. In most
cases, fibers do not act as preferential crystal nucleation sites during melt solidification. One consequence of this is that the last liquid to freeze, which
is normally solute-enriched, tends to be located
around the fibers. Such prolonged fiber/melt contact, often under high hydrostatic pressure and with
solute enrichment, tends to favor formation of a
strong interfacial bond. Other forms of defect are,
however, common in squeeze infiltrated composites. These include porosity and local variations in
fiber content and in average alloy composition.
Vapor State Processing
Several deposition techniques are available namely; physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), immersion plating, electro
plating, spray deposition, etc. One of above method
is explained below.
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
All PVD processes are relatively slow, but the fastest is evaporation involving thermal vaporization
of the target species in a vacuum. An evaporation
process used for fabrication of monofilament reinforced Ti involves passing the fiber through a region having a high vapor pressure of the metal to
be deposited, where condensation takes place so as
to produce a thick surface coating. The vapor is
produced by directing a high power (~10 kW) electron beam onto the end of a solid bar feedstock.
Alloy composition can be tailored, since differences in evaporation rate between different solutes
become compensated by changes in composition of
184

the molten pool formed on the end of the bar, until

a steady state is reached in which the alloy content
of the deposit is the same as that of the feedstock.
A further point worthy of note is that there is little
or no mechanical disturbance of the interfacial region; this may be of significance when the fibers
have a diffusion barrier layer, or a tailored surface
chemistry. Typical deposition rates are ~5-10
m/min. Composite fabrication is usually completed by assembling the coated fibers into a bundle and consolidating this in a hot pressing or HIP
operation. A very uniform distribution of fibers is
produced in this way, with fiber contents of up to
about 80%. The fiber volume fraction can be accurately controlled via the thickness of the deposited
coatings and the fiber distribution is always very
homogeneous.
In Situ Methods
In in-situ techniques, one form the reinforcement
phase in situ. The composite material is produced
in one step from an appropriate starting alloy, thus
avoiding the difficulties inherent in combining the
separate components as in typical composite
(i) Controlled unidirectional solidification; is a
classic example of in situ processing. Unidirectional solidification of the eutectic alloy can result in
one phase being distributed in form of the fibers or
ribbon in the other. One can control the fineness of
the distribution of the reinforcement phase by
simply controlling the solidification rate. The solidification rate in practice, however, is limited to
the range of 1-5 cm/h because of the need to maintain the stable growth front require higher temperature gradient.
(ii) The XDTM process; of Lockheed Martin, is
another in situ process that uses an exothermic
reaction between two components to produce third
component. Sometime such processing techniques
are referred to as the self propagating hightemperature synthesis (SHS) process. Specifically,
the XDTM process produces ceramic particle reinforced metallic alloy. Generally, a master alloy
containing rather high volume fraction of reinforcement is produce by the reaction synthesis.
This is mixed and remelted with the base alloy to
produce a desirable amount of particle reinforcement.
ALUMINIUM
(AMCs)
MATRIX
COMPOSITES
Amongst all other metal matrix composites, aluminum is the most popular matrix for the metal matrix composites (MMCs) as far as light weight application are concerned at no cost of strength. The
Al alloys are quite attractive due to their low density, their capability to be strengthened by precipitation, their good corrosion resistance, high thermal
and electrical conductivity, and their high damping
capacity. They offer a large variety of mechanical
properties depending on the chemical composition
of the Al-matrix. They are usually reinforced by
Al2O3, SiC, C but SiO2, B, BN, B4C, AlN may also
be considered. The aluminum matrices are in general Al-Si, Al-Cu, 2xxx or 6xxx alloys. As proposed by the American Aluminum Association the
AMCs should be designated by their constituents:
accepted designation of the matrix / abbreviation of
the reinforcements designation / arrangement and
volume fraction in percentage with symbol of type
(shape) of reinforcement. For example, an aluminum alloy AA6061 reinforced by particulates of
alumina, 22 % volume fraction, is designated as
"AA6061/Al2O3/22p"
AMCs. They are very attractive for their isotropic
mechanical properties (higher than their unreinforced alloys) and their low costs (cheap
processing routes and low prices of some of the
discontinuous reinforcement such as SiC particles
or Al2O3 short fibers).
Fabrication of the AMCs
There are many processes viable to fabricate
AMCs; they can be classified in: solid state, liquidstate and deposition processes.
In solid-state processes; the most spread method is
powder metallurgy route; it is usually used for high
melting point matrices and avoids segregation effects and brittle reaction product formation prone
to occur in liquid state processes. This method
permits to obtain discontinuously particle reinforced AMCs with the highest mechanical properties. These AMCs are used for military applications
but remain limited for large scale productions.
In liquid-state processes; one can distinguish the
infiltration processes where the reinforcements
form a preform which is infiltrated by the alloy
melt (1) with pressure applied by a piston
(squeeze-casting SQC) or by an inert gas (gas pressure infiltration GPI) and (2) without pressure. In
the last case, one can distinguish (a) the reactive
infiltration processes using the wetting between
reinforcement and melt obtained by reactive atmosphere, elevated temperature, alloy modification
or reinforcement coating (reactive infiltration) and
(b) the dispersion processes, such as stir-casting,
185

where the reinforcements are particles stirred into

the liquid alloy. Process parameters and alloys are
to be adjusted to avoid reaction with particles.
In deposition processes; droplets of molten metal
are sprayed together with the reinforcing phase and
collected on a substrate where the metal solidification is completed. This technique has the main advantage that the matrix microstructure exhibits
very fine grain sizes and low segregation, but has
several drawbacks: the technique can only be used
with discontinuous reinforcements, the costs are
high, and the products are limited to the simple
shapes that by obtained by extrusion, rolling or
forging.
SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION
Lots of development and research work has been
carried out in MMCs area, since a wide range
MMCs materials, which includes cermets, as well
as more conventional particle- and fiber-reinforced
metals are now in use. Different processing methods used to synthesize MMC materials and components depend on what types of matrix and reinforcement applied; the classification of these techniques have been done according to whether the
matrix is in the liquid, solid or gaseous state during
preparing the composite mixture during which,
matrix materials get combined with the reinforcement. All these routes follow various merits and
demerits as we can outline from above paper. Some
routes are more expensive than conventionally
used other routes. Stir-casting, injection techniques, etc are of minimum expense in which liquid metal (generally aluminium) handled while
reinforcement particles are added. Less expensive
routes help the people to synthesized MMCs in
large scale, commercially and economically.
MMCs made by different routes have their different importance, viz., in-situ particle generation
methods as well as squeeze casting methods which
produce MMCs with higher interfacial bond. Since
form decades back, it is general requirements of
scientists, researchers and engineers to full fill
more than one property criteria by different metal
and alloys. But now it is almost impossible by conventional metals and alloy. So it is understood that,
evolution and application in area of composite (especially that of MMCs) materials will increase and
this area of materials will stay relatively wider and
broader.
REFERENCES
Aghajanian, M.K., Rocazella, M.A., Burke, J.T.
and Keck, S.D. (1991), The Fabrication of Metal
Matrix Composites by a Pressureless Infiltration

Technique, J.Mat.Sci., vol.26 p.447-54.
Clyne, T.W. and Withers, P.J. (1993), An Introduction to Metal Matrix Composites. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge,
Clyne, T.W., R.W.Cahn and P.Haasen (1996),
Metallic Composite Materials, in Physical Metallurgy, Elsevier, p.2568-625.
Clyne, T.W. (2000), An Introductory Overview of
MMC Systems, Types and Developments, in Comprehensive Composite Materials, Vol.3: Metal
Matrix Composites, Elsevier, p.1-26.
Everett, R.K. (1991), Deposition Technologies for
MMC Fabrication, in Metal Matrix Composites:
Processing and Interfaces, Academic Press, p.10319.
Georghe, I. and Rack, H.J. (2000), Powder
Processing of Metal Matrix Composites, in Comprehensive Composite Materials, Vol.3: Metal
Matrix Composites, Elsevier, p.679- 700.
Gergely, V., Degischer, H.P. and Clyne, T.W.,
(2000), Recycling of MMCs and Production of
Metallic Matrix Composites, Elsevier, p.679- 700.
K.K. Chawla, Composite Materials-Science &
Engineering
Li, B. and Lavernia, E.J. (2000), Spray Forming
of MMCs, in Comprehensive Composite Materials, Vol 3: Metal Matrix Composites, Elsevier,
p.617-53.
Lloyd, D.J. (1994), Particle Reinforced Aluminium and Magnesium Matrix Composites, Int.
Mat. Rev., vol.39 p.1-23.
Lloyd, D.J. and I. Jin (2000), Melt Infiltration of
Metal Matrix Composites, in Comprehensive
Composite Materials, Vol.3: Metal Matrix Composites, Elsevier, p.521-54.
Mortensen, A. and Jin, I. (1992), Solidification
Processing of Metal Matrix Composites, Int. Mat.
Rev., vol.37, p.101-28.
Mortensen, A., Masur, L.J., Cornie, J.A. and Flemings, M.C. (1989), Infiltration of a Fibrous Preform by a Pure Metal, Metall. Trans., vol.20A,
p.2535-63.
Ward-Close, C.M. and Partridge, P.G. (1990), A
Fiber Coating Process for Advanced Metal Matrix
Composites, J. Mat. Sci., vol.25, p.4315-23.
Ward-Close, C.M., Robertson, J.G. and Godfrey,
S.P. (2000), Fabrication of Monofilamentreinforced Titanium, in Comprehensive Composite
Materials, Vol.3: Metal Matrix Composites, Elsevier, p.655-78
T.W.Clyne (2000), Foams, in Comprehensive
Composite Materials, Vol.3: Metal Matrix Composites, Elsevier, p.797-820.
186

Review Paper on use of Magnesium Alloy in

Automobile Industries
Vandana J. Rao (Assist. Prof.)
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department
vandana11866@yahoo.co.in
Sonam M. Patel (PG student)

smp22789@yahoo.com
Devang Mahant (PG student)

devang_mahant2005@yahoo.com
HISTORY
Magnesium was first isolated by Sir Humphrey
Davey in 1808. Magnesium was used as a
photographers flash powder and ribbon. Due to its
inflammability it was not used as an engineering
material. Magnesium is largely produced by
electrolysis of MgCl2. Carbon used as anode and
iron as a container becomes cathode. Mixer of
chloride (MgCl2 + KCl or MgCl2 + NaCl) is fused
and then electrolyzed by the current passes through
it. Chlorine been developed at the anode and Mg
discharged at cathode.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Magnesium combines with atmospheric oxygen
when heated at a temperature of 650C. This
reaction is exothermic in nature and leads into the
formation of nitrides by combination of nitrogen
from atmosphere. The nitrides formation occurs at
670C. Magnesium is attacked by most acids except
with hydrofluoric acid and alkalis. Magnesium and
its alloys attacked by Salin solutions, such as sea
water to a greater extent than aluminium and this
fact has led to the development of special alloys and
methods of coatings which have greatly improved
resistance to salt water corrosions. Magnesium
forms alloys with zinc, aluminium and copper which

have excellent casting qualities and physical
properties. Aluminium and zinc form binary and
ternary alloys with magnesium offers better resistant
to corrosion under all ordinary working conditions.
Magnesium about 0.3 % (1) has a pronounced effect
in improving resistance to corrosion.
INTRODUCTION
Magnesium has attractive properties including low
density, high specific strength, specific thickness,
superb
damping
electromagnetic
shielding
capacities, dent resistance, low toxicity, excellent
machinability, castability, etc. Magnesium alloys are
playing very important role in automotive, aircraft,
defense and electronic consumer products because
of its light weight and attractive engineering
properties. In automobile industry because of its best
strength to weight ratio magnesium alloys has its
own importance compare to other materials.
(Strength to weight nearly 1 for magnesium and
0.7 for steel)
Important goal of next generation vehicles is to be
reduction in weight to decrease the fuel consumption
and reduce the harmful emissions levels of
environmental pollution. For this, different
187

independent approaches are being made. Some of

them are (I) Increase the combustion efficiency by
the designing better engines, (II) Reduce the
frictions related losses using newer additives and
lubricants, (III) Improve the design of the vehicle,
(IV) Reduce the weight of the vehicle.
In the first three approaches the scope for major
development was found to be limited where as by
weight reduction, substantial saving fuel can be
achieved.(2)
As a thumb rule, it has been established that every
10 % reduction in rate will results in 6 8 %
decrease in fuel consumption. (3)
THE USE OF
AUTOMOTIVE
MAGNESIUM
IN
THE
Industry was first executed by Volkswagen

(Beetle) with about 25 Kg of magnesium
casting in the transmission housing of an
air-cooled engine. (4)
In 1996, Volkswagen/Audi started with the
880 gear box housing made of magnesium
alloys.
In Europe, magnesium is used as a
structural light weight material by other
leading manufacturers including Daimler
Chryster (Mercedes Benz), BMW, Ford and
Jaguar. (5)
Following table-1 indicate the weight reduction
obtained by replacing the existing Al and steel
components by Magnesium alloy.
Car seat
1.8
5
64
frame
Instrument
1.8
5
64
panel
Transfer
11.4
15.
28
case
6
Other applications of Magnesium include instrument
panels, intake many faults, cylinder head cover,
inner boot lid sections and steering components
which utilize more ductile AM50A and AM60B
alloys.
Producer of different while parts using Magnesium
are summarized in table 2.
Table.2 Producers of Magnesium alloy components
and car model (6, 7)
COMPONENTS
Engine block
Steering wheel frame

Seat frame
Instrument panel
Wheel rim
Cylinder head
Clutch case
Transmission case
Table.1 Possible weight reduction

Components
Magnesium
(kg)
Al (kg)
Steel (kg)
Iron (kg)
Weight
reduction
(%)
Previous Material
Engine
Door inner
Steering
wheel core
Steering
column
Lift gate
15
5.4
0.9
22
8.2
-
60
1.4
60
-
22-70
33
33
1.4
2.3
40
3.2
55
42
Lower crank case
PRODUCERS
AND
CAR MODELS
BMW, six cylinder
engine block made by
AJ62 (Mg-Al-Sr)
Ford, Chrysler, Toyota,
BMW, Lexus
GM, Mercedes Benz,
Lexus
GM, Chrysler, Audi,
Ford, Toyota, Century
Toyota, Alfa Romeo,
Porsche
Dodge raw, Honda city
turbo, Ford, Isuzu
Auto-ZAZ
Daeww,
Volvo motors, Alfa
Romeo
Volvo motors, AutoZAZ Daeww, Audi
Alfa Romeo, Chrysler
(Jeep)
188

Table.3 Different Magnesium Alloys and their

composition (8)
PHOTOGRAPHS OF MAGNESIUM ALLOY

IN AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY (10)
Table.4 Mechanical properties of Magnesium based

alloy (8)
Main casting alloy used in automotive applications

are AM series. (Mg, 5.6-6.4%Al, 0.26-0.5% Mn,
0.20%Zn) and AZ91 alloy (Mg, 9% Al, 1% Zn, up
to 0.2 % Mn). AX or AXJ series alloys are based on
1-3% Calcium addition. ZE41 alloys gives very
good ballistic tolerance hence used in military
helicopter. QE22 used for high temperature strength
properties. WE43 and WE54 (Mg, 5.1%Y, 3.25%
Nd, 0.5% Zr) shows excellent corrosion and creep
resistant properties. (9)
Table.5 Approximate price of Mg and its Alloys
189

Type of Material
Price
Commercially Pure
Magnesium
Various Magnesium and
its Alloys
CONCLUSION
200 -250 Rs. Per Kg

400-500 Rs. Per Kg
Demand for fuel economy and reduced emission

level in passenger vehicles on the driving forces
behind the expanding use of magnesium in
automobile industry. A 10% reduction in weight
results in a 6-8% reduction in fuel consumption. At
present magnesium alloys are used for
manufacturing body parts and chassis components.
AM and AZ series magnesium alloys are commonly
used in automobile applications because of their
good combination of room temperature strength and
ductility.
7.
Randy Beats, Lowrence Kopka, John

Allison etal. Fundamental research for the
magnesium power train cast component
(MPCC) Magnesium technology 2004
edited by Alan A. Leo, TMS (The minerals,
metals and materials society) 2004.
8. Manoj Gupta, Nai Mui Ling Sharon,
Magnesium, Magnesium Alloys and
Magnesium Composites pp.45, 51, 53.
9. Arun Boby, U.T.S Pillai and B C Pai,
Developments in Magnesium alloys for
transport applications An overview vol.
57, No.1, January 2011, pp. 29-37.
10. Mustafa Kemal Kulekci, Magnesium and
its alloys applications in automotive
industry, International Journal of Advance
Manufacturing Technology (2008) 39:851
865.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
E. Player, A note on magnesium alloy for

castings, Aircraft Engineering, July 1929,
pp 175-178.
Randy S Beats, Cam Tissington, X Xinmin
Zhang, Karl Kainer, Joy Petrillo, Mark
Verbrugge, Development outcomes from
the TMS 2007 Annual meeting magnesium:
Fundamental
research
Conference
Review, August JOM 2007.
E Agion, B Bronfin, H. Friedrich and 2
Rubinnevieh, The environmental impact
of new magnesium alloys in the
transportation
industries
Magnesium
technology 2004 edited by Alam A Luo,
TMS (The minerals, metals and materials
society) 2004.
Magnesium application in Automotive
industry
(2007)
http://www.anirsma.ru.mg/eng/03-2htm.
G. S. Cole, Issues that influence
magnesium use in the automotive
industry, Material Science Forum Vol.
419-422, 2003, pp: 43-50.
Eliezer D, Aghion E, Froes F. H. (1998)
Magnesium science and technology,
Adv. Mat. Performance 5: 201-202.
190

Application of Condition Monitoring on

Steam Turbine of Thermal Power Plant
A Case Study
Nilesh H. Pancholi
Indus Institute of Technology & Engineering, Ahmedabad.
nhpancholi@gmail.com
Ranvirgiri D. Goswami
M. L. Institute of Diploma Studies, Bhandu, Mehsana
ranvir_goswami@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
In thermal power plant, stoppage of steam generators and its auxiliaries (steam turbine, generator, condenser, coal and ash handling etc.)
results into the stoppage of entire plant, which in turn results in loss of productivity and profit in business. From economical and
operational point of view, it is desirable to ensure optimum level of system availability. In this paper application of condition monitoring in
thermal power plant (G.E.B.Gandhinagar, Gujarat - Steam Turbine) to have the better result-oriented solution - improve power generation
capacity, reduce the maintenance cost and implementation of maintenance problems is discussed . This paper describes the analysis of the
existing problem related to steam turbine and its solution through actual data collection, failure data analysis, decision-making and
different tests conducted on turbine and auxiliaries. The results carried out by condition monitoring, its comparison and suggestions for
maintenance of the steam turbine - critical equipment to ensure trouble free operation and optimize service life so as to improve uptime and
finally economic power generation is suggested.
KEY WORDS:
Condition Monitoring, Steam Turbine,

Maintenance, Thermal Power Plant
INTRODUCTION
Gandhinagar thermal power station is one of the most
prestigious power station of Gujarat Electricity Board, is
mainly constructed to meet with the Power need of North
Gujarat and to improve the voltage condition of the grid
system. This power station has taken shape in two phases.
First stage comprising of 2x 120 MW units for which the
construction work was started in the year 1974 and
completed within a record period of 3.5 years. Similarly
during stage-II 2 units of 210 MW were added to this
thermal power plant from 1992 and are running at full
load without any problem.
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM
Different major problems identified during operation,

maintenance and investigation are as under:
During running of the TG set, frequent leakages from

turbine casing parting planes are observed. Also water
found leakage from all paddle wheel assemblies of
TG set. Occasionally turbine casing expansion bellow
is getting cracked and requires frequent repairing.
Problem of low primary oil pressure in steam turbine
and high moisture content in the turbine oil.
The water leakage in IP/LP turbine, front and rear
paddle wheels. It was noticed when the matting
surfaces was disturbed.
In both the units frequent leakages are observed from
valve cover joints and require frequent replacement.
Excessive erosion on inlet edge of LP rotor blades of
last stages.
The vibration level of the bearing No.8 at exciter end
is found as high as 150 microns.
Corrosion in the steam turbine during idle position.
The serious damage can occur in steam turbines as a
result of water induction and corrosion in idle
turbines.
The failure of IP inlet expansion bellow is observed
in damaged in every O/H.
191

In HP Nozzle box, all the blades have heavy erosion

at the outlet end in every over hauling, therefore it
was replaced in each over hauling.
For plant- II the major reasons for the shutdown / Faults in

turbine are as shown in Table 2.
DATA COLLECTION
The number of outages of unit-I & II along with the major
reasons for the turbine with detail can be carried out and
they are summarized as follows:
Table 2. Plant II Reasons for Fault in Turbine

Sr
No
Summary of Plant I
1.
Total shutdown duration :4,580.4 hrs

For planed overhauling work :2,848.09 hrs
Shutdown time for forced (unexpected)
Maintenance: 1,732.31hrs
Shutdown time due to stoppage of turbine:
801.87 hrs
2.
3.
4.
5.
For plant- I the major reasons for the shutdown / Faults in

turbine are as shown in Table 1.
6.
.
Table 1. Plant I Reasons for Fault in Turbine.

8.
Sr
No.
Reason
No. of
Faults
Occurred
1.
Machine tripped due to suspected

malfunctioning during emergency
governor test.
2.
Machine stopped due to low vacuum

problem and Overhauling started.
Machine stopped due to turbine

problem.
Machine stopped due to steam leakage
near IP casing.
Machine stopped due to IP rotor front
side of turbine steam leakage
problems earlier continuous.
Outage Continued (due to IP rotor
front side gland leakage in turbine).
Machine stopped due to turbine IP
front side steam leakage.
Machine stopped due to turbine IP
front side steam leakage.
Machine stopped due to High turbine
vibration.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Summary of Plant II
Maintenance: 1,580.36 hrs

Shutdown time due to stoppage of turbine :
354.86 hrs
Total shutdown duration : 2,258.82 hrs

For planed overhauling work:678.46 hrs
Shutdown time for forced (unexpected)
No. of
Faults
Occurred
Reason
Machine tripped on turbine "thrust
bearing failure" protection.
Machine tripped due to condenser
problem.
Machine tripped on thrust bearing
pressure high.
Machine is stopped due to front
condenser bellow burst out.
Machine stopped due to H2 oil system
problem.
Machine tripped on thrust bearing fail
trip.
Machine tripped due to thrust bearing
fail port trip.
Machine tripped due to boiler tube
puncture LTSH zone.
FAILURE
DATA
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
ANALYSIS
AND
Rectification Problems of 120 MW Steam Turbine IP

Casing and High Turbine Vibration and Eccentricity
The Problem of 120 MW Steam Turbine IP Casing and
the machine are running with very low vibration levels.
Rectification: - The IP casing was brought to TG factory

in Baroda, where the inlet and exhaust halves were
separated and extensive NDT and physical measurements
performed.
The deformation measurements recorded as follows:
1
1
1
Inlet Gland bore quality up to 6.8 mm

Outlet Gland bore quality up to 1 .4 mm
Liner grooves quality up to 6.3 mm.
Nozzle ring axial shift by 2.1 mm
Axial offset in Gland CS1rrier grooves up to 2.8
mm
Axial offset in Diaphragm grooves up to 0.5 mm
The Problem of High Turbine Vibration and

Eccentricity
192

Experimental Setup for Vibration Measurement for

turbine rotor due to the high speed, increase in clearances
between bearing and rotor etc, is arranged. The vibration
pickups are used at seven different locations to measure
the vertical, horizontal, and axial direction.
This should be placed and mounted carefully to have the
better result with accuracy and the outputs from these
pickups are to be supplied to central computer system.
This will enable to measure and storage of data related to
turbine rotor vibration.
Excessive Erosion on Inlet Edge of LP Rotor Blades of
Last Stages
In order to avoid such problem it is recommended to
check and ensure the following.
Passing of exhaust hood spray valves must be checked and
it must be ensured that they are not passing during
operation of the set.
Condition of nozzles of exhaust hood spray must be
checked for damages / detects etc. and it must be
ensured that atomized spray emanates from them.
Operating parameters of the unit must be checked for
abnormalities if any.
LP heaters no. 1 must be checked for flooding
resulting in flow of condensate to LP turbine thus
casing excessive erosion of blades.
Valve if any provided on drip line connecting LP
heater no. 1 with the flash tank must be checked and its
proper functioning must be ensured besides ensuring
that this drip line is not chocked
Problem of Low Primary Oil Pressure in Steam
Turbine
It is always recommended to remove supply ring from its
position before lifting mop casing upper half to avoid such
problem.
Preventing Corrosion in Idle Turbines
This is prevented by resorting to dry air preservation for
exchanging the air with high relative humidity inside
steam turbine by the dry air during the long idle periods. It
is recommended to resort to dry air preservation of steam
turbine internals if the idle period is of 1 week or more.
Healthiness of Free Standing LP Rotor Blades of
Steam Turbines
In order to avoid such problem in future it is
recommended during capital overhaul: - (1) Crack
detection in freestanding blades of LP rotor stages by

MPI. (2)Measurement of natural frequency of all blades of
freestanding stage of LP rotor in case there had been
instances of poor water chemistry during operation of the
set. The measurement of natural frequency of these blades
is done by using technological pieces after removing
existing camping pieces. Thereafter new clamping pieces
are to be fitted in position. Necessary advance planning
may be done in this regard.
SCOPE
OF
CONDITION
MONITORING
TECHNIQUES ON TURBINE AND AUXILIARIES
The scope and selection of condition monitoring
techniques for turbine and auxiliaries are given in Table 3.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Main reasons for low power generation
The power generation of the unit I and II was less during
last one year due to the following reasons / problems: When vacuum falls below 625 mm and 557 mm of Hg.
Loss in vacuum will increase exhaust hood temperature.
Further increase in exhaust hood temperature and loss of
vacuum will trip the turbine at 125C and 557mm of Hg
respectively.
When turbine running at 3000 rpm at low load for
longer period or without synchronies and steam is
entering the condenser through common drain header.
The turbine vibrations are high when there is sudden
change in steam inlet temperature, pressure and high
eccentricity.
When lubrication oil temperature too high or too low
after oil coolers destroying of oil film and gland sealing
pressure temperature too high or too low.
High negative differential expansion when continuous
running of turbine at very low load with low reheat
temperature.
If turbine over speeds, turbine is likely to get destroyed
causing serious damage, to men and machinery in the
vicinity.
Bearing failure and turbine failure will result in case of
operation for long periods at high bearing temperature.
Turbine trip in case of high or low thrust pressure and
low lubrication oil pressure. If eccentricity increases
above the permissible value, trip the turbine with
immediate vacuum breaking.
The ideal time period of the steam turbine unit is
comparatively more than its regular outage breakups.
The number of outage breakups is more of the steam
turbine unit therefore maintenance cost is increased.
193

UT
Replica
Hardness
DPT
MPI
X
X
X
X
X
Equipments
V.I
Sr.
No
D. C
Table 3. Different Condition Monitoring Techniques Useful on

Different Equipments
Rotor
Rotor bore
Gland area
Journal
Disc
Lacing Wire
Satellite Strips
Key Ways
Turbine casing
Casing
Casing welds
Inlet nozzle
chamber
Flanges
Parting plane
fasteners
Turbine internals
Liner
Diaphragms
Gland Housing
Steam Flow Path
Blades
Overall surface
Tangential/
Axial Blade
Blade To Blade
Attachment Hub
Area
Stationary
Blades
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Outage break-up of unit I and II

The Table 5 shows the number of outage break-up of unitI and II
Table 5. Outage Break-up of Unit- I and II
Unit
X
X
X
X
1
47.32
II
1
11.48
Total
Forced
Reserve
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
1
1.10
14
64.72
1
0.07
16
20.72
No.
%
Planned
12
16.29
14
9.17
X
X
Planned
forced
reserve
working
Period
X
Unit I
X
X
Fig. 1 Outage Break-Up of Unit I
ANALYSIS BASED ON PRESENT MAINTENANCE

SYSTEM
Planned
forced
From the analysis carried out (based on the data collected

from the company), the data related to maintenance can be
summarized for plant I and II as below in Table 4.
reserve
working
Period
Table 4. Analysis of Present Maintenance

Unit II
PARAMETER
Total shutdown duration
(hrs)
For planed overhauling
work (hrs)
Shutdown time for forced
(unexpected) maintenance
(hrs)
Shutdown time due to
stoppage of turbine (hrs)
PLANT-I
PLANTII
4,580.4
2,258.82
2,848.09
678.46
1,732.31
1,580.36
801.87
354.86
Fig. 2 Outage Break-Up of Unit II
CONDITION
MONITORING
SYSTEM
SUGGESTED FOR STEAM TURBINE ROTOR
To measure the vibrations of turbine rotor due to the high
speed, increase in clearances between bearing and rotor
etc., the vibration measuring system is recommended as
the best suitable condition monitoring techniques. It will
be very much helpful to decide whether the system is
under control or not. The results (of vibration of rotor) are
tabulated in Table 6.
194

CONCLUSIONS
The thermal power plant performance can be improved by
only adopting good maintenance practices, where the
optimum use of men, materials and machines to keep the
plant in upstate, can also ensure its availability and
reliability. The application of systematically planned
condition monitoring programme is found very useful
concept in thermal power plant, which provides economic
maintenance as well as healthy condition of machine
without any major fault. Moreover, it provides
improvements in safety level, environmental integrity, etc.
Moreover, it can be concluded that the effectiveness of any
condition monitoring system can only be achieved if proper
selection of the condition monitoring techniques with
proper
Specification and proper simulation with the field
conditions is established. Here, it can be seen that the
vibration measuring techniques is the most useful and
efficient condition monitoring technique for the turbine
rotor. In addition to this, the other condition monitoring
techniques like temperature measurement, wear particle
test etc can also be useful.
In recent year, the improved diagnostic techniques have
become available and the condition of plant and
machinery can be monitored with sufficient accuracy and
consistency to enable maintenance in the thermal power.
Finally, it can be concluded that condition monitoring can
be effectively utilized for the thermal power plant - steam
turbine to meet the delivery schedules, improve power
generation capacity and reduce the maintenance cost.
Table 6. Comparative Performances of Expansion, Eccentricity

and Bearing Vibrations
Unit
Load
MW
Frequency
Hz
Expansion
Overall Casing
mm
Expansion
HP Differential
mm
Expansion
IP Differential
mm
Expansion
Vacuum
mm Hg
Eccentricity
HP
micron
IP
micron
Bearing. Vibrations
(control room)
Bearing.-1
micron
Bearing .-2
--do-Bearing .-3
--do-Bearing .-4
--do-Bearing .-5
--do-Bearing .-6
--do-Bearing .-7
--do-Casing temp.
c
HP Body
IP Body
Steam.
c
Parameter
MS Temp.
HRH Temp.
Result
Before
80
50.10
After
95
48.12
20.0
21.5
+2.6
+2.6
-0.6
-0.7
658
665
40
210
25
75
19
24
37
80
- 57
48 43 -
4
8
24
22
14
24
12
-
390
475
410
490
485
500
490
510
195

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are very much thankful to whole group of GEB Thermal
Power Station, Gandhinagar for giving us such a chance to
pursue our work related to topic.
REFERENCES
Baboo Ram and A.K.sinha Role of Vibration Analysis in
Condition Monitoring of Turbine/Generator, Steam Turbine
(500 MW) Erection Manual, KWU Design, Document TS-T108, BHEL, Noida.
Collacott, R.A. Mechanical Fault Diagnosis and Condition
Monitoring Chapman and Hall, London, ISBN 9780412129308,
1982.
Dhillon B.S. Engineering Design-A Modern Approach,
Richard Irvin, ISBN 9780256183122, 1995
Higgins, L.R. and Morri L.C. Maintenance Engineering
Handbook, Mc Graw Hill Company, ISBN 9780071394529,
2001
Mishra, R. C. and Pathak K. Maintenance Engineering and
Management, Prentice Hall and India Pvt. Ltd. Delhi, ISBN
8120317467, 4th Edition, 2006.
Prabhu B.S., Vibration Analysis of Machine Power Plant,
A.I.C.T.E Journal, 1993.
Sinha S. P., Scenario in Power Sector General Manager,
NTPC-Unchahar
Singh R. S., Maintenance Concept and Strategies in Power
Plants NTPC-Unchahar.Technical Training and Service
Manual, Gandhinagar Thermal Power Station, Gandhinagar,
2004
196

Stress Variation in Gasketed Flange Joint

During Bolt up and Operating Condition
Pushpak M. Patel
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, C.S.Patel Institute of Technology-Changa
Charotar University of Science and Technology (CHARUSAT)
pushpakpatel.me@charusat.ac.in
Piyush P. Gohil
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, C.S.Patel Institute of Technology-Changa
Charotar University of Science and Technology (CHARUSAT)
piyushgohil.me@charusat.ac.in
ABSTRACT
This paper presents behavior of the stress variation at the flange joint during bolt up and operating (internal pressure
loading) conditions. Gasket plays an important role in sealing performance of bolted flange joints. The use of gasket factors
plays an essential role in design of flanged joints. In this paper, the procedure to design reliable flanged joint are discussed.
KEY WORDS: Bolted flange joints; Gasket; Bolt up;

Operating condition.
FORCES ACTING ON A GASKET JOINT
INTRODUCTION
In order to ensure the maintenance of the seal

throughout the life expectancy of the assembly,
sufficient stress must remain on the gasket surface to
prevent leakage. The residual bolt load on the gasket
should at all times be greater than the hydrostatic end
force acting against it. The hydrostatic end force is
the force produced by the internal pressure which
acts to separate the flanges. Internal Pressure is
exerted against both the flange and the gasket.[3,7]
Flanged joints with gaskets are very common in

pressure vessel and piping systems, and are designed
mainly for internal pressure. These joints are also
used in special applications such as in nuclear
reactors and space vehicles.
Prevention of fluid leakage is the prime requirement
of flanged joints.[1]
Gaskets are used to create a static seal between two
stationary members of a mechanical assembly and to
maintain that seal under operating conditions which
may vary dependent upon changes in pressures and
temperatures.[2]
The investigation of flanged joints for ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) Section VIII (Div1), allowable stress compliance, flange rigidity and
additional investigation for gasket contact stress
under all loading conditions is necessary to confirm
the leak tightness of the assembly.
Fig 1:- Forces acting on a gasket flange joint
197

Step3
FUNCTIONAL PROOF
FLANGE CONNECTION
OF
Reliable function of a bolted flange

given when the required tightness
conditions are assured. In order to
proper function of a bolted flange
targeted strategy is necessary.
BOLTED
connection is
and strength
guarantee the
connection a
For the chosen construction and materials

tightness proof
strength proof (limitation of loads according
to codes, safety against failure) are carried
out for all
Service cases if necessary. If the
requirements are not met constructive
details have to be changed
(Flanges, bolts, gasket) and the proofs have
to be repeated.
Step 4
Qualified and controlled mounting of the bolted
flange connection taking into account the resulting
bolt load scatter for the strength requirement of the
bolts.
Step 5
Quality assurance and maintenance, development of
a database for the quality assurance and maintenance
of bolted flange connections.
DESIGN OF GASKETED FLANGE BOLT
JOINT [8,11,12]
Fig 2:- Functional Proof of Gasketed Flanged Joints

[5]
Step1
Determination of the real boundary conditions:
medium
tightness requirement
strength requirement
service loads
Step2
Selection of suitable construction and materials:
flanges and bolts (type, dimensions,

material)
gasket (type, dimensions, characteristics)
Fig 3:- Geometry of Flange Joint

Flange
B = Inside diameter of the flange = 406.4 mm
A = Outside diameter of the flange = 558.8 mm
t = Flange thickness = 44.45 mm
r = Hub radius = 9.525 mm
g0 = thickness of the hub at the small end = 19.05
mm
Spiral-wound Gasket
GOD = Gasket OD = 450.85 mm
198

The tangential-flange stress: ST < Sf
GID = Gasket ID = 412.75 mm
The radial-flange stress: SR < Sf

The combined stresses:
Bolting
C = bolt-circle diameter = 514.35 mm
Number of bolts = 16
0.5(SH + SR) < Sf

0.5(SH + ST) < Sf
The longitudinal-hub stress,

CONCLUSION
S =
From research carried out in the present work

observed that, during bolt up and operating
conditions all the stresses in a flange joint, lie within
the yield strength. Design calculations as per ASME
Section VIII, Division-1, indicated the flanged joint
is within acceptable levels.
Eq. (1)
The radial-flange stress,
S =
( .
Eq. (2)
REFERENCES
The tangential-flange stress,
Eq. (3)
Murali Krishna, M, Shunmugam, MS, and Siva

Prasad, N(2007). A study on the sealing
performance of bolted flange joints with gaskets
using finite element analysis, International Journal
of Pressure Vessels and Piping 84, pp 349-357.
RESULTS
Gasket Handbook ,Lamons Gasket Company.
S =
ZS
Table: 1 presents calculated flange stresses as per

ASME Section - VIII Div I.
Calculated
Flange
Stresses
Longitudinal
Hub Stress
Symbol
Flange
Seating
Stresses
(N/mm2)
Flange
Operating
Stresses
(N/mm2)
SH
197.08
41.03
58.31
12.14
47.35
9.92
127.70
31.085
122.22
25.475
Radial
SR
Flange Stress
ST
Tangential
Flange Stress
Combined 0.5(SH + SR)
Stresses
Combined 0.5(SH + ST)
Stresses
Guidelines for safe seal usage Flanges and

Gaskets, ESA / FSA Publication
Abid, M, and Nash, DH (2005). Structural strength:
Gasketed vs non-gasketed flange joint under bolt up
and operating condition, International Journal of
Solids and Structures.
Bartonicek, J, Kockelmann ,H, and Schoeckle,F
(2003). Tightness of Bolted Flange Connections
what does that mean, International Conference on
Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology.
Abid, M (2005). Determination of safe operating
conditions for gasketed flange joint under combined
internal pressure and temperature: A finite element
approach,
Allowable flange stress (Sf) = 137 Mpa

As per ASME Section - VIII Div I :
Kutz ,Myer (1998). Seal Technology- Mechanical

Engineers' Handbook, John Wiley & Sons.
The longitudinal-hub stress: SH < 1.5 Sf

Taylor ,BC(2004). Assessment of Appropriate
199

Pressure Vessel Flange Bolt Tension by Finite

Element Modelling
Gasket Design Criteria, Flexitallic.
Catalogue of Intermech Sealing Solutions Ltd.
Catalogue of Pressure Vessel Engineering Ltd
(ASME Vessel Code Calculations - Finite Element
Analysis)
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code SectionVIII, Div
1, Appendix 2.
Baker, JC (2009). Analysis of Bolting in Flanged
Connections,
Bartonicek, J, Manfred, S, and Schoeckle, F (2000).
Use of gasket factors in flange calculations,ASME
PVP Conference.
William, JK (2009).Bolted-Flange Joints and
Connections,
Patel, PM (2011). Design and Analysis of Gasketed
Flange Bolted Joint, Dissertation thesis of Masters
of Engineering (Gujarat University).
200

Design of Subsonic Wind Tunnel

Sharvil Shah
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan
shah sharvil74@gmail.com
Mitul Patel
mits.sam24@gmail.com
Er. Dharmendra Dubey

dubey.dharmendra@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Wind tunnel is a device used to test aero models, automobiles and building structures. It is used to give appropriate shape to
the structure. We calculated aerodynamic characteristics analytically for different models whereas wind tunnel can give
practical values and we wanted to know how this can be designed. We decided to design an open circuit low speed subsonic
suction type wind tunnel. Then, for a particular wind tunnel design the test section dimensions were defined according to the
model size and air speed requirement. Parameters and dimensions at different sections were found by standardized
equations like continuity and isentropic flow equations. We calculated boundary layer thickness of on the test section wall
for designed velocity to check the impact of it on the flow in the test section of our designed wind tunnel. . Also, we calculate
the boundary layer thickness in different velocities to ensure that the flow over the testing object in test section is stable for
all possible velocities.
KEYWORDS: Contraction Cone, Test Section, Diffuser, Honeycomb Structure, Fan

NOMENCLATURE
AR
A1
A2
A3
bh
b1
b2
d3
hh
h1
h2
ld
lh
l1
Diffuser to test section area ratio

Area of cross section of nozzle inlet
Test section cross section area
Cross section area of diffuser exit
Breadth of honeycomb cell
Breadth of nozzle cross section
Breadth of test section cross section
Diffuser End cross section diameter
Height of honeycomb cell
Height of nozzle cross section
Height of test section cross section
Diffuser section length
Honeycomb structure length
Total length of nozzle section
l2
l3
l11
l12
l13
kd
kex
kf
m1
Test section total length

Diffuser length
Length of honeycomb
Length of contraction(nozzle)
Length of settling chamber
Diffuser loss co-efficient
Expansion loss co-efficient
Friction loss co-efficient
Mass flow rate in nozzle
m2
Test section mass flow rate
m3
Mass flow rate in diffuser section
patm
Atmospheric air pressure
Pm
Motor power
201

p1
Pressure at inlet of nozzle
p2
Test section inlet pressure
r3
Radius of diffuser exit cross section
v1
Velocity at nozzle Inlet
v2
Velocity of flow in test section
INTRODUCTION
Wind tunnels were first proposed as a means
of studying vehicles (primarily airplanes) in free
flight. The wind tunnel was envisioned as a means
of reversing the usual paradigm: instead of the air's
standing still and the aircraft moving at speed
through it, the same effect would be obtained if the
aircraft stood still and the air moved at speed past
it. In that way a stationary observer could study the
aircraft in action, and could measure the
aerodynamic forces being imposed on the aircraft.
Later, wind tunnel study came into its own: the
effects of wind on manmade structures or objects
needed to be studied, when buildings became tall
enough to present large surfaces to the wind, and
the resulting forces had to be resisted by the
building's internal structure. Determining such
forces was required before building codes could
specify the required strength of such buildings.
Wind-tunnel testing was applied to automobiles,
not so much to determine aerodynamic forces but
more to determine ways to reduce the power
required to move the vehicle on roadways at a
given speed.
The airflow created by the fans that is entering the
tunnel is itself highly turbulent due to the fan blade
motion (when the fan is blowing air into the test
section - when it is sucking air out of the test
section downstream, the fan-blade turbulence is not
a factor), and so is not directly useful for accurate
measurements. The air moving through the tunnel
needs to be relatively turbulence-free and laminar.
To correct this problem, closely-spaced vertical
and horizontal air vanes are used to smooth out the
turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the
testing.
Due to the effects of viscosity, the cross-section of
a wind tunnel is typically circular rather than
square, because there will be greater flow
constriction in the corners of a square tunnel that
can make the flow turbulent. A circular tunnel
provides a smoother flow. The inside facing of the
tunnel is typically as smooth as possible, to reduce
surface drag and turbulence that could impact the
v3
atm
Flow velocity of diffuser exit

Diffuser angle
Atmospheric air density
Density at nozzle inlet
Test section inlet density
Flow density at diffuser exit
accuracy of the testing. Even smooth walls induce

some drag into the airflow, and so the object being
tested is usually kept near the center of the tunnel,
with an empty buffer zone between the object and
the tunnel walls. There are correction factors to
relate wind tunnel test results to open-air results.
One can look for following results from the wing
tunnel experiment:
Pressure measurements
Force and moment measurements
Flow visualization
We used to make air-craft models and gliders in
our Lab in Undergraduate Study. We also mounted
engine on couple of them and flew the models with
R/C remote. We also did wind tunnel practical as
our lab work. We were exited and curious about
designing a wind tunnel that can test the models
made by us. The test section, speed requirement
and some other basic specification were taken
considering this aim.
PARTS OF WIND TUNNEL
Most designs feature each of the five components
described below. The overall design creates highspeed, low-turbulence airflow through the test
section and allows researchers to measure the
resulting forces on the model being tested.
Importance of different parts is as below:
Settling Chamber - The purpose of the settling
chamber is to straighten the airflow.
Contraction Cone - The contraction cone takes a

large volume of low-velocity air and reduces it to a
202

small volume of high velocity air without creating

turbulence.
Test Section - The test section is where the test
article and sensors are placed.
Diffuser - The diffuser slows the speed of airflow
in the wind tunnel.
Drive Section - The drive section provides the
force that causes the air to move through the wind
tunnel.
Wind tunnels can be open or closed-loop. The
design influences whether or not the air is
recirculated in the tunnel.
Assumptions
Inlet velocity from the contraction cone is assumed
to be 0.02M which is almost zero.
Atmospheric air is considered as a perfect gas.
The air flow is isentropic.
Calculation
Test section area A2 = 0.75m 0.75m
WIND TUNNEL DESIGN

We set the requirements that will allow us to
design a wind tunnel that can be used to test
models at low subsonic speeds. The test section
was kept to be 0.75m 0.75m 1m. Maximum
airspeed in the test section is 0.5M. Now we know
the speed requirement in the test section. We also
know the atmospheric pressure, density and
temperature outside the wind tunnel. Notation for
different parts of wind tunnel is taken as
Contraction cone -1, Test Section-2 and Diffuser-3.
Using continuity and isentropic equations shown
below allows finding atmospheric parameters at
different locations in the wind tunnel.
A2 = 0.5625 m 2
r2 0.42m
Speed in the test section is 0.5M
= 170 m/s
Contraction cone, Atmospheric flow parameters

at contraction cone (section 1)
p1 1 atmosphere
Continuity Equation:
1.01325 10 N / m ,
5
m AV =constant
---------------- (1)
1 1.23kg / m3
For isentropic compressible flow,
Isentropic Flow Equation:
1 1 2 1
1
M
2
2
,
Density,
0 1 2
1
M

2
1
1
------------- (2)
2 1.088kg / m3
p1 1 2 1 p 0.8541105 N / m 2
1
M
2
p2
2
,
Pressure,
p 0 1 2 1
1
M
p
2
----------- (3)
Mach No,
M
a
From isentropic flow properties for

M=0.02,
A1
28.94
A
M=0.5,
A2
1.34
A
-------------------------- (4)
203

A1
A1
A
A2 A2
A
A1
21.6
A1 12.15m2
A2
,
,
S1 S2 3.48m , d1 3.84m
kd k f kex
,
A 1
kex kex ( ) R
AR
Length to diameter ratio for contraction cone is

1.25. (Mehta, R.) Therefore, contraction cone
length is going to be 4.8m.
Figure 1 Contraction cone Design
Figure1 explains how to draw the curve of the

contraction cone.
Honeycomb structure
Numbers of cells taken in any honeycomb structure
is generally 25,000. [4]. Are of the contraction
cone is 12.15 m2. Area of each cell will be
4.86*10-4m2 and Radius is going to be 0.012m.
Honeycomb length to diameter ratio is 6 to 8.
Therefore, length of honeycomb structure is going
to be 20cm.
Diffuser Section
Length of diffuser section is taken as 3 to 4 times
of the test section. [4]. Diffuser length is going to
be 9m. Diffuser loss co-efficient:
0.1033 0.023890
for 0o 1.5o
2
3
0.1709 0.1170 0.03260 0.001078
kex(circle) 0.0009076 4 0.00001331 5 0.00001345 6
for1.5o 5o
0.09661 0.04672
for 5o
After using different values of , the best value found

was 20 which give minimum expansion loss coefficient. With diffuser angle of 20, diffuser length is
9m. Trigonometric calculation gives 0.74m radius for
diffuser section. Hence, diffuser section area is 1.72m2.
Diffuser to test section area ratio is 3.05. From
historical data it is stated that the diffuser to test section
area ration is typically 2 to 3.
204

RESULTS
1 f
k f 1 2
AR 8sin
k f 0.25
kd 0.3118
From isentropic flow table for 0.5M (Yahya, H.,)
At
1.34
A
At At Ae

A Ae A
At area of test sec tion 0.5625
Ae
area of diffuser
1.71
Ae At Ae

A A At
1.34 3
Ae
4.02
A
Isentropic flow properties table suggest that mach
no is the diffuser section lies between 0.14M and
0.16M. For 0.147M interpolation method gives
velocity of 50m/s.
50m/s needed to be produced at the diffuser section
with the suction fan. Force and Power required for
that are:
p patm p3
p 0.015 105 N m2
*A3=12.9 KN;
F=
P = F*V3 = 171.12 hp
Result Table
CONCLUSION
205

Calculations at different stages and historical data

confirmed that the wind tunnel design is correct. At
the designed Mach number 0.5, corresponding to
velocity of 170.7m/s, the boundary layer thickness
ranges from 0.000048m to 0.0142m which is
acceptable. So, there is no need to diverge the test
section.
REFERENCES
Anderson, J., Fundamentals of Aerodynamics 3rd
Edition
Barlow, J., Rae, W., Pope, A., Low Speed Wind
Tunnel Testing
Mehta, R., Bradshaw, P., Design Rules F\for Small
Low Speed Wind Tunnels
Tsien, H., On the design of Contraction cone for a
Wind Tunnel
Yahya, S., Fundamentals of Compressible flow
206

Modeling of Defects Formation in HPDC

Machine with a Neural Network
Sharvil. Shah
shahsharvil74@gmail.com
Mitul Patel
mits.sam24@gmail.com
Er. Dharmendra Dubey

dubey.dharmendra@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC) is a complex process that results in casting defects if configured improperly. However,
finding out the optimal configuration is a non-trivial task as eliminating one of the casting defects (for example, porosity)
can result in occurrence of other casting defects. The industry generally tries to eliminate the defects by trial and error
which is an expensive and error -prone process. This paper aims to improve current modelling and understanding of defects
formation in HPDC machines. We have conducted conventional die casting tests with a neural network model of HPDC
machine and compared the obtained results with the current understanding of formation of porosity. While most of our
findings correspond well to established knowledge in the field, some of our findings are in conflict with the previous studies
of die casting.
KEYWORDS:
Artificial Neural Network, High

Pressure Die Casting, Porosity.
INTRODUCTION:
High Pressure Die Casting Machine (HPDC) is a
complex industrial system. In a typical die casting
machine (Fig. 1) the molten metal is poured in the
shot sleeve through a ladle. After the die is closed, a
movement of a plunger (piston) forces the metal
through the die resulting in that the moveable part
coincides with the fixed part. Some die casting
machines allow for this plunger movement to be
completed in four stages [9], however, typically it is
done in two stages only.
The plunger starts initially with a low velocity, then
the velocity increases during the pistons motion at
a change over position and the velocity is decreases
at the end when nearly all the liquid metal is
injected into the die.
Figure 1: A diagram of a die casting machine.
The metal is then injected through gate and runner

system at a high velocity and pressure. The die is
207

then opened and the solidified part is extracted out

by a robotic arm. The die is lubricated with typically
a liquid lubricant although there are some powder
lubricants available as well. The role of a lubricant
is to ease the extraction of casting and to avoid
soldering of the metal with the die surface.
produced. In high pressure die casting, it is hoped

that this problem can be minimized with the
application of pressure to fill the voids when metal
is in the solidification state.
The extracted casting is then cooled down with

water and is placed on a conveyer belt for a further
treatment, or otherwise stored on a rack for later
quality control tests. The die casting process is a
complex process consisting of over one hundred and
fifty process parameters. The complexity of the
process results in many problems like blistering, and
porosity. However, the porosity is by far the most
highly occurring defect in automobile engine
castings.
2. POROSITY
Porosity is the formation of voids inside the castings
either through the entrapment of gas or improper
pressure configuration in HPDC machines. Porosity
is one of the most difficult defects to eliminate in
die casting. The industry sometimes has to settle to
move porosity to a different location in a casting
rather than to remove it completely. It is in the best
interest of industry and the consumer of die casting
(for example, car manufacturers) that porosity is
eliminated completely from the castings, but this is
not always possible to do with the current level of
process understanding. In addition, attempts to
eliminate porosity defects can affect other process
settings and result in other casting defects.
Figure 2: Gas porosity with medium (top figure)

And large sized pores (bottom figure)
The porosity can be dived into three major types,

Which are:
Gas porosity;
Shrinkage porosity, and;
Flow porosity.
Figure 3: Interconnected shrinkage porosity.
In HPDC, the first two types of porosity are mostly

encountered.
The gas porosity (Fig. 2) is the porosity in casting
due to the presence of gas. This type can arise from:
Gas produced during process;
Entrapped air, and
Melt composition.
The shrinkage porosity (Fig. 3) is due to shrinking
of metal, so that the metal loses volume and hence
more metal is required to fill the gaps (voids)
Formation of porosity in die castings is a

combination of process parameters, melt
composition, and solidification properties under
high pressure. We will discuss process related
porosity formation mechanisms in detail which
covers solidification and gas related (entrapped)
formation. Melt related porosity formation is not
discussed in detail primarily because hydrogen
entrapment in HPDC is not a big problem.
Hydrogen can be considered seriously if the scrap is
re-melted which we assume is not the case. The
specific reason for porosity formation is undesirable
208

states of shot sleeve, cavity, vent and gates, runners,

solidification pressure, lubricant quantity and steam
formation from water during the process. Shot sleeve
related parameters are perhaps the most sensitive
one when it comes to entrapped air porosity. The
parameters like acceleration, stage velocities,
diameter, or even deceleration are all shot related
parameters determining the formation of metal wave
patterns which can be a crucial factor in deciding
whether air becomes entrapped.
As soon as the metal is ladled, the goal is to begin
injection as soon as possible but still at the right
time in the case of a cold chamber die casting
machine. It should begin soon because the metal
starts to solidify in the shot sleeve and if metal with
solid particles is injected into the die, the high
velocities can cause die wear and may contribute to
die erosion and t o a deteriorated quality of the
castings. It is not recommended to inject metal
immediately because it can destroy the wave pattern
and can entrap air in different forms. Hence shot
command delay is the first process parameter to be
selected carefully. Another process parameter to be
optimized is the first stage velocity. If it is too low
or too high, it can contribute to wrong wave
formation. It is further explained with the help of a
Fig. 4.
generally provided to reduce shrinkage porosity

which is a result of volumetric contraction.
Many die casters still find shrinkage related porosity
despite of applying enough pressure. Research in
the area suggested that the pressure applied can be
different than the actual pressure developed inside
cavity. It happens because of insufficient biscuit
size or too big a size and unexpected solidification.
Our neural network model has learned that the
pressure which develops in the cavity is a decisive
factor as shown in our results section later.
The extreme temperature and presence of water at
die surface can produce porosity due to steam.
Water can accumulate on die from sprayer and
leaking water cooling lines.
If the biscuit is too small it can solidify first or even
metal in shot sleeve can solidify which can take the
pressure off from cavity. If the biscuit size is wrong
then the pressure applied at the tip of plunger cannot
reach the desired intensification pressure meant to
remove porosity. The process is needed to be
modelled and be understood well to reduce defect
appearances in the castings. Thus the aim of this
work is to enhance our understanding of porosity
formation in die castings.
3. METHODOLOGY
The wave forms if slow shot velocity (1st stage

velocity) is too slow in the Fig. 4. The wave gets on
top of the air and the air is injected into the cavity.
Figure 4: Entrapped air below the metal wave.
The air in cavity can be entrapped due to the

problems in runners or ventilation. The vents should
be big enough to let the air escape and be located
near the last spot to solidify. The runner should not
have sharp corners in general. If the vents are
working properly the air entrapped can escape to a
sufficient extent. One of the main purposes of
application of high pressure in die casting is to
minimize shrinkage. In HPDC, no extra metal is
Computational intelligence techniques that include

artificial neural networks, genetic algorithms,
simulated annealing and fuzzy logic have shown a
promise in many areas including industrial
engineering where the use of neural networks
genetic algorithms and fuzzy logic is quite prom
inent.
The capability of Artificial Neural Networks
(ANNs) to learn complex relationships well has
made them a popular methodology for
understanding the behaviour of complex systems
like robot guidance, job shop scheduling and die
casting. Computationally, ANNs in their most
common form of a multilayer perceptron (MLP) are
distributed parallel processing systems capable of a
fault tolerance and efficient learning and are robust
to noise and
disturbances. They are connectionist structures
composed of nodes called neurons and arcs
connecting the neurons with weights associated with
the arcs. Weights are adaptable and they are the
main learning parameters of the network. The
network learns typically by using a back
propagation learning algorithm which updates the
weights. The network has generally three types of
209

layers called input, output and hidden layers. The

information is presented in a pre-processed or raw
format into the input layer of the network and the
predictions are obtained at the output layer of the
network.
Mathematically, a MLP can be seen as either:
Eq
Where,
is a sigmoid function like
.
Eq (2)
y is the jth neuron in the current layer,
i x is the feed-in from the previous layer, and
ij w are the weights connecting the two layers,
or it can also be represented in the matrix form as:
The MLP adjust the weight matrix during the

learning and is able to generalize for the data that it
hasnt seen during the learning. Please note that
sigmoid function Fig applied to each individual
element of the matrix after multiplication.
An MLP were selected for this work as the aim of
the current research is an understanding and
modelling of the casting defects in terms of machine
parameters.
4. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
parameters related to porosity and location and

quantity measures of porosity in the castings. The
process parameters included 1st stage velocity, 2nd
stage velocity, change-over position, intensification
of tip pressure, cavity pressure, squeeze tip pressure,
squeeze cavity pressure and biscuit thickness. The
quality measures were X-Ray quality grades at four
different locations used to represent porosity
defects. The network was train ed using backpropagation algorithm. The output of the network
was the quality measures at four different locations
named A, C, E and F. These quality measures are
X-Ray grades ranging from one to four with one
representing minimum level of porosity at the
designated location and four as the worse. An
occurrence of porosity level of four on any of the
four locations of die casting results in a product
being rejected. For accuracy and knowledge
extraction reasons we have treated the porosity as a
function approximation problem.
5. RESULTS
After modelling of die casting process with an MLP
to a sufficient degree of accuracy, we conducted
conventional die casting tests by varying one of the
process parameters and keeping the others constant.
This was done with a simulated process rather than
on actual die casting machine as the
experimentation on a die casting machine could
result a considerable waste of resources in terms of
metal, manpower and energy and incurs a
significant cost. Fig. 5 shows a relationship between
the quantity measures of porosity and the logarithm
of slow stage velocity. The neural network model of
porosity show that the porosity decreases sharply
with increase in 1st stage velocity (slow speed
velocity) and then the curves sharpness decreases
as the velocity approaches Garbers critical velocity.
It could be noticed that the network is generalizing
well here and is able to model the correct porosity
behavior.
It is noticeable for all the results that the level of
porosity is constant on a minimum level for location
C and F at the casting. The data was collected from
a machine which was producing castings with the
requirement to move porosity away from locations
A, C, E and F. It seems that the operation was
successful to keep porosity away from locations C
and F.
We have used MLP to model location and quantity

of porosity in a high pressure die casting. The data
used to train the network consisted of process
210

Figure 5: Relationship between the level of porosity

and the logarithm of slow stage velocity (also known as
1st stage velocity).

and the logarithm of high stage velocity (also known as
2nd stage velocity).
The average high speed velocity, also known as

second stage velocity (Fig. 6) has a purpose to meet
the resistance offered by gate and runner system and
to inject the metal immediately as it reaches the end
of shot sleeve. The critical high speed velocity is
found to be with in the range of sensitivity analysis
and it can be calculated as follows from the graph.
Critical 2nd stage shot velocity is ALog(0.375)=
2.371 m/s, where ALog (.) is the Antilog to the base
10.
This observation is interesting in the sense that it
shows clearly the ability of the neural network to
model die casting process well along with the next
observation .

and the logarithm of intensification of tip pressure.

and the logarithm of maximum cavity A pressure.
Note that the machine used to collect data was a multi
cavity machine. Similar results were obtained for the
other die cavity.
The Fig. 7 should be seen in tandem with the Fig. 8the maximum cavity. A pressure in Fig. 8 is low
in magnitude comparing to the intensification of tip
pressure in Fig. 7. In fact, part of the tip pressure is
transferred to the cavity. Please note the die under
consideration is a multi cavity die, hence we are
referring it as Cavity A. The neural network is
able to learn that it is this factor which has the real
effect on porosity and show a decreasing trend in
porosity level as the pressure inside cavity
increases. The results shown in Fig. 9 are interesting
in the sense that they are conflicting to that
available in the literature.
211

Congress and Exposition, St. Louis, MO. October

1989.
[3] Asquith, B. M., The Use of Process Monitoring
to Minimize Scrap in the Die Casting Process,
NADCA Transactions , T97- 063, 1997.
[4] Garber, L. W., Filling of Cold Chamber during

Slow-Shot Travel , Die Casting Engineer, July August 36-38 1981.

and the logarithm of a biscuit size.
We can see a slight increase in porosity at the

location E (in conflict to the literature) and a
decrease in porosity at the location A (in accordance
to the literature). It may have to do something with
the thermal state of the die. It can also be interpreted
as a different critical biscuit size requirement to
reduce porosity at different locations. This finding is
significant and requires further investigation.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper an attempt was made to improve
current modelling and understanding of porosity
defects in HPDC machines. We have conducted
conventional die casting tests with a neural network
model of HPDC machine and compared the
obtained results with the current understanding of
the porosity defects. While most of our findings
correspond well to established knowledge in the
field, some of our finding are in conflict with the
previous studies of die casting and as such are
significant and require further investigation.
[5] Garber, L. W., Theoretical Analysis and

Experimental Observation of Air Entrapment during
Cold Chamber Filling, Die Casting Engineer, MayJune, 14-22, 1982.
[6] Huang J., Callau P. and Conley J.G., A Study
of Neural Networks for Porosity Prediction in
Aluminium Alloy A356 Castings, in B.G. Thomas
and C. Beckermann, (Eds), Modelling of Casting,
Welding, and Solidification Processes, VIII, TMS ,
June, 1998, pp. 1111 - 1118.
[7] Plauchniak M. and Millage B. A., New Closed
Shot Control System Features Total Integration,
Die Casting Engineer , 1993.
[8] Rumelhart D., Hinton G., and Williams R.,
Learning Internal Representations by Error
Propagation , in D. Rumelhart et al (eds), Parallel
Distributed Processing 1 , MIT Press, 318-362,
1986.
[9] Thome M. and Brevick J. R., Optimal Slow
Shot Velocity Profiles for Cold Chamber Die
Casting, NADCA Transactions, 1995.
[10] Yarlagadda P. K. D. V. and Chiang E. C., A
neural network system for the prediction of process
parameters in pressure die casting, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology,vol. 89-90, pp.
583-590, 1999.
REFERENCES
[1] Elkan, C ., The Paradoxical Success of Fuzzy
Logic, Proceedings of the Eleventh National
Conference on Artificial Intelligence, AAAI Press,
pp. 698703 , 1993.
[2] Andresen W. T. and Guthrie B., UsingTaguchi
and Metflow to Determine Relationships Between
Process Variables and Porosity, 15th International
Die Casting
212

Investigation of Springback Effect in

Bottoming for U-Die Bending and V-Die
Bending Processes
J. R. Shah
jayshah.mech@gmail.com
S. K. Sharma
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, SVM Institute of Technology, Bharuch-392001
semsharma@gmail.com
B. C. Patel
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, SVM Institute of Technology, Bharuch-392001
bcpatel@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The effect of bottoming on the reduction of springback was investigated by performing Ushaped bending and V-shaped
bending FE simulation on aluminium sheet. From simulation using U and V die punchdie sets, each have different
clearance between punch and die (0 to 40% less than the sheet thickness) at punch corner, it was clarified that springback
decreases with increasing bottoming to some extent but a certain amount of springback remains even under a higher load. It
was found that bending stresses at punch Rcorner are much reduced by bottoming, but these stresses around the end of
Rcorner cannot be eliminated. This is a reason why complete elimination of springback by bottoming on Ubending is so
difficult. Therefore, it would be recommended in actual press forming operations to apply a certain amount of bottoming
load, but it should not be too large, for reduction of springback.
KEY WORDS:
Sheet metal forming, Springback,

Bottoming in bending, Thickness and Plastic strain
distribution.
INTRODUCTION
Sheet metal forming is simply metal formed into
thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental
forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and
bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless
everyday objects are constructed of the material.
Bending is a metal forming process in which a force
is applied to a piece of sheet metal, causing it to
bend at an angle and form the desired shape. A
bending operation causes deformation along one
axis.
A reliable mathematical models for plain-strain
sheet bending to predict; spring back, bendability or
the minimum bending ratio (R/t), strain and stress

distributions and the maximum loads on the punch
and the die was reported by Wang [1] .Lagrangian
formulation M Samuel [2] presented a numerical
model which has been proposed to calculate
springback and side wall curl in a plane-strain
stretch draw sheet forming problem. Prediction of
the punch reversal position under V-plate bending
using real material (power-law) behavior was
presented by S Thanki [3]. Effect of tool
temperature on the reduction of the springback of
aluminum sheets was reported by Moon [4]. P Date
[5] [6] presented geometric parameters that affect
the springback effect by taking five sheets of
different materials in vee die bending. Springback
of two-ply sheet metal laminates (pure aluminum
(JIS A1100) and ferritic steel (JIS SUS430))
subjected to draw bending using numerical and
213

experimental techniques was investigated by the

named Hino [7]. The springback amount of steel
sheet metal has 0.5 mm thickness in bending dies
was determined by O Tekaslan [8]. The
optimization of deep drawing parameters in order to
compensate the springback effects after forming
was reported by H Naceur [9]. Verma and Haldar
[10] reported investigation on the effect of
anisotropy of springback using FEA for the
benchmark problem of Numisheet-2005. M.
Bakhshi-Jooybari [11] presented the study of
spring-back of CK67 steel sheet in V-die and U-die
bending processes. H Adibi [12] showed the
springback of two-ply sheet metal laminates is
investigated theoretically and experimentally. The
model is based on non-quadratic Hill yielding
criterion and plane strain condition, takes into
account effects of thickness thinning of each layer
and deformation history on the sheet springback.
Springback Simulations of Monolithic and Layered
Steels Used for Pressure Equipment were reported
by A Gandhi [13]. The modeling and
experimentation in v die bending for spring back
analysis was reported by Osman [14]. Mehran [15]
has reported the springback behavior of two-ply
Aluminum-Steel wide laminates is investigated.
Sutsan [16] gave a report on finite element analysis
on v die bending process.
With considering the above-mentioned factors the
analytical model presented in this paper can be used
to determine the optimum conditions for process
parameters and to predict the springback.
VALIDATION OF HYPERWORKS
To validate the hyperworks, experimental results for
springback in U die and V die bending process for
the material steel ck67 were taken. The results
shown in the table shows the accuracy for the
simulated work done in hyperworks. After
comparing these results more simulation work was
done by varying the different parameters like
thickness of the sheet, material strength, sheet
anisotropy, tip radius of tool etc. to analyze the
springback effect which is shown below.
Table 1 Comparison between experimental and
simulated results in u bend for springback angle of
0.5mm sheet thickness.
tip radius
4mm
experimental
simulation
0
Springback
()
4.8
4.14
t= 0.5 mm
orientation
45
Springback
()
5.4
4.29
90
Springback
()
5.6
4.7

tip radius 4mm

experimental
simulation
0
Springback
()
4.22
3.96
t=0.7
Orientation
45
Springback
()
4.96
4.07
90
Springback
()
5..5
4.79

1mm sheet thickness.
tip radius 4mm

experimental
simulation
0
Springback
()
3.95
3.27
t=1mm
orientation
45
Springback
()
4.33
3.45
90
Springback
()
4.64
3.91
Table4 Comparison between experimental and

simulated results in v bend for springback angle of
t= 0.5 mm
orientation
tip radius 3mm

experimental
simulation
0
Springback
()
0
0.611
45
Springback
()
0.891
1.21
90
Springback
()
1.112
1.316

t=0.7
Orientation
0
Springback
()
45
Springback
()
experimental
4.22
4.96
5..5
simulation
3.96
4.07
4.79
tip radius 3mm
90
Springback
()

1mm sheet thickness.
tip radius 3mm

experimental
simulation
0
Springback
()
2.151
2.253
t=1mm
orientation
45
Springback
()
2.267
2.391
90
Springback
()
2.349
2.51
214

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Modeling was done with PRO-E and analysis was
carried out using HYPERFORM, a commercially
available explicit FEA code. The punch and die
were modeled using shell elements and have been
assigned with RIGID MATERIAL MODEL.
Assumptions
In U-BENDING & V-bending, the sheet
deformation in die and punch corner region can be
considered as sheet stretch-bending. The following
assumptions are applied:
1. The stretching force per unit width in each
layer is considered to be uniform through
thickness. However, it is different for each
layer. It causes sheet thinning and neutral
surface shifting.
2. Straight lines perpendicular to the neutral
surface remain straight during process.
3. The strain in the width direction z is zero.
4. The transverse stress, r, in each layer is
neglected.
5. The adherence of the two layers is perfect, so
there is no strain discontinuity in two layers
interface.
6. Volume conservation is kept during stretch
bending process, i.e. r++z=0.
Where r and are the tangential and transverse
strain respectively.
Material characteristic
To characterize the material properties different
specimens of 30*100 mm for V-die bending and
30*220 mm of sheets of ALUMINUM are used.
The sheets with thicknesses 1 mm, is examined and
results were simulated with the help of
hyperworks software, to show the different
parameters on spring back in V die bending.
K = strength of coefficient
N = work hardening co efficient
E = youngs modulus
= Poissons ratio
= density
UTS = ultimate tensile strength
YS = yield strength
Table 7: Mechanical Properties of Material
Fig.1 Stress strain curve of ALLUMINIUM.
The stressstrain curve is a graphical

representation of the relationship between stress,
derived from measuring the load applied on the
sample, and strain, derived from measuring the
deformation of the sample, i.e. elongation,
compression, or distortion. The slope of stress-strain
curve at any point is called the tangent modulus; the
slope of the elastic (linear) portion of the curve is a
property used to characterize materials and is
known as the Young's modulus. The nature of the
curve varies from material to material. The above
diagrams illustrate the stressstrain behavior of
typical materials ALLUMINIUM. The stress
strain curves are obtained from the ALTAIR
HYPERWORKS.
Bottoming Effect
Bottoming is a bending process where the punch
and the work piece bottom on the die. This makes
for a controlled angle with very little spring back.
The tonnage required on this type of press is more
than in air bending. The inner radius of the work
piece should be a minimum of 1 material thickness.
In bottom bending, spring-back is reduced by
setting the final position of the punch such that the
clearance between the punch and die surface is less
than the blank thickness. As a result, the material
yields slightly and reduces the spring-back. Bottom
bending requires considerably more force (about
50%~60% more) than air bending.
Material K(Gpa)
n
E(Gpa)
(Kg/mm3) Yield stress (Mpa)
ALUMINIUM 0.181
0.06
210
0.33 7.8 x 10 -6
34.5
Stress strain curve
Stress strain curve for the ALLUMINIUM and
STEEL are shown below:
215

Punch velocity: 2000 mm/min
Fig.2 Bottoming process in bending.

Model Setup
In numerical simulation, contact is necessary
between the sliding bodies for the metal forming
process. In this Study DOUBLE ACTION DRAW
title algorithm was used for the contact between the
punch, die, blank holder and blank. The blank was
treated as master surface and others were treated as
slave surfaces. A uniform gap of 0.2mm was
maintained between blank, blank holder and die
surface using AUTOPOSITION command. The Vbending & U-bending carried out with the set-up
which is shown in Fig. 3 & 4 respectively. In order
to study the effect of different parameters of
bottoming which cab useful to reduce the
springback effect in U & V die bending processes.
Fig.4 Model setups of U bend simulated in

HYPERWORKS
FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION
In this research paper the finite element simulation
is carried out with the help of ALTAIR
HYPERWORKS software in HYPERFORM
module. The materials of ALUMINUM is taken
with the thicknesses of 1mm with two different tip
radiuses of 3mm in V die bending and 5mm in U
die bending.
The different characteristic that affects the spring
back effect in bottoming after carried out the
simulation results are shown below:
Table8: Bottoming process in U die bending.
Clearance(%)
0 % (0.0mm)
10% (0.1mm)
20% (0.2mm)
30% (0.3mm)
40% (0.4mm)
Bottoming process in u bending

stress
Thining(%)
maximum minimum maximum minimum
1.67E+02 4.15E+00
2.414 -3.15E-02
1.68E+02
0
2.414 -3.05E-02
1.67E+02
0
2.402 -6.14E-01
1.68E+02
0
2.384 -1.23E+00
1.69E+02
0
16.69 3.66E+00
Springback()
4.895
4.109
3.477
3.413
3.402
Table9: Bottoming process in V die bending.

Fig.3 Model setups of V bend simulated in
HYPERWORKS
Blank dimensions: 30*120
No of elements: 1540
Tip radius: 3mm
Sheet thickness: 1mm
Blank holding force: 1000N
Punch velocity: 2000mm/min
Blank dimensions: 30*220
No of elements: 2880
Tip radius: 5mm
Sheet thickness: 1mm
Blank holding force: 1000N
Clearance(%)
0 % (0.0mm)
10% (0.1mm)
20% (0.2mm)
30% (0.3mm)
40% (0.4mm)
Bottoming process in V bending

stress
Thining(%)
maximum minimum maximum minimum
1.72E+02
0
3.19
-7.695
1.71E+02
0
2.34
-2.322
1.74E+02
0
17.9
-4.858
1.84E+02
0
46.96
-34.31
2.07E+02
0
70.89
-194.4
Springback()
-0.449
-0.112
0.624
0.691
0.731
As shown in the table 8 and 9, bending process for

U die and V die shape are simulated with the
negative clearance up to the 40% of the sheet
thickness. The stress distribution and thinning
percentage of the end product of U and V shape are
shown in figures.
The bottoming process is done to achieve less
springback angle in U and V die bending process,
springback angle for u die bending and V die
216

bending process are shown in table 8 and 9

respectively.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Fig.6 Thinning in U die bending process
Fig.5 Stress distributions in U die bending process
217

Fig.7 Stress distributions in V die bending process
Fig.8 Thinning in V die bending process
As shown in the fig. 5 the stress increases as the

negative clearance increases from 0.1 mm to 0.4
mm in radial region of the U shape. As per the
simulated results of the stress distribution we can
say bottoming can applicable up to the certain
amount of the negative clearance. There is more
stress generated in the radial area of the U die bend
in -0.3mm and -0.4mm of clearance.
Fig. 6 shows the thinning percentage in the U shape

after the bending process for 0 to 40% of negative
clearance of the sheet thickness. As the amount of
Clearance increases from 0.1mm to 0.4mm, there is
also increase in a thinning percentage for the certain
areas in U shape. As per the data shown in the
results we can say up to 20 to 25% of the negative
clearance can applied for better results. There is a
reduction in a springback effect as a negative
218

clearance increases and up to 50 % springback

effect can be decreased by the bottoming process.
In V die bending process stress distribution is
increases in radial area as compared to the plane
surface area and more intensive on radial area when
more negative clearance is applied. For the zero
clearance there is a slight spring go effect in the V
die bending which will converted in to the spring
back effect as the negative clearance is applied. So
to achieve the optimum amount of springback
certain amount of negative clearance can be applied.
As the negative clearance increases shown in the
fig. 8 the percentage thinning amount also increases
and reach up to 70% of the sheet thickness. So
proper amount of negative clearance is required that
it can reduce the springback effect with less amount
of thinning. So also in V die bending around 20 to
25 % of negative clearance of the sheet thickness
can be applied.
Fig.9: Three Dimensional model generated in

hyperworks for U Die bending.
Fig.10: Three Dimensional model generated in

hyperworks for V Die bending.
CONCLUSION
In this study, Influence of bottoming on springback
in the U die and V die bending of ALUMINUM
sheet metal was investigated by using FEM. From
the results, it can be concluded as follows;
1. The springback values could be reduced by
bottoming technique while the excessive negative
clearance caused the negative values of springback
angle, called the spring-go.
2. The increasing of negative clearance generated
more compressive stress at the bottoming area that
could eliminate the elastic recovery at the corner of
the bend part resulted in the decrease in the
springback.
3. The increasing of negative clearance also caused
the reversed stress distribution at bent leg compared
with the bending zone resulted in the increase in the
spring-go.
4. Bending stresses at punch Rcorner are much
reduced by bottoming, but these stresses around the
end of Rcorner cannot be eliminated.
REFERENCES
[1] C Wang, G Kinzel, and T Altan,
"Mathematical Modeling of Plane-Strain
Bending of Sheet and Plate," Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, vol. 39, pp.
279-304, 1993.
[2] M Samuel, "Experimental and numerical
prediction of springback and side wall curl in
U-bendings of anisotropic sheet metals,"
Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
vol. 105, pp. 382-393, June 2000.
[3] M Inamdar, P Date, and U Desai, "Studies on
the prediction of springback in air vee bending
of metalic sheets using an artificial neural
network," Journal of Material Processing
Technology, vol. 108, pp. 45-54, june 2000.
[4] S Thanki, H Raval, and A Dave, "Prediction of
the punch reversal position under V-plate
bending using real material behaviour,"
Journal of Materials Processing Technology ,
vol. 114, pp. 227-232, 2001.
[5] Y Moon, S Kang, J Cho, and T Kim, "Effect of
Tool Temperature On the Reduction of the
Springback," Journal of Material Processing,
vol. 132, pp. 365-368, September 2002.
[6] M Inamdar, P Date, and S Sabnis, "On the
Effects of Geometric Parameters on
Springback in Sheets of Five Different
Materials Subjected to Air Vee Bending,"
Journal of Material Processing Technology,
vol. 123, pp. 459-463, october 2002.
219

[7] R Hino, Y Goto, and F Yoshida, "Springback

in Sheetmetal Laminates in Draw Bending,"
Journal of Material Processing Technology,
vol. 139, pp. 341-347, 2003.
[8] O Tekaslan, U Seker, and A Ozdemir,
"Determining Springback Amount of Steel
Sheetmetal has 0.5 mm Thickness in Bending
Dies," Materials amd Design, vol. 27, pp. 251258, december 2004.
[9] H Naceur, S Elchi, and J Batoz, "On the
Design of Sheetmetal Forming Parameters
Springback
Compensation,"
in
VIII
International Conference on Computational
Plasticity, vol. COMPLAS VIII, France, 2005.
[10] R Verma and A Haldar, "Effect of Normal
Anisotropy on Springback," Journal of
Material Processing Technology, vol. 190, pp.
300-304, October 2007.
[11] M Bakhshi-jooybari, B Rahmani, V
Daeezadeh, and A Gorji, "The Study of Springback of CK67 Steel Sheet in V-die and U-die
Bending Processes," Material and Design, vol.
30, pp. 2410-2419, august 2009.
[12] H Adibi, M Asadian, and B Mollaei,
"Springback Analysis of Sheet Metal
Laminates After U-Bending," in Metal 2010,
Iran, 2010.
[13] M A Osman, M Shazly, A Ei-Mokaddem, and
A S Wifi, "Springback Prediction in V-die
Bending: Modelling and Experimentation,"
Journal of Acheivements in Materials and
Manufacturing Processes, vol. 38, no. 2, pp.
179-186, February 2010.
[14] A Gandhi and K Raval, "Springback
Simulations of Monolithic and Layered Steels
Used for Pressure Equipment," World Academy
of Science, Engineering and Technology, vol.
70, pp. 694-700, 2010.
[15] M Kadkhodayan and I Zohourkari, "An
Investigation into the Springback in Bending of
Unsymmetrical Sheet Metal Laminates," in 8th
International Conference on Fracture and
Strength of Solids, Iran, 2011.
[16] S Thipprakmas, "Finite Element Analysis on V
Die Bending," King Mongkuts University of
Technology Thonburi, Thailand, Analysis
2011.
220

Finite Element Analysis on the Static

Characteristics of Composite Mono-Leaf
Spring
Vasava Naran B
Government engg.College Dahod.
vasavanaran@rediff.com
PravinK Trivedi
Government engg.College Dahod
pravintrivedi@hotmail.com
Prof.R.I.Patel
Government engg.College Dahod
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to investigate the static behaviors of steel and composite leaf spring using the ANSYS V12.1
software. Leaf springs are one of the oldest suspension components they are still frequently used, especially in commercial
vehicles. Another part has to be focused, is the automobile industry has shown increased interest in the replacement of steel
spring with composite leaf spring due to high strength to weight ratio. In this analysis the conventional steel leaf spring
interested for static load condition and results are compared with a virtual model of composite material leaf spring. Leaf
spring is modeled in solid works 2009 CAD software and it is imported and simulated in ANSYS 12.1 for better
understanding. The material used for conventional steel leaf spring is 50Cr1V23 (BIS) and for composite leaf spring, EGlass/Epoxy material is used which was more economical this will reduce total cost of composite leaf spring. Stresses and
deflection results were verified for analytical and experimental results. Result shows that, the composite spring has stresses
nearer to steel leaf spring and weight
of composite spring was nearly reduced up to 76.31%.
promoted the adoption of optimum materials and
Key words:
Leaf spring, Composites, Finite element,

Stress, Deflection
INTRODUCTION
Increasing competition and innovations in
automobile sector tends to modify the existing
products or replacing old products by new and
advanced material products. A suspension system of
vehicle is also an area where these innovations are
carried out regularly. More efforts are taken in order
to increase the comfort of user. Appropriate balance
of comfort riding qualities and economy in
manufacturing of leaf spring becomes an obvious
necessity. To meet the needs for sustainable
development, significant increase in the demand for
lighter, more fuel efficient, reduced design-testing
iterations, and satisfactory reliability level has
components design in the transportation industry

(Al-Qureshi, 2001; Mahdi et al. 2006; Zheng et
al., 2011). Some of these papers are reviewed
here, with emphasis on those papers that involve
leaf springs. Breadmore (1986) studied the
application of composite structures in
automobile. Moris (1986) investigated the
application of composites in rear suspension
systems. Yu and Kim (1988) designed an
optimized double tapered beam for automotive
suspension leaf spring. Rajendran and
Vijarangan (2001) presented an artificial genetics
approach for the design optimization of
composite leaf spring. Ashiqur and Arefin
(2010) studied the inelastic deformations of
stainless steel leaf springs using experimental
and nonlinear analysis.The suspension leaf
spring are one of the potential components for
weight reduction in automobiles (Lupkin et al.,
221

1989) as the leaf spring accounts for 10-20% of the

unsprung weight (Tanabeet al., 1982). The reduction
in unsprung weight can improve the riding

quality and increase fuel efficiency significantly.
Since fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) composite
material has high elastic strain energy storage
capacity (Kumar and Sabapathy, 2007), it is
possible to
conventional
use
FRP
material
to
replace
the
Deflection generated in the Assembly of

Leaf Spring is as under:3
3
y :- (6 x W x L ) / (n x E x b x t )
3
y :- ( 6 x 6989.625 x 575 ) / ( 6x200000

3
x 60 x 7.5 ) y :112.49mm
DESIGN CALCULATION OF LEAF

SPRING
Consider the Leaf Spring is Cantilever Beam. So
the Load acting on the each assembly of the Leaf
Spring is acted on the two ends of the Leaf Spring.
Load acted on the Leaf Spring is divided by the two
because of consideration of the Cantilever Beam.
Material of Leaf Spring:- 50Cr1V23,
Composition of material is 0.45%C, 0.1-0.3% Si, 0.60.9%Mn and 0.9-1.2%Cr.
Basic Requirement:-Maximum capacity:
- 2850 Kg.
:- 2850 x 9.81
: - 27958.5N
MODELLING OF STEEL LEAF

SPRING
Modeling of Leaf Spring is performed in Solid
works 2009.
Bending stress generated in the Leaf Spring are as

under:2
b :- ( 6x W x L ) / ( n x b x t )
2
b :- ( 6 x 6989.625 x 575.00 ) / ( 6 x 60.00 x 7.5 )
2
b :- 1190.825 N/mm
So, the stress generated in the Leaf Spring is lower
then the Allowable Design Stress. So Design is safe.
FIG.1SolidCad model of steel leaf spring
STATIC FEA ANALYSIS OF LEAF

SPRING.
After Creating Solid Model of Steel Leaf Spring in
SOLIDWORKS 2009. Save that model in *.IGES
format. Import above 3D Model in ANSYS
Workbench Static Structural Module for Static
FEM Analys.Then following results are obtained as
shown in figure.
222

spring are found with the small. Deflection of

Composite leaf spring is higher as compared to
steel leaf spring with the same loading
condition. Conventional steel leaf spring was
found to weight of 19Kg. whereas EGlass/Epoxy mono leaf spring weighs only
4.55 Kg.
FIG.2 Shows the Best Width and Height: - 50 and

35.50mm leaf spring.
Indicating reductions in weight by 76.31%

same level of performance. Composite leaf
spring can be used on smooth roads with very
high performance expectations. However on
rough road conditions due to lower chipping
resistance failure from chipping of composite
leaf spring is highly probable.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
RESULTS
Comparison of steel leaf spring with analytical.
Static FE
Analytical
Parameters
The authors would like to thank Prof.

R.I.Patel, A. H. Makwana, Principal,
GECD, Dahod, Gujarat for his valuable
guidance and support for my research
work.
Analysis of steel
Results
leaf spring
REFERENCES
Von-Misses
1190.825
1140.2
112.49
109.32
Stresses
Maximum
Deflection
Static FE
Analysis of
Static FE
Analysis of
steel leaf
spring
composite leaf
spring
Parameters
Von-Misses
Stresses
1140.2
1159.7
Maximum
Deflection
109.32
209.09
Comparison of mono composite leaf spring with

steel leaf
[1] Senthil kumar and Vijayarangan, Analytical

and Experimental studies on Fatigue life
Prediction of steel leaf soringand composite leaf
multi leaf spring for Light passanger veicles
using life data analysis ISSN 1392 1320
material science Vol. 13 No.2 2007.
[2] Shiva Shankar and Vijayarangan Mono
Composite Leaf Springfor Light Weight Vehicle
Design, End Joint, Analysis and Testing ISSN
1392 Material Science Vol. 12, No.3, 2006.
[3] Niklas Philipson and Modelan AB Leaf
spring modelling ideonScience Park SE-22370
Lund, Sweden
[4]
Zhian Yang and et al Cyclic
Creep
and Cyclic Deformation of HighStrength Spring Steels and the Evaluation of the
Sag Effect:Part I. Cyclic Plastic Deformation
Behavior Material and Material Transaction
A Vol 32A, July 20011697
CONCLUSIONS
Under the same static load conditions deflection and
stresses of steel leaf spring and composite leaf
[5] Muhammad Ashiqur Rahman and et al

Inelastic deformations of stainless steel leaf
springs-experiment and nonlinear analysis
223

Meccanica Springer Science Business Media B.V.

2009
[6]
C.K.
Clarke
and
G.E.
Borowski
Evaluation
of
Leaf Spring Failure ASM
International, Journal of Failure Analysis and
Prevention, Vol5 (6) Pg. No.(54-63)

[7] J.J. Fuentes and et al Premature Fracture in
Automobile Leaf Springs Journal of Science
Direct, Engineering Failure Analysis Vol. 16
(2009) Pg. No. 648-655.
224

Modeling Vendor Rating in Supplier

Selection using Fuzzy Inference System
Ketan S. Vaghosi
PG Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, M.S.U, Baroda
ketan_vaghosi@yahoo.com
Dr. M.N.Qureshi
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, M.S.U, Baroda
mnqureshi@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Today, many companies are facing the challenge to identify reliable suppliers from domestic and overseas markets. Supplier
assessment becomes an important topic to be studied. Therefore, Vendor rating plays a vital role in firms. Various
conceptual and analytical models are developed to address vendor selection issues. These methods have some limitations to
deal with the conceptual uncertainties in the process of the supplier assessment. Hence, a suitable approach is needed to
consider all the factors in order to select the most efficient vendor. In this paper attempt has been made to evaluate the
suppliers performance adopting fuzzy inference system to transform the quantitative variable to linguistic terms in order to
measure vendor performance.
KEY WORDS
Vendor Rating; Supplier Selection; Fuzzy Inference
System
INTRODUCTION
The markets in which firms compete are
increasingly
influenced
by
international
competitors, demanding customers and rapid
technological change. Hence many firms have
decided to concentrate on core competences and to
outsource to suppliers. In order to ensure the
uninterrupted supply of items in a supply chain,
more than one supplier or vendor should be
available for each item. There must be an ongoing
or periodical process to evaluate suppliers quality
is carried out to ensure the meeting of relevant
quality standards for the incoming items.
Due to diverse and linguistic nature of
supplier attributes cross-functional team is required
to rate the suppliers attributes in linguistic
descriptions, such as very poor, poor, average, good
and very good. Linguistic assessment of suppliers is
carried out based on several criteria, such as quality,
delivery performance, price etc. Because of the
imprecise
nature
of
linguistic
attributes,
inconsistencies in the assessment of the criteria are
likely to affect the grading of supplier performance.

To deal with these inconsistencies, a fuzzy-based
approach is needed to convert linguistic attributes
into fuzzy numbers resulting into assessment of
supplier performance using fuzzy logic.
In this paper, a fuzzy inference based
methodology is developed for a precise and efficient
evaluation of suppliers rating. It adopts fuzzy
inference system (FIS) of the MATLAB fuzzy logic
toolbox platform to assess the suppliers rating.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Appropriate vendors or suppliers selection is one of
the fundamental strategies for achieving the quality
of output in any organization, which has a direct
influence on the company. The importance of
vendor selection has been stated by Weber, Current
and Benton (1991). Vendor selection decisions are
generally complicated for several reasons. First,
potential options may require to be assessed on
more than one criterion. Dickson (1966) identified
23 criteria that have been recognized by purchasing
managers in various vendor selection problems.
Wind and Robinson (1968) concluded that most
vendor selection decisions involved multiple
criteria. Second, individual vendors may have
different performance characteristics based on the
225

different criteria. Third, complication comes from

internal policy limitations and externally imposed
system constraints placed on the purchasing
process. Weber, Current and Desai (2000)
mentioned that these constraints ultimately
influence the number of vendors and the order
quantities in purchasing function.
In vendor selection problem, a number of methods
with different criteria have been developed and
examined. Wind and Robinson (1968) proposed a
linear weighting method for choosing the best
vendors. Analytical models for supplier evaluation
range from wimple weighted scoring models to
complex mathematical programming approaches,
Weber, Current and Benton (1991) reported a
comprehensive review of supplier selection and
performance evaluation methods.
The limitations of the traditional supplier evaluation
methods, such as categorical, weighted point and
cost ration approaches, are mentioned by Soukup
(1997) and Willis, Huston and Pohlkamp (1993).
Narasimhan (1983) proposes an AHP-based
methodology for supplier selection and performance
evaluation. Tam and Tummala (2001) discuss the
application of AHP in supplier selection and
performance evaluation of a telecommunication
system. Ghodsypour and Brien (1998) proposed
both AHP and linear programming techniques to
assess both qualitative and quantitative factors in
the selection of the suppliers.
During recent years, many techniques for assessing
the performance of suppliers has been reported in
the literature, notable among them are principal
component analysis (PCA) mentioned by Petroni
and Braglia (2000), total cost of ownership by
Ellram (1995), interpretive structural modeling by
Mandal and Deshmukh (1994). Narasimhan, Talluri
and Mendez (2001) proposed the data envelopment
analysis (DEA) for supplier evaluation and
rationalization which also incorporates multiple
supplier inputs and outputs in determining the
relative efficiencies. Jeong and Lee (2002) propose
a multi-criteria supplier selection (MCSS) model to
deal with the supplier selection problems in the
SCM, where a fuzzy-based methodology is used to
assess the ratings for the qualitative factors, like
profitability and quality. Carrera and Mayorga
(2007) discussed an application of fuzzy set theory
in supply chain management, specically in supplier
selection for new product development. Here, a
Fuzzy Inference System is proposed as an
alternative approach to handle effectively the
impreciseness and uncertainty that are normally
found in supplier selection processes. Shirouyehzad,
Panjehfouladgaran, Dabestani and Badakhshian
(2011) elaborated fuzzy logic controller as a
robust and easy understanding approach is

applied to transform the quantitative variable to
linguistic terms in order to measure the
vendors performance.
OVERVIEW
OF
SYSTEM (FIS)
FUZZY
INFERENCE
To maximize supply chains, companies must ensure

that they have an actualized picture of suppliers and
demand issues. They must ensure the efficient,
timely, and cost-effective procurement of goods,
starting at the product integration stage. Therefore,
we thought that fuzzy logic concepts could better
represents the cognitive processes of the specialists.
The primary function of the fuzzy-rule based
inference system is to establish a mapping from
inputs to outputs. However, this mapping
mechanism is not built on any precisely defined
analytical or numerical function. Instead, it is
constructed on human knowledge: As experience
and intuitions are often represented in the form of
(IFTHEN) rules, it works just like an expert
who reasons and inferences by using knowledge
available to him or her. It is therefore called an
inference engine that applies knowledge on the
inputs and derives solutions as outputs. Figure 1
shows a block diagram of a FIS.
Fuzzy inference system consists of:
1. Fuzzification interface,
2. Rule base
3. Data base
4. Decision-making unit, and
5. Defuzzification interface.
A FIS is described in figure as:
Fig. 1 Block Diagram of FIS
A rule base contains number of fuzzy If-Then

rules;
A database which defines the membership
functions of the fuzzy sets used in the fuzzy
rules;
A decision-making unit which performs the
inference operations on the rules;
A fuzzification interface which transforms the
crisp inputs into degrees of match with
linguistic values; and
226

A Defuzzification interface which transforms

the fuzzy results of the inference into a crisp
output.
The core of the inference engine is its knowledge,
which is represented in the form of if-then rules.
The fuzzy-rule base for the supplier performance
assessment consists of a group of if-then rules
with two inputs representing the two supplier
selection variables and output representing the
supplier performance score.
Mamdanis fuzzy implication rule has been used for
the inference logic. Basically, when the inference
engine receives a set of inputs. All the rules may be
activated or fired to a certain degree, and they
produce individual outputs accordingly. The
individual outputs are combined together using
minimum-maximum logic operation to produce
the aggregated single fuzzy output. Finally, the
fuzzy output is to be defuzzified to generate a
digital or crisp output.
The variables as the systems inputs are to be
fuzzified for the fuzzy inference engine to work on
them. Before fuzzification, the suppliers variables
are just crisp numerical data carrying no linguistic
value. Fuzzification involves assigning a set of
predefined fuzzy membership functions to them so
that the data are transformed into a set of
meaningful observations for fuzzy inference engine.
The FIS works as follows:
The crisp input is converted in to fuzzy by using
fuzzification method. After fuzzification the rule
base is formed. The rule base and the database are
jointly referred to as the knowledge base.
Defuzzification is used to convert fuzzy value to the
real world value (crisp value) which is the output.
The steps of fuzzy reasoning (inference operations
upon fuzzy IFTHEN rules) performed by FISs are:
1. Compare the input variables with the membership
functions on the antecedent part to obtain the
membership values of each linguistic label. (This
step is often called fuzzication.)
2. Combine (through a specic t-norm operator,
usually multiplication or min) the membership
values on the premise part to get ring strength
(weight) of each rule.
3. Generate the qualied consequents (either fuzzy
or crisp) or each rule depending on the ring
strength.
4. Aggregate the qualied consequents to produce a
crisp output. (This step is called defuzzication.)
The most important two types of fuzzy
inference method are Mamdanis fuzzy inference
method, which is the most commonly seen inference
method. This method was introduced by Mamdani
and Assilian (1975). Another well-known inference
method is the so-called Sugeno or TakagiSugeno

Kang method of fuzzy inference process. This
method was introduced by Sugeno (1985). This
method is also called as TS method. The main
dierence between the two methods lies in the
consequent of fuzzy rules. Mamdani fuzzy systems
use fuzzy sets as rule consequent whereas TS fuzzy
systems employ linear functions of input variables
as rule consequent. All the existing results on fuzzy
systems as universal approximators deal with
Mamdani fuzzy systems only and no result is
available for TS fuzzy systems with linear rule
consequent.
Fuzzy rules are a collection of linguistic statements
that describe how the FIS should make a decision
regarding classifying an input or controlling an
output. Fuzzy rules are always written in the
following form:
if (input 1 is membership function 1) and/or (input 2
is membership function 2) and/or... then (outputn is
output membership function n).
The purpose of fuzzication is to map the inputs
from a set of sensors (or features of those sensors
such as amplitude or spectrum) to values from 0 to 1
using a set of input membership functions.
The consequence of a fuzzy rule is computed using
two steps:
1. Computing the rule strength by combining the
fuzzied inputs using the fuzzy combination
process.
2. Clipping the output membership function at the
rule strength.
The outputs of all of the fuzzy rules must now be
combined to obtain one fuzzy output distribution.
In many instances, it is desired to come up with a
single crisp output from an FIS. This crisp number
is obtained in a process known as defuzzication.
THE PROPOSED METHODOLOGY USING
FIS
The above described method may summarize by
following steps.
1. Determine the set of bidding suppliers.
2. Determine the objective, alternative and
criteria.
3. Identify the input and output variables.
4. Propose membership functions for input and
output variables.
5. Propose rules to determine the relations
between inputs and outputs.
6. Select an appropriate inference mechanism.
7. Placement of alternatives corresponding to each
criterion.
8. Extract the evaluation result by the MATLAB
software.
227

CASE STUDY
Here, we illustrate the proposed system in
prioritizing suppliers for casting company situated
in GIDC Chitra at Bhavnagar. Company was
established in 1980 and at present its annual output
is 1000 Metric Ton. Its products ranges from Gray
Iron Castings, S.G. Iron (Ductile Iron) produced in
different grades from 30gms to 100 kgs and
specialized in thin walled castings which cater need
of Electrical Industry, Engineering Industries and
Automobile Industry. We analyze seven vendors as
alternatives using the criteria as Timeliness of
Deliveries and Rejection Rate of Parts. The
hierarchy of the model is shown below.
Fig. 4 Rejection rate Membership function
Fig. 5 Timeliness of Delivery Membership function
Fig. 2 The Hierarchy of the model
The linguistic variables for criteria and

their corresponded membership functions are as
follows
Fig. 6 Output Rating Membership function
By discussing with the purchase manager

and other key personnel 21 rules are derived by
considering two criteria.
Some of the sample rules are as follows:
1.
Fig. 3 the Input and Output
2.
The proposed inference system applies triangular
and trapezoidal membership functions to dene the
shape of both input and output variables. These
curves, used for dening the fuzzy sets, have the
advantages of simplicity these are shown below.
3.
4.
If (Rejection Rate is Very Low)

(Timeliness of Delivery is Very Good)
(Rating is Good) (1)
(Timeliness of Delivery is Good)
(Rating is Good) (1)
(Timeliness of Delivery is Average)
(Rating is Average) (1)
(Timeliness of Delivery is Average)
(Rating is Average) (1)
and
then
and
then
and
then
and
then
228

5.
If (Rejection Rate is Very Low) and

(Timeliness of Delivery is Poor) then (Rating
is Average) (1)
RESULT
Table 3
Ranking According to Fuzzy Inference System in
MATLAB
Vendor Name
Rank
Table 1 shows the values of input criteria; Table 2

shows the Obtained results with best vendor V2.
Table 3 shows the hierarchy of vendor according
output score.
V2
V3
V6
Table 1
V5
Delivery
Rating
V1
2.07
9.00
V4
V2
0.44
9.00
V7
V3
0.15
7.00
V4
1.07
6.50
V5
0.35
7.50
V6
0.33
6.50
V7
1.21
3.00
Sr.
No.
Vendor Name
V1
Average
Rejection Rate
Table 2
Rating According to Fuzzy Inference System in
MATLAB
Vendor Name
Rating
V1
5.00
V2
8.85
V3
8.81
V4
2.77
V5
5.88
V6
6.12
V7
1.3
Fig. 7 shows the rule viewer of the FIS for the

linguistic descriptions and the corresponding
membership values for one vendor (V2)
corresponding to the given variables. In this figure,
a set of rules is shown for the supplier performance
evaluation. The input variables for one vendor, the
corresponding output score are presented. Similarly,
the performance scores for other vendors are
computed using FIS, and shown in Table 2.
Fig. 7 Rule viewer and result of Vendor 2
Figure 8 shows one of the output surfaces

of the FIS. Two input variables, namely Rejection
rate and Timeliness of delivery vary (0 to 2), and (0
to 10), respectively. Once the knowledge base is
prepared and stored in the FIS in the form of rule
base, it become easier to forecast the supplier
performance score for any combination of suppliers
input variables.
229

Fig. 8 Surface viewer ( 3-D result of Vendor 2)
CONCLUSION
Considering the results of the proposed system, it
can be seen that the FIS approach provides a more
humanlike approach to solve vendor rating
problems and it is also found that the reasoning of
the system was close to an experts reasoning
process.
For the clarity of presentation and simple
illustration of the complex methodology, only a two
variable case has been considered in this paper.
Fairly large problems can also be undertaken and
the proposed methodology may offer consistent
performance in these cases too. In the present study,
a triangular and trapezoidal fuzzy membership
functions are adopted owing to their simplicity.
However, to address the problem in a realistic way,
this restriction may be relaxed, and different
membership functions corresponding to each
linguistic description can be associated, and the
proposed methodology can be implemented in a
given situation.
REFERENCES
Carrera D.A. and Mayorga R.V. (2007). Supply
chain management: a modular Fuzzy Inference
System approach in supplier selection for new
product development Journal of Inteligent
Manufacturing 19:112
Dickson, G.W. (1966). An analysis of vendor
selection systems and decisions, Journal of
Purchasing, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 5-17.
Ellram, L.M. (1995). Total cost of ownership: an
analysis approach for purchasing. International
Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics
Management. Vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 4-23.
Ghodsypour, S.H. and OBrien, C. (1998). A
decision support system using an integrated
analytical
hierarchy
process
and
linear
programming. International Journal of Production
Economics, Vol. 56, pp. 199-212.

Jeong, C.S. and Lee, Y.H. (2002). A multi-criteria
supplier selection (MCSS) model for supply chain
management. VISION: The Journal of Business
Perspective. Pp. 51-60.
Mandal, A. and Deshmukh, S.G. (1994). Vendor
selection using interpretative structural modeling
(ISM). International Journal of Operations &
Production Management. Vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 52-9.
Narasimhan, R. (1983). An analytical approach to
supplier selection. Journal of Purchasing and
Materials Management, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 27-36.
Narasimhan, R. Talluri, S. and Mendez, D. (2001).
Supplier evaluation and rationalization via data
envelopment analysis: and empirical examination.
The Journal of Supply Chain Management. Vol. 25,
pp. 135-49.
Petroni, A. and Braglia, M. (2000). Vendor
selection using principal component analysis. The
Journal of Supply Chain Management, Spring, pp.
63-9.
Shirouyehzad,
H.,
Panjehfouladgaran,
H.,
Dabestani, and R., Badakhshian, M. (2011).
Vendor Performance Measurement Using Fuzzy
Logic Controller The Journal of Mathematics and
Computer Science. Vol. 2 No.2 pp. 311-318
Soukup, W.R. (1997). Supplier selection
strategies, Journal of Purchasing and Materials
Management, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 7-12.
Tam, M.C.Y. and Tummala, V.M.R. (2001). An
application of AHP in vendor selection of
telecommunications system. Omega, Vol. 29, pp.
171-82.
Weber, C.A., Current, J. & Desai, A. (2000). An
optimization approach to determining the number of
vendors to employ. Supply Chain Management: An
International Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 90-98.
Weber, C.A., Current, J.R. and Benton, W.C.
(1991), Vendor selection criteria and methods,
European Journal of Operational Research, Vol.50
No.1, pp.2-18.
Willis, T.H., Huston, C.R., and Pohlkamp, F.
(1993). Evaluation measure of just-in-time supplier
performance. Journal of Production and Inventory
management, 2nd Quarter, pp. 1-6.
Wind, Y. and Robinson, P.J. (1968). The
determinants of vendor selection: the evaluation
function approach. Journal of Purchasing and
Materials Management, August, pp.29-41.
230

Design and Comparative Analysis of

Mathematical and Simulation Models in
Injection Molding Decision System
V.Seralathan
Research Scholar, SRS College of Engineering and Technology, Kuppanur, Salem
E-mail: vseralathan@gmail.com
Dr C. Jegadheesan
Principal, Paavai Engineering College, Pachal, Namakkal
ABSTRACT
Injection molding is a very challenging process for many manufacturers and researchers to produce the products meeting
requirements at lower cost. Many algorithms and techniques have been developed to improve the production capacity,
improve the quality, but it is uncertain. In this study, a mathematical model for the injection molding decision system is
proposed with efficient parameters developed by means of simulation and mathematical models. In both models, the product
quality value is computed by utilizing parameter values. The decision is taken by using the environment parameters and the
computed quality values. The performances of both models are analyzed with more experimental values and compared to
find the model having high score performance in product quality as well as in molding decision.
Keywords: Injection Molding Design, Feed Forward

Back Propagation Neural Network (FFBNN), Fuzzy
Inference System (FIS), Fuzzy Rules, Process
Parameters, Simulation Based Model, Mathematical
Based Model and Polynomial Coefficients.
the strength of the experts several years of

experience, and its long-term trial-and-error leads
to an increase in expenditure [4]. Normally, the
injection molding process includes three stages:
filling, packing, and cooling [5].
INTRODUCTION
Injection Molding is one of the most recognized
techniques often used for producing plastic parts in
large scale. It is a highly economical, accurate, and
efficient manufacturing process, which can be
automated [1]. Injection molding process is
extremely difficult and challenging for several
manufacturers and researchers to create the
products meeting requirements at low-priced. Its
intricacy and the vast amount of process parameter
manipulation during real time production will
create a very extreme effort to maintain the process
under control [2]. One of the major goals in
injection molding is the enhancement of quality of
molded parts in addition to the reduction of cycle
time and production cost. Solving problems
regarding quality has a direct effect on the
expected profit for injection molding companies
[3]. Traditional design and manufacturing process
for plastic injection molding parts is done based on
Injection mold design has been the primary area of

research because it is a complicated process, which
involves many sub-designs related to various
components of the mold, each necessitating expert
knowledge and experience [6]. The product design
activity involves creation of several decisions
based on an extremely wide range of knowledge
and information. Using the design constraints, the
designers can obtain more quality information,
where they can make some better decisions. These
constraints depict part of the knowledge concerned
in the product design, and seize the different types
of interactions during the design of an artifact [7].
Injection molding knowledge management system
is proposed to preserve the knowledge in company,
and classified the knowledge into design, material,
process, CAE (Computer Aided-Engineering) and
resolution
[10].
The
design
of
an
injection mold is a highly interactive and manual
process involving considerable knowledge of
231

diverse areas, such as mould design features,

mould making processes, molding equipment, and
part design, and all of them are highly coupled to
each other [14]. Normally, design of an injection
mold is done manually because of the high level of
experience, practical knowledge and proficiency
needed for the job. But, this is often tedious, time
consuming, and error-prone [8].
The process of creating a new product, from design
to manufacturing generates significant amount of
data and information, and depends on the
knowledge gathered from the development of prior
projects. However, this knowledge, kept by a
minimal number of experts, is not necessarily
captured for future use, because which leads to
time-wasting and project delays [13]. There are
numerous research papers regarding the
developments of knowledge-based and object
oriented approaches of injection molds and their
design features as feed system, cooling system,
ejection system and entire mold construction [9].
An expert knowledge system can be defined as an
intelligent computer program that exploits
knowledge and inference procedures to solve
problems that are tricky enough to require
substantial human proficiency for their solutions
[11]. Usually, knowledge based systems enable
users with a problem to consult a computer system
because they are expert mentor to analyze what
may be causing a problem and discover how to
solve a problem, perform a task or to make a
decision [12].
RELATED WORKS
Ching-Chih Tsai et al. [15] have proposed
pragmatic techniques for mechatronic design and
injection speed control of an ultra high-speed
plastic injection molding device. Several rules have
been developed to select specifications of key
mechatronic components in the hydraulic servo
system, in order to build a robust industry-level
machine. With some assumptions, a mathematical
model of the injection speed control system has
been established and then an open-loop
experimental data has been used to validate the
system model. By the model, a gain scheduling PI
(Proportional Integral) controller and a fuzzy PI
controller have been presented, compared and then
implemented into a DSP via standard C
programming techniques. Experimental results
have proved that the two proposed controllers were
efficient in achieving a satisfactory speed tracking
performance. They have also suggested that these
proposed techniques can provide useful references

for engineers and researchers trying to design
pragmatic, economical but high-performance ultra
high-injection speed controllers.
As well, an approach to design distributed
knowledge based software platform for injection
mold industry has been proposed by Milko
Marinov et al. [16]. Here, the user requirements to
the software tools and the key features of their
design have been defined.
Moreover, the basic philosophy and the
architecture of the software platform and decision
support tools have been considered.
Using Taguchi approach, Mathivanan et al. [17]
have studied the influence of injection molding
variables on sink marks. The optimal parameter
settings and the corresponding sink depth have
been obtained using this approach. The sink depth
based on the validation trials has been compared
with the predicted sink depth and observed that
there is a good agreement between them. The
results have shown the ability of the approach in
predicting the sink depth for different combination
of processing variables within the design space.
Among 100 hours of engineering work, only 20 are
utilized for real engineering and 80 are spent on
what is considered as routine activities.
Readjusting the ratio of new vs. routine work is a
great challenge in the product lifecycle
management (PLM) approach. Thus, Luis
Toussaint et al. [18] have intended to create an
approach in order to expedite routine processes in
engineering design. Using the proposed technique
called FabK, the manufacturing knowledge and its
applications towards the design verification and
validation of new engineering designs have been
captured. The proposed approach has been
implemented on a web based PLM prototype and a
computer aided design system. A series of
experiments from an industrial case study has been
conducted to offer substantial results.
Shayfull et al. [19] have aimed to optimize the
length of weld line formation in thin plate via
Taguchi approach. They have utilized a plastic
product for their analysis. The plastic part was a
thin plate with two holes and two cavities by using
edge
gate.
Thermoplastic
Polycarbonate/
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) has
been used as a plastic material. The optimum value
of injection molding parameters has been identified
using the Taguchi technique and Moldflow Plastic
Insight software has been utilized to validate the
232

injection molding process. The temperature

differences on core and cavity plates have been
considered in simulation and the experimental
results have demonstrated that instead of melting
temperature, the temperature differences on mold
can also assist to reduce the length of weld line.
Also, their research has provided an excellent way
to reduce the length of weld lines in a thin plate as
well as to enhance the cosmetic appearance of the
plastic parts produced.
The existing methods improve the production
capacity and the quality of the knowledge base by
simulation or mathematical models. Here, this
model gives high performance in their product
production quality but the performance is not
constant at all times. One of our current simulation
based model increases the production capacity by
controlling the process parameters and thus
improving the quality of the knowledge base. This
simulation model has considered some efficient
parameters like working environment, device
parameter specification, customer potential, and
resource availability. In this device parameter
specification, many control and process parameters
are used that provide the product quality and also
make the decision. The decision making process is
performed by the product quality, working
environment, customer potential, and resource
availability. The subsequent process of simulation
model has provided an accurate product quality and
decision based on the parameter values. But, we
cant assure that this method provides high
performance for all different parameter values
composed from various industries. So, an analysis
is required for this simulation model based
injection molding decision system.
Thus, we aimed to propose a mathematical model
for the injection molding decision system. With the
help of the simulation model based injection
molding decision system, the mathematical model
is developed by utilizing all the parameters input
and the corresponding output values from the
simulation model results. The simulation model
input and output values are involved in the
mathematical model creation process. New
industrial dataset parameter values are collected
and tested with existing simulation model and in
the same way, the mathematical models are also
created for this new industrial dataset values.
Moreover, the performance of both simulation and
mathematical models are evaluated with unknown
dataset parameter values. The remaining part of
this paper is organized as follows: In section 3, a
brief description about the previous injection
molding decision system based on simulation

model is presented. Section 4.1 and 4.2 illustrates
the designed mathematical model for the quality
estimation process and the injection molding
decision process, respectively. In section 5, the
analysis of both simulation and mathematical
models is given. Finally, the conclusion of the
paper is given in section 6.
SIMULATION MODEL FOR INJECTION

MOLDING DECISION SYSTEM
In the simulation model based injection molding
system, the product quality and the decision are
computed using efficient parameters. The function
of this simulation model is briefly explained in the
previous injection molding decision design system.
The injection molding decision system consists of
two important stages: Quality Estimator (Qe) and
Decision Service (Ds). In quality estimator, the
product quality is estimated by the device
specification
parameters
such
as
barrel
temperature,
nozzle
temperature,
hopper
temperature, back pressure, screw speed, three
zones front, middle, & rear temperature, mold
temperature, melt temperature, and injection time.
The aforementioned device specification parameter
values are used in the quality estimation process by
using FFBNN. Subsequently, in the Decision
Service process, the decision is taken by using the
values of product Quality, location parameter,
customer potential level of the specified location,
and resource availability of the location through
Fuzzy Inference System (FIS).
QUALITY ESTIMATION
The device parameter specification analyzer phase
in the quality estimation process mainly focuses on
the parameter training and testing process. The
parameter training and testing process is performed
using the Feed Forward Back Propagation Neural
Network (FFBNN). The process and control
process parameters in quality parameters provider
produce a product quality based on their values. In
FFBNN network, the information is transferred
only in forward direction i.e., from the input nodes,
through the hidden nodes (if any) and to the output
nodes. The number of input layers, hidden layers,
and output layers are adjusted to fit the data points
to the curve. During the training stage, the training
data in the accumulator array is given to the input
layer. Here, the training data are used as parameter
values. The parameter values in quality parameters
provider are represented as
233

QPi {QP1 , QP2 , QPn } , where n is the

number of parameters in the device parameter
specification.
The parameter values are bounded
min
between QPi
QPi QPimax .
DECISION SERVICE
The decision service takes decision based on the
rules generated from the rules generator phase.
The rules generator generates rules based on the
parameter values obtained from the decision
parameters provider and the generated rules are
analyzed in the working environment analyzer
stage. In rules generator phase, a Fuzzy Inference
System (FIS) is employed to generate the rules.
The decision parameter values are used as input to
the fuzzy rules, and the parameter values are
represented in two levels: Low (L) and High (H).
Usually, the fuzzy rules are in the form of IF A
THEN B. IF-part of the rule is called as
antecedent, and THEN-part of the rule is called as
conclusion. We have implemented the fuzzy
inference system based on the fuzzy If-Then rules.
The fuzzy inference system is developed for each
fuzzy rule. The proposed injection molding design
decision framework provides suggestion about the
product production that we can build a product
when the product quality reach the high level based
on the device parameter values. Moreover, the
decision process increases the production capacity
in organizations as well as prevent from the
production loss.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR
INJECTION MOLDING DECISION SYSTEM
The proposed methodology for the injection
molding decision system consists of two steps:
developing a mathematical model for quality
estimation, and developing another mathematical
model for decision service based on the previous
mathematical model result. The optimal quality
estimation and the decision service achieved by the
developed mathematical models based injection
molding system improve the production capacity
and profits of the company. Both mathematical
models have also considered the same efficient
parameters that are already discussed in the
previous simulation based injection molding
decision system.
MATHEMATICAL MODELING FOR QUALITY
ESTIMATION
the quality estimation process. Each parameter

value is represented in the mathematical form by
the polynomial functions. The polynomial
equations are derived for each parameter, i.e. N
numbers of equations are generated in the
mathematical model. The basic polynomial
function is described below,
f (x) an xn an1xn1 a2x2 a1x a0 Eq.(1)

In equ. (1), x represents the arguments
(parameters), n is the non-negative integer values,
and a0 , a1 , a 2 a n are the constant polynomial
coefficient values. In the injection molding
decision system, the mathematical models of the
parameters are stated as follows,
n1
n2
Q( p1)anp1n an1p1 an2p1 a2p1 a1p1a0

Eq. (2)
n1
n2
2
Q( p2 ) an p2n an1p2 an2 p2 a2p2
a1p2 a0
Eq.(3)
n1
n2
2
Q( p3 ) an p3n an1p3 an2p3 a2p3 a1p3 a0
Eq.(4)
n1
n2
n
Q( pN ) an pN
an1 pN an2 pN a2 pN a1 pN a0
`
Eq.(5)
Eqn. (2), (3), (4) and (5) are solved individually

and later, the values of the coefficients are
determined and applied in the corresponding
coefficients positions. The coefficients in each
equation are not same and the values are changed
between the equations. Then, the new coefficients
are calculated by using the following equation,
a' i 0.25 * ai ,i 1,2, n max
Eq. (6)
The quality value of the parameters based on the
generated mathematical models are computed as
follows,
N
Q p N
j 1
Q( P )
Eq. (7)
In eqn. (7), Q( P ) describes the quality value of

the input parameters p N . The developed
mathematical model for the quality estimation
process is given in the Eq. (8).
Let the parameters in the quality estimation process

be Q( P ) { p1 , p2 , p3 , p N } , where N is
the number of parameters that we are considered in
234

max
max
Q pN an' max pn a' nmax1 pn
max
a' nmax2 pn
a' 2 p2 a'1 p a' 0

Eq. (8)
Based on this developed mathematical model, the
quality value is obtained, which is then used for
performing the decision service.
MATHEMATICAL
MODELING
FOR
DECISION SERVICE
The decision service mathematical model is
developed by exploiting the decision parameters
and the estimated quality value from the above
mathematical model. Let the parameters in the
decision service be
D( P ) { d1 , d 2 , d 3 , d M } , where M is
the number of parameters in the decision process.
In addition, the quality value Q( P ) obtained
from the above mentioned mathematical model is
also considered as the parameter.
The developed mathematical model for the
decision service is given as,
D xQ( p ) xd1 xd 2 xd3 xd M Eq.(9)
In eqn. (9), x is the constant coefficient value. The
coefficients are same for all the parameters in
decision service. The results obtained from the
generated mathematical model are involved in the
thresholding process for making decision about the
product. Two decisions are generated similar to the
simulation model and these two decisions are taken
out by two threshold values. The thresholding
function for the decision service is stated as
follows,
Yes; if D T
Eq. (10)
DS
No ; if D T
Where, T is the user-defined non negative integer
threshold value, and D is the value obtained from
the developed mathematical model.
The proposed injection molding decision system
based on mathematical model performs quality
estimation and decision service process.
The quality estimation includes process and control
process parameters, namely barrel temperature,
nozzle temperature, hopper temperature, back
pressure, screw speed, three zones front, middle,
and rear temperature, mold temperature, melt
temperature, and injection time. The mathematical
model is developed for the quality estimation
process with these parameters and based on these

parameter values, the product quality value is
estimated. The performance of the quality
estimation process is analyzed by conducting a
series of experiments. The mathematical model
based quality estimation performance is shown in
the below table 1.
Table 1: Mathematical Model based Quality
Estimation Performance Analysis
Quality Parameters
Experiment
I
II
III
Mold Temperature (in F)
75
80
93
Melt Temperature (in F)
373
386
387
Injection Time (in sec)
0.9
1.3
1.1
Barrel Temperature (in F)
381
385
390
Nozzle Temperature (in F)
379
381
386
Feed Temperature (in F)
120
132
146
Back Pressure (in psi)
70
87
140
Screw Speed (in rpm)
89
110
135
Front Zone Temperature

(in F)
372
380
377
Middle Zone Temperature

(in F)
350
357
380
Rear Zone Temperature (in

F)
313
325
329
Quality
71
72
77
Also, the mathematical model for the decision

service process uses working environment
parameters to make the product decision. The
parameters considered in the decision service
process are working environment location
parameter, customer potential level, resource
availability of the location, and quality of the
product that are obtained from the previous
mathematical model based quality estimation
process. Based on these decision parameter values,
the developed mathematical model produces the
output.
The proposed framework is implemented using
MATLAB 7.12.0 (R2011a) in the system with core
i3 processor and 4GB RAM running with windows
XP. The performance of the mathematical model is
evaluated by performing number of experiments
with the selected parameters from different
location. The designed GUI (Graphical User
Interface) for this developed injection molding
235

decision system based on mathematical model is

shown in figure 1
Figure 1: GUI for the Proposed Mathematical
Model based Injection Molding Design Decision
Framework
The performance of the mathematical model based

decision service process and the output of the GUI
is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Mathematical Model based Decision
Service Performance Analysis
Experiment
Decision
Parameters
I
II
III
Location
Parameter
0.013888
0.0142855
0.0153844
Customer
potential
67
35
97
Resource
Availability
18
59
97
Quality
Value
71
92
77
Decision
Yes
Yes
Yes
In table 2, the parameters in decision service are

generated based on the selected location. These
parameters values and quality values are used as
input to the decision service mathematical model.
The decision No is obtained when the location
resource availability value is very low and the
decision Yes is obtained when all the parameter
values and the quality values of these experiments
are high.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Table 3: Simulation Model based Quality
Estimation Performance Analysis
Experiment
Quality Parameters
I
II
III
Mold Temperature (in F)
75
80
93
Melt Temperature (in F)
373
386
387
Injection Time (in sec)
0.9
1.3
1.1
Barrel Temperature (in F)
381
385
390
Nozzle Temperature (in F)
379
381
386
Feed Temperature (in F)
120
132
146
Back Pressure (in psi)
70
87
140
Screw Speed (in rpm)
89
110
135
Front Zone Temp. (in F)
372
380
377
Middle Zone Temp.(in F)
350
357
380
Rear Zone Temp. (in F)
313
325
329
Quality
71
92
67
In
comparative
analysis,
the
proposed
mathematical model based injection molding
decision system is compared with the simulation
model based injection molding decision system.
The both model performance in injection molding
decision system is carried out by performing the
three numbers of experiments. The parameters
values in quality and decision estimation process
are same for both models. Three experiments are
conducted for the performance analysis. The result
from these three experiments of the simulation
model is shown in the following tables 3 and 4.
Table 4: Simulation model based Decision Service
Performance Analysis
Decision
Experiment
Parameter
I
II
III
s
Location
0.013888 0.014285
0.015384
Parameter
7
5
4
Customer
46
35
76
potential
Resource
25
40
97
Availability
Quality
Value
71
72
67
Decision
No
Yes
Yes
236

The comparison results from these above

mentioned tables 3 and 1 shows that the
performance of simulation model based quality
estimation process is higher than the quality
estimation based on the mathematical model. The
higher performance result shows that the
simulation model efficiently computes the product
quality than the mathematical model based
estimated quality value. Moreover, the result from
the tables 2 and 4 shows that the simulation model
decision performance level is high when compared
to the mathematical model decision performance.
In some experiments, both the simulation and
mathematical models give same performance. The
decision service output Yes indicates that the
parameters in decision service are efficient in
improving the product production capacity and
No indicates that the parameter values are
inefficient in improving the production capacity.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, we presented a comparative analysis
of mathematical model and simulation model of the
injection molding decision system. The injection
molding decision system has well performed the
quality estimation and decision service processes in
both simulation and mathematical models. The
performance of both simulation and mathematical
models were evaluated by conducting several
experiments. The results have illustrated that the
developed simulation model performance was
excellent in quality estimation and decision service
process compared to the mathematical model based
injection molding system. From this comparative
analysis, we found that the proposed simulation
model has high performance in quality and
decision than the mathematical model.
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238

A Parameter Affecting a Surface

Roughness in Milling Machine
Keyur Patel
PG Student of Production Engineering, LDRP ITR, Gandhinagar, India.
Kcpatel243@gmail.com
Mrs. VidyaNair
Prof. of Production Engineering, LDRP ITR, Gandhinagar, India.
Vidya1402@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
As competition grows closer, customer now have increasingly high demands on quality, making surface roughness become
one of the most competitive dimensions in todays manufacturing industry. Surface roughness, an indicator of surface
quality, is one of the most specified customer requirements in machining of parts. In this study, the experimental results
corresponding to effects of different feed rates(450,485,525,550,600 mm/min), different cutting speeds(650, 750, 850, 1000,
1250 RPM) and various depth of cuts (0.03,0.06,0.1 mm), on the surface quality of the OHNS steel work pieces milled on
industrial production CNC Milling Machine center V80.The experimental table obtained from the Taguchi Method. Minitab
were used to generate data for main effect plots, Interaction plots, contour plots, 3D graphs showing effects of machining
parameters on surface roughness in milling. A comparison creates predicting models.
MOTIVATION
In a modern high-precision industrial machining
environment, there is a general push to constantly
produce better and better parts by improving surface
roughness of the machined parts. As competition
grows closer, customers now have increasingly high
demands on quality, making surface roughness
become one of the most competitive dimensions in
todays manufacturing industry. In all manufacturing
methods, besides the dimensions and geometrical
tolerances of products, a satisfactory surface
roughness quality is of great importance.
Surface roughness is an important design
consideration as it impacts many part characteristics
such as fatigue strength, clean ability, assembly
tolerances, coefficient of friction, wear rate, corrosion
resistance, and aesthetics.
Besides other parameters, the desired productivity,
tool life and resistance against the outer effects of
operating machine tool types are dependent on the
surface quality as well. Surface operations realized in
various manufacturing systems are affected by the
process parameters directly or indirectly. Process
parameters chosen with non-accordance cause losses
such as rapid tool wear and tool fracture besides the
economic losses including spoiled work pieces or

reduced surface quality.
In machining, surface quality is one of the most
commonly specified customer requirements in which
the major indication of surface quality on machined
parts is surface roughness. Surface roughness is
mainly a result of process parameters such as tool
geometry (nose radius, edge geometry, rake angle,
etc.) and cutting conditions (feed rate, cutting speed,
depth of cut, etc.)
Figure 1.shows confusing situation for optimization
in milling. In order for manufacturers to maximize
their gains from utilizing turning, an accurate model
must be constructed of the process. Several different
statistical modeling techniques have been used to
generate models, including regression, surface
response generation, and Taguchi methods. Though
many attempts have been made to generate a model,
these current models only describe a small subset of
the overall process. Research suggests among all
predictive models Artificial Neural Network model
predicts more accurate results than other predictive
models in CNC turning.
In the continuing effort to select proper machining
parameters specifically operator
controllable
239

parameters feed, speed and depth of cut for specified

constant parameters to improve the surface roughness
in machined parts, this dissertation work is carried
out that will help in determining surface roughness
before actual milling leading to proper value
selection of machining parameters for better surface
finish for improved quality in turned parts.
easily controllable by operator. Output parameter is

surface roughness which is measured by surface
roughness tester. Other parameters are considered as
constant parameters.
Table 2.Parameters considered in experiment work
Input Parameters
1
Feed Rate, f, (mm/min)
Spindle Speed, Vc , (rpm)
Depth of Cut, ap, (mm)
Constant Parameters
Figure.1 Optimization Confusion

MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION
Based on material review, OHNS material is selected
for experimental work whose general information is
shown in Table 2.1. OHNS material is widely used
as dies for extrusion, stamping dies, casting dies for
light alloys, forging dies, machine tools and general
engineering applications.
OHNS material is widely used in industrial
application although literature reviews show less
work is carried out on this material. For economic
and quality machining of this material to benefit the
industry OHNS material is considered for this
experimental work.
Table.1 General Information of OHNS Material
Steel
Notes
BS920
08M20
(OHNS)
Medium Strength steel. Suitable for a

extrusion dies and forging dies
etc.Supplied as a square bar, or round
bar or flat.
We have received material in form of bar of

rectangular of 50*50*70 mm and from it 6 work
pieces are prepared on which experimental work is
carried out.
PARAMETERS CONSIDERED FOR
EXPERIMENT
In this dissertation work input parameters considered
for CNC milling are machining parameters which are
Insert Material (Tm )
Workpiece Material (Wm = OHNS)
Insert Corner Radius ( Re)
Workpiece Size ( 50*50*70 mm)
Cutting Length (L = 70 mm)
Insert Geometry
(SEMX 12-04-AF-T-N-ME12 )
Cutting Condition
Output Parameter
1
Surface Roughness, Ra, m
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT
A designed experiment is the simultaneous
evaluation of two or more factors (parameters) for
their ability to affect the resultant average or
variability of particular product or process
characteristics. To accomplish this is an effective and
statically proper fashion, the levels of the factors are
varied in a strategic manner, the results of the
particular test combinations are observed.
Thus, DOE is a technique of defining and investing
all possible conditions in an experiment involving
multiple factors also referred as factorial design.
Techniques such as factorial and fractional factorial
designs are used for DOE where fraction factorial
technique is used to simplify the experiment.
Fractional factorial experiments investigate only a
fraction of all the possible combinations. This
approach saves considerable time and money but
requires rigorous mathematical treatment. Herein lies
Taguchis contribution to the science of DOE who
simplified and standardized the fractional factorial
designs in a such a way that tend to obtain similar
240

results by different experimenter for the same

experiment. Taguchis concept has produced a unique
and power full quality improvement discipline that
differs from traditional practices.
combinations (5 VC * 5 f * 3 ap) results in a total 75

observations. By using Taguchi concept 25
observations are carried out.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
TAGUCHI DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT

The method pushes quality back to the design stage,
seeking to design a product/process, which is
insensitive to quality problems.
Taguchi design of experiment steps
1.
Formulation of the problem the success of any

experiment is dependent on a full understanding
of the nature of the problem.
2. Identification of the output performance
characteristics most relevant to the problem.
3. Identification of control factors, noise factors and
signal factors (if any). Control factors are those
which can be controlled under normal production
conditions. Noise factors are those which are
either too difficult or too expensive to control
under normal production conditions. Signal
factors are those which affect the mean
performance of the process.
4. Selection of factor levels, possible interactions
and the degrees of freedom associated with each
factor and the interaction effects.
5. Design of an appropriate Orthogonal Array
(OA).
6. Preparation of the experiment.
7. Running of the experiment with appropriate data
collection.
8. Statistical analysis and interpretation of
experimental results.
9. Undertaking a confirmatory run of the
experiment.
So that, in this Design of Experiments, These all
three factors and their unique factor level
The setup of the experiments consisted of following

major steps:
Selection of work specimen.
Insert Selection.
Preparation of CNC Part Program for
turning of specified work pieces.
CNC Milling of 6 work pieces for total 25
machining parameters combinations.
Surface Roughness measurement of total
25*3 output readings using Mitutoyo
No.
Factors
Leve
ls
Spindle
Speed, Vc
Feed Rate, f
Depth of Cut,
ap
Factor Levels
Values
650,750,850,100
0,1200 (rpm)
450,485,525,550
,600 (mm/min)
0.3, 0.6, 1.0
(mm)
Surface Rough Tester SJ-201 preparation of

result table.
Designing the DOE and training it with the
measured data using MATLAB
Selection of work specimens

Based on specifications of Mitutoyo Surface
Roughness Tester SJ 201, CNC Vertical Machining
Centre V80, parameters levels and bar size available
commercially, work specimens were designed for
CNC milling
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT TABLE

Table.3 Resultant Table
W/P
NO.
No.
Feed
(mm/ min.)
Cutting Speed
(RPM)
DOC
(mm)
Ra1
(m)
Ra2
(m)
Ra3
(m)
Ravg
(m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
450
450
450
450
450
485
485
485
650
750
850
1000
1250
650
750
850
0.10
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.77
0.76
0.61
0.45
0.39
0.60
0.60
0.69
0.75
0.61
0.69
0.53
0.36
0.81
0.77
0.67
0.85
0.85
0.62
0.50
0.42
0.89
0.61
0.69
0.79
0.74
0.64
0.49
0.39
0.76
0.66
0.68
241

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
485
485
525
525
525
525
525
550
550
550
550
550
600
600
600
600
600
1000
1250
650
750
850
1000
1250
650
750
850
1000
1250
650
750
850
1000
1250
0.06
0.03
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.03
0.06
0.10
0.06
0.46
0.33
0.74
0.73
0.72
0.49
0.49
0.62
0.76
0.66
0.36
0.49
0.70
0.64
0.64
0.48
0.49
0.28
0.34
0.65
0.84
0.70
0.32
0.41
0.57
0.69
0.61
0.41
0.40
0.81
0.79
0.65
0.36
0.46
0.30
0.34
0.82
0.88
0.67
0.50
0.49
0.94
0.75
0.61
0.29
0.40
0.59
0.73
0.76
0.40
0.45
0.34
0.33
0.73
0.81
0.69
0.43
0.46
0.71
0.73
0.62
0.35
0.43
0.69
0.72
0.68
0.41
0.46
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT ANALYSIS

From the Table 3.3 it was identified that minimum
surface roughness value 0.28 m was obtained at the
value of 485 mm/min, 1000RPM and 0.06 mm for
feed rate, cutting speed and depth of cut respectively.
The maximum surface roughness value 0.94 m was
obtained at the value of 550 mm/min, 650RPM and
0.06 mm for feed rate, cutting speed and depth of cut
respectively.
Fig.2 Main Effect Plot Feed v/s Ravg
First Minitab version 15 was used for the analysis of

result obtained by experimental work. Main Effects
Plot is shown in Figure 2 that displays effect of feed,
cutting speed and depth of cut (DOC) on surface
roughness on same scale base of surface roughness. It
states that comparative to other two parameters,
speed has major effect on surface roughness and
surface roughness value decreases rapidly as speed
increases. Depth of cut has minimum impact on
surface roughness. Surface roughness increases very
slowly as depth of cut increases. Feed shows
uncertain effect on surface roughness i.e. 450
mm/min @ 0.61,485 mm/min @ 0.55, 525 mm/min
@ 0.63. Figure 2, Figure 3 shows individual graph
for feed, cutting speed and depth cut verses surface
roughness respectively.
Fig.3 Main Effect Plot Speed v/s Ravg
CONCLUSIONS
Based on result and analysis of experiment, following
facts were enlightened,
1) Minimum surface roughness value 0.28 m was
obtained at the value of 485 mm/min, 1000 RPM
and 0.06 mm for feed rate, cutting speed and
depth of cut respectively.
242

2) Maximum surface roughness value 0.94 m was

obtained at the value of 550 mm/min, 650 RPM
and 0.06 mm for feed rate, cutting speed and
depth of cut respectively.
3) Surface roughness decreases as speed increases.
4) The feed did not impact largely to the surface
roughness in the studied range, which could be
used to improve productivity if it would not
worsen the surface microstructure of the material
and the dimensional and geometric accuracy.
5) Interaction plot between Speed Feed has shown
large effect and Feed-Speed has shown less
effect on surface roughness.
6) Interaction plot between Speed-DOC has large
effect and DOC-Speed has less effect on surface
roughness.
7) Interaction plot between DOC-Feed has large
effect and Feed-DOC has large effect on surface
roughness.
Manufacturing Science and Engineering,

Page No:- 122 (2000) 642649.
6) Chang-Xue(Jack), Feng, An Experimental
Study of the Impact of Turning Parameters
on Surface Roughness Paper No. 2036.
7) J. Kopac, M. Bahor, M. Sokovic,
International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture, Page No:- 42 (2002) 707
716.
8) P.G. Benardos & G.C. Vosniakos,
International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture,Page No:- 43 (2003) 833844.
9) R.E.Reason and Rank Taylor Hobson, The
measurement of surface textures, Pages
585-595
LIMITATIONS
The limitations of this work are in three

areas. The first is the off line measurement
of surface roughness measurement. Data is
manually moved from the surface roughness
tester to Minitab 15.
This Project is limited for OHNS material,
SEKT 12T3 AFTN-M inserts and Tool
Holder Diameter 63mm.
REFRENCES
1) Aaron
Vernon
,Tugrul
zeFactors
Affecting surface roughness in finish hard
turning, Working Paper No: 03-104January
2003
2) C. X. Feng, X. Wang, Development of
Empirical Models for Surface Roughness
Prediction in Finish Turning, The
International
Journal
of
Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 20, 2002,
pp. 348-356.
3) W. Grzesik, A revised model for predicting
surface roughness in turning & Wear, Vol.
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T.R. Watkins, ASME Journal of
243

244

Quality Function Deployment: Translating

Voice of the Customers into Technical
Requirements for Product Development
Chirag Pravinchandra Vithalani
PG student Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Tech. & Engg., M.S.University of Baroda, Vadodara
chiragvithalani79@gmail.com
Dr. M. N. Qureshi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Tech. & Engg., M.S.University of Baroda, Vadodara
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a comprehensive exploration of Quality Function Deployment (QFD) as a product development tool for
translating customer needs into the technical requirements. It is divided into two main parts. The first part comprises a
detailed description of the QFD methodology whereas second part about case study of domestic refrigerator. For this
purpose, a questionnaire-based survey is carried out to identify the customer requirements. From the collected data a HOQ
is developed and finally prioritizes the technical requirements to satisfy the customer needs.
KEY WORDS: Quality Function Deployment; Voice

of Customer; House of Quality; Domestic Refrigerator
INTRODUCTION
The success of a developed product generally
depends on
how it meets the customers'
requirements. Hence, more energy and effort is
spent for gathering the information required for
determining what the customer wants in fact
(Bouchereau and Rowlands, 2000). Quality
Function Deployment (QFD) is a product
development methodology which was developed in
1966 in Japan by Yoj i Akao. By 1972 the power
of the approach had been well demonstrated at the
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Kobe Shipyard
(Sullivan, 1986). QFD is a customer-driven
product development tool. It is also a structured
management approach for efficiently translating
customer
expectations and wants into
design/technical requirements in order to reach
much higher levels of customer satisfaction (Chen
and Ko, 2008). The emphasis on Voice of
Customer is the key success factor of QFD (Low,
1998; Kamara - Anumba and Evbuomwan, 1999).

LITERATURE REVIEW
The following paragraph summarizes some of the
contributions that are important to this paper.
Title: Quality Function Deployment: A
Comprehensive
Review, Author: Dr. Arash Shahin
In this paper, the capability of a QFD has been
reviewed.
A comprehensive perspective of
QFD and its potential areas for improvement have
been provided, which could
serve as an
opportunity for further investigations.
Title: QFD: Past, Present and Future, Author:
Yoji Akao
Year: 1997 - International Symposium on QFD
In their paper, discuss about the early days of QFD,
the current status, and future challenges.
Title: Key factors in the Successful Application of
Quality Function Deployment Author: John J.
245

Cristiano Year: 2001 IEEE Transactions on

Engineering Management
This paper reports on the results of a survey of more
than 400 companies in the United States and Japan
using QFD. The objective of the study was to
understand the key factors that result in the
successful application of QFD.
Title: Quality function deployment: A literature
review
Author: Lai-Kow Chan, Ming-Lu Wu 1
Year: 2002 - European Journal of Operational
Research
This paper presents a literature review of quality
function deployment based on a reference bank of
about 650 QFD publications established through
searching various sources.
Title:
QFD
Methodology
and
Practical
Applications A
Review, Author: D.J. Delgado & E.M. Aspinwall
Year: 2003- Proceedings of the Ninth Annual
Postgraduate Research Symposium, School of
Engineering, the University of Birmingham
This paper presents a comprehensive investigation
into QFD as a design tool. It is divided into three
main sections. The first part comprises a detailed
description of the QFD methodology together with
an example to clarify each step in the process. The
main benefits and implementation
problems
then follow and the paper culminates in a discussion
of the applications of QFD in a variety of different
sectors.
Title: Application of Quality Function Deployment
in
Instant Rice Noodle Product Development
Author: Chutima Waisarayutt and Ornsiri Tutiyapak
Year: 2006
This research used instant rice noodles as a
representative food product in a highly competitive
market. The two main
objectives were to analyze attitude and value
awareness on target customers of instant rice noodle
and to evaluate the potential of using Quality
Function Deployment (QFD) in the product
development process.
Title: Quality function Deployment (QFD) for
Product
Design, Author: Mr. Mahesh. J. Patil
Year: 2010 Proceedings of 2nd National Conference
TIME.
This Paper helps to understand the present Scenario
of QFD in Industries & importance of customer
requirements in product manufacturing.
Title: Quality Function Deployment and its

profitability
engagement: a systems thinking perspective
Author: Yahia Zare Mehrjerdi
Year: 2011 - International Journal of Quality &
Reliability
Management
This paper seeks to give some reviews of quality
function deployment and by using a systems
thinking perspective to show how QFD can be a
useful and prot-making tool for business decision
making in general.
QFD METHODOLOGY
The most-used QFD methodology is deployed
through a four-phased sequence.
PHASE I: Product Planning
(House of Quality)
PHASE II: Product Design
(Parts Deployment)
PHASE III: Process Planning

(Manufacturing Planning)
PHASE IV: Process Control

(Production Planning)
Fig.1 The 4 Phases of QFD
Each phase represents a more specific aspect of the

product's requirements. Only the most important
aspects from each phase are deployed into the next
matrix. These phases are as follows [AUT
University, internet communication]:
Phase I: Product Planning (House of Quality)
This phase is also known as the House of Quality.
The marketing department generally leads building
the House of Quality. Many organizations only get
through this phase of a QFD process. Getting good
data from the customer in Phase 1 is critical to the
success of the entire QFD process.
This information is usually gathered through
conversations with the customer in which they are
encouraged to describe their needs and problems.
The list of requirements gathered in such an
exercise must be structured before its entry in to the
HOQ.
246

Phase II: Product Design (Part Deployment)

This phase is led by the design engineering
department. Product design requires creative and
innovative team ideas. Product concepts are created
during this phase and part specifications are
documented. Parts that are determined to be most
important to meeting customer needs are then
deployed into process planning, or Phase 3.
Phase III: Process Planning (Mfg. Planning)
Process planning comes next and is led by
manufacturing engineering. During process
planning, manufacturing processes are flowcharted
and process parameters (or target values) are
documented.
Phase IV: Process Control (Production Planning)
And finally, in production planning, performance
indicators are created to monitor the production
process, maintenance schedules, and skills training
for operators. Also, in this phase decisions are made
as to which process poses the most risk and controls
are put in place to prevent failures. The quality
assurance department in concert with manufacturing
leads Phase 4.
4
Co-relation
3
Technical
Requirements
1
Customer
Requirements
(Voice of
Customer)
5
Relationship between
the Customer
Requirements
& the Technical
2
Customer
Competitive
Evaluations
Requirements
6
Competitive Technical
Assessment
Fig. 2 The House of Quality
Figure 3 denotes the principal components of the

horizontal and vertical portions of the matrix (Day,
1993).
The output of the house of quality is not a product
design but merely the requirements of the end
product (Vonderembse and Raghunathan, 1997).
Stage 1: Determine the Customer Requirements:

One of the essential strategies for successful
functioning
of any organization is delivering
superior service or
product quality to their
customers. Understanding what
exactly the
customers needs (voice of the customer) are is a
key criterion (Griffin-Abbie and Hauser, 1991). In
this step, customers demands, expectations, or
complaints are determined. Identified data contain
current customer expectations that are critical to
success and potential expectations that would excite
customers. Several methods can be used to establish
the customers' requirements, including customer
panels; focused group discussions; customer
interviews;
self-completing
questionnaires;
customer observation; customers' complaint &
compliment database; customers' service inquiries
database; front-line staff feedback. The rate of
importance is a rating of the customer demands
generally on a scale of 1 to 5. The customers should
assign these ratings (Zaim and Sevkli, 2002).
Stage 2: Customer Competitive Evaluations
Customer competitive evaluation prepares a
competitive or strategic assessment of the business.
This plan brings out the firms competitive
weaknesses, strength and identifying areas needing
quality improvement. Customer competitive
evaluation that is conducted according to the result
of the survey mostly shows in Table. This table
consists of different columns.
Stage 3: Determine the Technical Requirements:
In this stage, determined customer demands are
translated into technical requirements. The objective
is to translate each customer voice into one or more
technical requirements. Each technical requirement
should be measurable and global in nature and
should satisfy the voice of the customer
(Radharamanan and Godoy, 1996). Customer
requirements are expressed in customer language. In
order to make them suitable for product design and
product development, it is necessary to translate
these requirements into technical requirements.
Stage 2 has addressed the what question
by
identifying customers requirements. This third
stage addresses the how question by identifying
the measurable and definable design features of the
consumer product
Stage 4: Co-relation between Technical
Requirements
The roof of the house is designed to cross correlate
the hows against each other so that design conflict
247

and
complementary characteristics can be
identified. Many technical requirements are
interrelated. Working to improve one requirement
may help another related requirement and affect it in
the positive way. On the other hand, working to
improve one requirement may have a negative
effect on the other requirement (Zaim and Sevkli,
2002). Usually co-relationship matrices show the use
of symbols.
Determine the Customer Requirements:

The list of customer demand has been identified
with literature search, group brainstorming and pilot
study of small customer group. In this study a
structured
questionnaire has been asked to the
respondent to gather data. After collecting data,
this list is obtained.
The list of the customer demand is shown below:
Stage 5: Relationship matrix between hows and

whats
After establishing the whats and hows, construction
of house of quality continues with establishing the
relationships between the customer voices and the
technical requirements (Tan-Xie and Chia, 1998). A
customer requirement can relate to several design
parameters, and a design parameter can relate to
more customer requirements than one. QFD
therefore uses the format of a matrix, in which all
interactions between customer requirements and
design parameters can be identified. To build the
relationship matrix between hows and whats, it is
necessary to establish if relationship exist between
every what and every how. All relationships are
categorized such as either strong, medium, or weak.
Stage 6: Competitive Technical Assessment
For competitive technical assessment Column
Absolute Weights were calculated for each technical
requirement that represent a combination of both the
customers level of importance and the strength of
the relationships. Each demanded quality weight is
multiplied by the relationship value in cells in its
row. The products in each column are summed to
give a Column Absolute Weight. Normalized
Individual Ratings are calculated by converting
column absolute weight to the percentage (%).
CASE STUDY
The focal point of this paper is the usage of QFD as
a customer requirement management tool in product
development, a case study of domestic refrigerator
is conducted.
Methodology for Case Study:
Step: 1 Customers requirements
Step: 2 Customer Importance Rating
Step: 3 Customer Competitive Evaluations
Step: 4 Technical Requirements
Step: 5 Relationship Matrix
Step: 6 Analysis of House of Quality
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Adjustable Shelves
Anti Bacteria Gasket
Automatic Defrosting
Both - Legs and Adjustable Wheels at
Bottom
Coil Free / Clean Back Refrigerator
Deodorizer
Digital Clock on the Outside of Door
Door Cooling for Uniform Cooling
Door Handle Design
e Light at Outside Door
FM Radio at Outside of Door
Freezer Lamp in the Freezer Section
Freezer Shelving
Hands-Free Door Opening
Ice Dispenser
Ice Twister & Ice Collector
LED Lighting
Open Door Alarm
Option to Customize Color
Preserve - Food & Freshness
Quick Ice Making
Scratch Free Surface
Separate Provision for Medical and Beauty
Care Products
Stylish Look
Temperature Setting Digital Indicator
Toughened glass shelves
Varieties of Model
Vegetable Box / Container with partition
for different vegetables
Warranty Period
Water Dispenser
At any one time, it is unlikely that an organization

can satisfy all of its customers' requirements.
Therefore, it is necessary to prioritize the needs of
the customers. Using a Structured Questionnaire,
140 customers have been asked to rate the
importance of the Domestic Refrigerator features
248

identified. As sampling procedure, convenience

sampling is used. Questionnaires have been
conducted via E-mail, Personal & Friends
Contacts. The results of the research are analyzed
with Minitab (14), MS Office Excel (2007). The
rate of importance is a rating of the customer
demands on a scale of 1 to 5. The customers should
assign these ratings. In table 1, list of these features
are given with the results of the survey.
Table 1. Mean & standard deviations of customer
requirements
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Customer Requirements
Mean
S.D.
Adjustable Shelves
Anti Bacteria Gasket
Automatic Defrosting
Bottom Legs & Adjustable
Wheels
Coil Free Refrigerator
Deodorizer
Digital Clock on the Outside
of Door
Door Cooling for Uniform
Cooling
Door Handle Design
e Light at Outside Door
FM Radio at Outside of Door
Freezer Lamp
Freezer Shelving
Hands-Free Door Opening
Ice Dispenser
Ice Twister & Ice Collector
LED Lighting
Open Door Alarm
Option to Customize Color
Preserve - Food & Freshness
Quick Ice Making
Scratch Free Surface
Separate
Provision
for
Medical and Beauty Care
Products
Stylish Look / Appearance
Temp.
Setting
Digital
Indicator
Toughened Glass Shelves
Varieties of Model
Vegetable Box with partition
for different Vegetables
Warranty Period
Water Dispenser
4.19
4.36
4.34
0.84
0.90
0.87
3.14
1.19
3.39
4.07
1.12
0.93
2.14
When standard deviation of a requirement is too

high, it means that there is no common necessity on
this requirement, thus this requirement is not
applicable in QFD.
Customer Competitive Evaluations
Customer competitive evaluation that is conducted
according to the result of the survey is given in
Table 2.
Table 2. Customer Competitive Evaluations
Customer
Customer Requirements (CR)
Importance
Rating
1. Warranty Period
4.50
2. Preserve - Food & Freshness of
4.48
fruits / Vegetables
3. Anti Bacteria Gasket
4.36
4. Automatic Defrosting
4.34
Our
Refrige
rator
4.14
4.07
5. Adjustable Shelves
4.19
1.02
6. Deodorizer
4.07
3.36
3.79
3.36
3.14
3.31
0.99
4.04
3.21
2.79
2.73
1.83
3.25
3.48
2.43
3.20
3.56
2.89
3.41
3.24
4.48
3.96
3.70
1.16
1.15
1.08
1.02
0.88
1.22
1.18
1.10
1.17
1.25
1.17
0.90
0.90
0.99
7. Vegetable Box with partition

for different Vegetables/Fruits
8. Quick Ice Making
3.96
3.14
2.50
2.71
3.71
3.79
3.49
1.23
3.58
9. Digital Temperature Display
3.75
10. Scratch Free Surface
3.70
11. Stylish Look / Appearance
3.58
12. Freezer Shelving
3.48
Table 2. Customer Competitive Evaluations (Cont.)
CR
Com
pany
X
Com
pany
Y
4.00
3.63
Target
of
Improv
ement
5
4.10
3.88
3.60
1.03
3.75
Improve
ment
Factor
Sales
Pt.
Ab.
Wt.
1.21
1.2
6.52
1.23
1.2
6.60
3.75
1.19
1.2
6.24
3.60
3.50
1.06
1.1
5.04
3.60
3.50
1.19
1.0
5.00
1.04
3.20
3.75
1.27
1.0
5.18
3.44
3.38
1.14
1.01
3.80
3.38
1.24
1.0
5.02
3.70
3.50
1.27
1.1
5.54
4.04
1.03
2.30
3.63
1.60
1.0
6.00
4.50
3.54
0.84
1.15
10
3.30
3.63
1.47
1.0
5.45
11
3.40
4.00
1.08
1.1
4.24
12
3.30
3.63
1.06
1.0
3.68
The House of Quality (HOQ) includes only the

important customer requirements (Higher Mean).
249
Demand Weight (%)

12.0 10.1
10.29.7
9.3
10.0
7.87.78.07.88.6 8.5
6.6
8.0
5.7
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Customer Requirement
used for a less weak sales pt.

Absolute Weight: This column is calculated by
multiplying the Customer Importance Rating x
Improvement Ratio x Sales Pt. Demanded Wt is
calculated by converting the Absolute Weight to the
percentage (%).
Relationship matrix between hows and whats:
Table 3. Relationship Matrix
Technical Requirements
C.R.
1
2
Every column of Table:2 is explained below:
Target of Improvement: This column shows the

target of the company. This is determined by
looking at where the consumer product is today, and
what the competitors are doing with respect to the
customer demands.
10
9
3
10
11
12
Table 3. Relationship Matrix (Cont.)

Technical Requirements
C.
R.
11
1
2
12
13
14
15
1
3
16
17
18
19
1
3
5
6
7
8
Sales Point: This column shows which customer

requirements have more
important effect on
marketing and image of the product. In other words
which attributes of the product ensure competitive
advantage for the company against its rivals. A
score of 1.2 is used to indicate a strong sales pt. A
score of 1.1 is used for a medium sales pt and 1.0 is
Improvement Factor: This column contains the

factor by which actual improvements must be
adjusted to reach the levels that company wants to
achieve. These are calculated by dividing the target
of improvement to the our product rating.
Customer Importance Rating: Very High

Important (=5), High Important (=4), Medium
Important (=3), Low Important (=2), Very low
Importance (=1). In this way, it is possible to see
which quality characteristics are more important for
meeting or exceeding customers' expectations.
Company X & Y: It is important to know the

strong and weak points of our most important
competitors. A product improvement project should
start by making this comparison from a customer
point of view. For this comparison, we select the
competing products that we want to challenge with
our product.
4
3
Fig. 3 Demanded Weight ( %) v/s Customer

Requirements
Our refrigerator: This column represents the

performance of the current product considering the
quality characteristics.
3
3
9
1
9
10
11
12
3
9
9
3
250

CONCLUSIONS
A score of 9 is used to indicate a strong relationship
between whats and hows. A score of 3 signifies a
moderate relationship and 1 signifies a weak
relationship between them.
The matrix in Table 3 shows all relationship
between customer requirements and technical
requirements.
Teble:4 Competitive Technical Assessment:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Technical
Requirements
Ab.
Wt.
Air Filtration
Anti-fungal
Door Gasket
Material
Carbon based
Deodorizer
Compressor
Warranty
Designer
Handle
Failure Rate
Freezer
Dimensions
Insulation
Efficiency
Interior Look
Modular
Shelves
Multi Air Flow
Cooling System
Refrigerator
Body
Parameters
Refrigerator
Cooling Speed
Refrigerator
On-Off Cycle
Refrigerator
Temp Variation
Sensor
Technology
Specially
Designed Ice
Trays
Surface
Treatment
Vegetable
Separator
24.1
Normalized
Individual
Rating (%)
1.4
97.3
5.8
82.5
4.9
30.3
1.8
16
19.7
1.2
19
90.9
5.4
67.6
4.0
13
79.9
4.7
10
123.9
7.3
76.3
4.5
12
64.5
3.8
14
Rank
18
77.7
4.6
11
108
6.4
117.9
7.0
202.1
12.0
275.9
16.3
38
2.3
15
82.7
4.9
29.9
1.8
17
This paper presents a case study for customer

involvement in product development and product
improvement of a Domestic Refrigerator by using
QFD. As a established product, refrigerators need
product modification and QFD is a useful tool for
decision making for implementing customer
feedback in to the development stage. QFD
implementation leads to improved customer
satisfaction and that satisfaction ultimately leads to
the overall organization growth.
Sensor Technology is found out the most important
attribute to be improved. The second important
attribute
is Refrigerator Temperature Variation.
The third one is Interior Look, followed by
Refrigerator On-Off Cycle, Refrigerator Cooling
Speed, Anti-fungal Door Gasket Material, Failure
Rate, Carbon based Deodorizer, Insulation
Efficiency, Refrigerator Body Parameters, Modular
Shelves, Freezer Dimensions, Multi Air Flow
Cooling System, Specially Designed Ice Trays,
Compressor Warranty, Vegetable Separator, Air
Filtration, Designer Handle.
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Bouchereau, V., and Rowlands, H., (2000).
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252

Effect of Process Parameters on Tensile

Shear Strength of Resistance Spot Welding
Process - a Review
Chetan R. Patel
M.E (CAD/CAM) student Sankalchand Patel college of Engineering, Visnagar
chetan_15mech@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Resistance spot welding (RSW), one of the oldest and one of the electric welding process, is frequently used joining
technique particularly in the automotive industries for sheet materials. The problems associated with RSW are tendency of
alloying with the electrode resulting in increased tool wear, and subsequent deterioration of weld quality. More welding
current and welding time lead to expulsion and over-heating of the electrode affecting the weld quality and less value result
in insufficient weld strength. The complicated behavior of this process must be analyzed to set the optimum parameters to
get good quality weld. This paper reviews some of the experimental investigations performed to optimize the process
parameter like welding current, electrode force, welding time and electrode diameter on the performance of Resistance Spot
Welding Process.
KEY WORDS:
RSW; Tensile shear strength;

Welding current; Welding time; Electrode force;
INTRODUCTION
Spot, seam and projection welding are three
resistance welding processes in which coalescence
of metal is produced at the faying surface by the
heat generated at the joint by the contact resistance
to the flow of electric current. Force is always
applied before, during and after the application of
current to prevent arcing at the faying surfaces and
in some applications to forge the weld metal during
post heating. The process is completed within a
specified cycle time. Generally, melting occurs at
the faying surface during welding. The Resistance
Spot Welding (RSW) is getting significant
importance in manufacturing car, bus and railway
bodies etc. due to automatic and fast process.
Linder et al. (1998) Resistance spot welding is an
inexpensive and effective way to join metal sheets.
More cracks and failure tend to occur around these
welds, in the heat affected zone (HAZ), because
those joint are exposed to dynamic and static loads
in the automobile structures.
Vural et al. (2004) had discovered that during spot
welding, important changes occur in the mechanical
and metallurgical properties of the spot welded
areas. The investigation of these changes is very

important for the safety and quality of the welded
joints.
Williams et al. (2004) had noticed that Resistance
spot welding (RSW) is a joining process for thin
metal sheets which, in contrast to other welding
processes, no filler metals or fluxes are used.
Instead, pressure exerted by electrodes. RSW
provides accelerated speed and adaptability for
automation in high-volume and high-rate
production, however the technique suffers from
inconsistent quality between welds due to the
complexity of the process itself and many variables
involved in the joining process. Further
implementation and improvement of existing
processes, including weld quality and time
improvement, electrode life extension, maintenance
cost reduction and development of new techniques
for RSW, will greatly impact the above noted
industries due to the large numbers of spot welds
they perform in their manufacturing processes.
Florea et al. (2012) had compared weld quality for
different welding conditions in order to achieve
optimal end-product quality. The complexity of
optimizing RSW process arises from the integration
of mechanical, metallurgical, thermal and electrical
phenomena. The interaction between thermal and
253

metallurgical phenomena results in a continually

evolving microstructure. Second, thermal and
mechanical phenomena result in non-uniform
thermal strains and residual stresses. Electrical and
thermal effects strongly correlate and involve high
temperature gradients and non-uniform weld
strength. From metallurgy and mechanical
perspectives, complex interactions between the base
metal (BM), heat affected zone (HAZ) and fusion
zone (FZ) involve non-homogeneous distribution of
the material microstructure.
In the automotive industries, the weld size is mainly
considered as the weld quality. Current industrial
applications set the weld diameter between 3t to
6t. Where, t is sheet thickness in mm. The weld
size is a major factor to determine the mechanical
properties such as, tensile shear strength, fatigue
strength of the RSW structures. Among static tests,
tension-shear or tensile-shear testing is most
commonly used in determining weld strength
because of its simplicity in specimen fabrication and
testing.
Hayat (2011) has investigate the joining capability
of magnesium AZ31 alloy sheets and aluminium
1350 alloy sheets with the application of resistance
spot welding. The weld current values used in the
welding process of AlMg sheets were 22, 23, 25,
27, 29, 31, and 33 kA. Here the nugget geometries
of joined specimens examined, recorded the
scanning electron microscopy images of the welded
zone and the fracture surface, and recorded the
energy-dispersive spectroscopy analyses. The
results show that the nugget geometry was different
for the Al and Mg sides. The increase in the weld
current and duration resulted in an increase in the
nugget size and the weld strength. According to
observations, the tensile load bearing capacity
(TLBC) increased up to 29 kA of the weld current
value. It was also found that tearing during fracture
occurred in two different ways.
Mukhopadhyaya et al. (2009) have studied the effects
of nugget diameter, mode of loading and alloy
chemistry on the strength of spot welds in thin
sheets of interstitial free steels. The results
unambiguously infer that the strength values of spot
welds remain same in a specific mode of loading,
while the load-bearing capacity increases with
increasing nugget size. The strength of the spot
weld has been found higher than that of the base
metal with an interesting observation that the former
bears a constant ratio with the latter.
PROCESS PRINCIPLE OF RSW
the water-cooled electrodes, and then the heat is

obtained by passing a large electrical current for a
short period of time. There are three stages in
making spot weld first the electrodes are brought
together against the metal and pressure applied
before the current is turned on (Fig.1). Next the
current is turned on momentarily. This is followed
by the third, or hold time in which the current is
turned off but the pressure continued. The hold time
forges the metal while it is cooling.
Fig.1 Typical spot welding cycle
The three main parameters in spot welding are

current, contact resistance and weld time. In order to
produce good quality weld the above parameters
must be controlled properly. The amount of heat
generated in this process is governed by the
formula,
Q= I2Rt
Where,
Q = heat generated, Joules
I = current, Amperes
R= resistance of the work piece, Ohms
t = time of current flow, second.
EFFECT OF PROCESS PARAMETERS ON
TENSILE SHEAR STRENGTH
Wide range of research works related to the
resistance spot welding process has been carried out
by many researchers and it mainly focus on
optimizing process parameters like Electrode force,
Welding current, Electrode diameter and welding
time to get maximum tensile shear strength and
better end weld product. This paper reviews
research in optimizing the process parameters to get
better tensile shear strength.
Klas Weman (2003) in electric resistance spot

welding the overlapping work is positioned between
254

A. Effect of welding time on tensile shear

strength
Sun et al. (2007) had investigated the effect of

welding current on tensile shear load and nugget
diameter.
Aslanlar et al. (2008) had investigated the effect of

welding time on tensile shear strength. Here, the
electrode force was 6 KN fixed, welding current 510 KA and 12 KA and welding time 5 cycles to 15
cycles were selected. The results obtained from Fig.
1, increasing welding times cause high heat input to
weld zone and extending weld nugget, so the
tensile-shear strength of joints increases. It increases
from 7 kA to 10 kA in five period welding times. In
10 and 12 periods, tensile-shear strengths of
specimens increase sharply up to 8 kA and then this
increment continues with a lower rate.
Fig.2 Effects of welding current on tensile shear load and
nugget diameter
Fig. 3 The relationship between tensile shear load and

nugget diameter
Table 1. Tensile shear load at 8 cycles welding time, 2.5
KN electrode force for various welding current
Welding
current(KA)
Fig. 1 welding time effect on tensile-shear force of joints
The maximum values of it were obtained in 1011

kA and then its values were started to decreasing
from this point.
In 15 period welding times, tensile-shear strengths
of specimens increase fast up to 9 kA where the
maximum point is for this period. Excessive heat
energy input causes void and crack formations,
partially spurt out of molten metal and so, the
tensile-shear strength of joint decreases.
B. Effect of welding current on tensile shear
strength
15
17
19
21
23
Tensile shear load

(KN)
1.46
1.55
1.98
2.45
3.00
The experimental results indicated that the welding

current has an obvious effect on spot welded
magnesium alloy joint strength. Figs. 2 and 3 show
effects of welding current on joint tensile shear load
and nugget diameter. It can be seen that with an
increase of welding currents from 15 kA to 23 kA,
the joint tensile shear load rises from 1.46 KN to 3.0
kN in spite of fact that the nuggets contain cracks at
255

high current level, the nugget diameter increases

from 4.2 mm to 6.5 mm, and the tensile shear load
changes as a function of the nugget diameter. These
results suggest that the nugget diameter is the main
controlling factor of joint strength and the joint
strength rises are mainly associated with increasing
the nugget diameter. In addition, the welding
current has also an effect on the fracture appearance
of the spot welded joint. In tensile shear test, the
crack developed around the edge of the nugget. At
relatively low currents (15 kA and 17 kA), nuggets
failed across the interface for tensile shear
specimens. At relatively high currents (19 kA, 21
kA and 23 kA), nuggets failed by forming a
buttonhole. With an increase of welding currents
from 15 kA to 23 kA, the joint strength rises are
mainly associated with increasing the nugget
diameter. It is favorable to select relatively high
welding current for improving mechanical
properties of spot welded magnesium joint.
C. Effect of electrode force on tensile shear
strength
Pereira et al. (2010) had investigated the effect of
electrode force on failure load. Alumimium alloy
6082-T6 sheets with 1 mm thickness, welded at
different welding parameters. The welded joints
were subjected to tensile shear test in order to
determine their strength. The shear strength testing
done at a constant cross-head speed of 1 mm/min.
up to the final failure of the joint.
Electrode force (N)

2354
2649
Failure load (N)

2610
2930
3237
3826
2600
2405
4709
2000
This reduction is associated with the decrease in the

diameter of the nugget with increasing electrode
force. The nugget diameter decreased from 5.3 mm
to 4.4 mm with the increase in the electrode force
from 2649 N to 4709 N.
DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH RESULTS
Esme (2009) had studied the influence of the
welding process parameters on tensile shear strength
of SAE 1010 steel sheet having 1 mm and 2 mm
different thickness.
The optimum results have been achieved in the
experimental study by employing Taguchi statistical
techniques. Here electrode force, welding time,
electrode diameter and welding current like four
factors and each of three levels taken. Combined
effects of four welding parameters on the
performance of tensile shear strength
were
investigated by employing an (L18) orthogonal
array and the analysis of variance (ANOVA)
method. Result analysis from experiment:
Fig.5 S/N graph for tensile shear strength

Fig.4 Failure load versus the variation of electrode force
The influence of the electrode force on the failure

load of the spot welds is illustrated in Fig. 4.
Generally, a small decrease in the failure load was
observed with increasing electrode force.
Table 2. Failure load (Tensile shear load) at 2 cycles
welding time, 26.4 KA Weld current for various electrode
force
An analysis of the S/N graph for tensile

shear strength revels that in order to
optimize the tensile shear strength
A2B2C1D2 and A2B2C1D3 level is employed
(Fig.5).
The highly effective parameters on tensile
shear strength were found as welding
256

current and electrode force, percentage

contribution 57.80 and 29.22 respectively.
Electrode diameter and welding time were
less effective parameters.
The welding current was about two times
more important than the electrode force for
controlling the tensile shear strength.
The conformation test indicated that it is
possible to increase tensile shear strength
significantly by using the Taguchi
technique.
optimize the tensile shear strength

A3B3C2D2 level is employed (Fig.6).
The welding current was about two times
more important than the second factor weld
time for controlling the tensile shear
strength.
The confirmation test shows that it is
possible to increase tensile shear strength
significantly (13.43%) by using the
proposed statistical technique.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Thakur et al. (2010) had studied the influence of the

welding process parameters on tensile shear strength
of Galvanized steel sheet having 1 mm thickness.
The complicated behavior of this process must be
analyzed to set the optimum parameters to get good
quality weld. The experimental studies were
conducted under varying welding current, welding
time, electrode diameter and electrode force.
Taguchi quality design concepts of L27 orthogonal
array has been used to determine signal to
Noise(S/N ratio), Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
and F test value for determining most significant
parameters affecting the spot weld performance.
Result analysis from experiment:
Based on the ANOVA method, the highly
effective parameters on tensile shear
strength were found as welding current and
welding time, whereas electrode force and
electrode diameter were less effective
factors.
Resistance spot welding will probably become an

important joining technique for light weight alloys
and can promote their wider uses in aerospace,
aircraft, automotive, electronics and other
industries.
The study reveals that the welding process
parameters have a great influence in the quality of
resistance spot welding joint. The following
conclusions can be drawn based on the research
work carried out for effect of process parameters on
tensile shear strength of resistance spot welded
parts.
Tensile shear strength is greatly influenced
by welding current and welding time.
Electrode diameter and electrode force is
less effective parameters on tensile shear
strength.
FUTURE WORK
Resistance spot welding is a popular process for
assembly lines in the automotive industries
manufacturing a variety of products of thin gauge
metals, and has great potential for joining of light
weight alloy sheet like aluminium and magnesium.
So that, the resistance spot weldability of such kind
of alloys is significant interest for automotive
manufacturing process. However, reports in the
literature dealing with the resistance spot welding of
light weight alloys are limited, and further research
efforts are required to utilize the full potential of
these materials.
REFERENCES
Fig.6 S/N Graph for tensile shear strength
An analysis of the S/N graph for tensile

shear strength revels that in order to
Aslanlar, A. Ogur, U. Ozsarac, E. Ilhan (2008). Welding

time effect on mechanical properties of automotive sheets
in electrical resistance spot welding Materials and Design
29, 14271431.
257

Esme. (2009) Application of Taguchi method for the
optimization of Resistance spot welding process The
Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Volume 34.
Florea, K.N. Solanki, D.J. Bammann, J.C. Baird, J.B.
Jordon, M.P.Castanier, (2012). Resistance spot welding of
6061-T6 aluminum: Failure loads and deformation
Materials and Design 34, 624630.
Hayat, (2011). The effects of the welding current on heat
input, nugget geometry, and the mechanical and fractural
properties of resistance spot welding on Mg/Al dissimilar
materials Materials and Design 32 24762484.
Klas Weman (2003). Welding processes handbook
Linder, A. Melander, M. Larrson, Y. Bergengren (1998).
Fatigue design of spot welded austenitic and duplex
stainless steel sheets Fracture Eng. Mater. Struct. 21 673
686.
Mukhopadhyaya, S.Bhattacharya, K.K.Ray. (2009).
Strength assessment of spot-welded sheets of interstitial
free steels 209:1995-2007.
Pereira, J.M. Ferreira, A. Flourier, J.D.M. Costa, P.J.
Barolo. (2010). Effect of process parameters on the
strength of resistance spot welds in 6082-T6 aluminium
alloy Materials and Design 31, 24542463.
Sun, B. Lang, D.X. Sun, J.B. Li (2007). Microstructures
and mechanical properties of resistance spot welded
magnesium alloy joints Materials Science and Engineering
a 460461, 494498.
Thakur, T. E. Rao, M. S. Mukhedkar and V. M. Nandedkar
(2010). Application of Taguchi method for resistance spot
welding of Galvanized steel ARPN Journal of Engineering
and Applied Sciences, VOL. 5, NO. 11.
Vural M, Akkus A, (2004). On the resistance spot weld
ability of galvanized interstitial free steel sheets with
austenitic stainless steel sheets J Mater Process
Technology: 153154:16.
Williams NT, Parker JD, (2004). Review of resistance
spot welding of steel sheets Part 1: factors influencing
electrode life Int Mater Rev; 49: 4575.s
258

Lean Manufacturing Initiatives to Ensure

TQM
Binod Kumar Singh, Associate Professor,
Gopal Sharma Modern Vidya Niketan
Institute Of Engineering And Technology, 74th k. M. Stone NH-2, Aurangabad, Palwal 121105 India.
singh_binod_kumar@yahoo.com
Dr Chandan Bhar, Professor and Head,

Department of Management Studies
Indian School of Mines University, Dhanbad-826004, India
chandanbhar@hotmail.com
Dr Visvesvaran Pandurangan Professor,

Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida 201306, India
visupan@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This paper addresses a framework for studying lean thinking, as well as principles of TQM. We focus on the 5 principles of
lean production and the 8 types of waste, in order to find out the applications of lean principles to ensure the Total Quality
Management (TQM). We conclude that waste exists in any organization and lean thinking seems to be a useful tool for
reducing the different types of waste and in this way improving quality in order to achieve TQM objectives. The results of
this research reveal that Total Quality Management and Lean Manufacturing have much in common. Based on Lean
strategies, Total Quality Management, similar to numerous improvement approaches, can be a tool to support and create
synergy for inducing a more competitive market among companies.
KEYWORDS: Lean Production, TQM, Waste.

1.) INTRODUCTION
After World War II Japanese manufactures were
faced with the dilemma of vast shortages of material,
financial, and human resources. The problems that
Japanese manufacturers were faced with differed
from those of their Western counterparts. These
conditions resulted in the birth of the lean
manufacturing concept. Toyota Motor Company, led
by its president Toyoda recognized that American
automakers of that era were out-producing their
Japanese Counterparts; in the mid-1940s American
companies were outperforming their Japanese
Counterparts by a factor of ten. In order to make a
move towards improvement, early Japanese leaders
such as Toyoda Kiichiro, Shigeo Shingo, and Taiichi
Ohno devised a new, discipline, Process-oriented

system, which is known today as the Toyota
Production System, or Lean Manufacturing.
Taiichi Ohno, who was given the task of developing
a system that would enhance productivity at Toyota,
is generally considered to be the primary force
behind this system. Ohno drew upon some ideas
from the West and particularly from Henry Ford s
book Today and tomorrow. Ford s moving
assembly line of continuously flowing material
formed the basis for the Toyota Production System.
After some experimentation, the Toyota Production
System was developed and refined between 1945
and 1970, and is still growing today all over the
world. The basic underlying idea of this system is to
minimize the consumption of resources that add no
value to a product. In order to complete in todays
fiercely competitive market; US manufacturers have
259

come to realize that the traditional mass production

concept has to be adapted to the new ideas of lean
manufacturing. A study that was done at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology of the
movement from mass production toward lean
manufacturing, as explained in the book The
Machine That Changed the World [Womach et. Al.,
(1990)], awoke the US manufacturers from their
sleep. The study underscored the great success of
Toyota at NUMMI (New United Motor
Manufacturing Inc.) and brought out the huge gap
that existed between the Japanese and Western
automotive industry. The ideas came to be adopted
in the US because the Japanese companies
developed, produced and distributed products with
half or less human effort, Capital investment, floor
space, tools, materials, time, and overall expense
(Womack et al., 1990).
Lean manufacturing has been increasingly
adopted as a potential solution for many
organizations, particularly within the automotive
[Jone] and aerospace manufacturing industries. Lean
manufacturing derives its name from the
manufacturing systems and processes of the Toyota
production system that are so effective at producing
at low cost and short cycle time. These systems are
highly flexible and responsive to customer
requirements. Lean manufacturing is a multidimensional approach that encompasses a wide
variety of /management practices, including just-intime, quality systems, work teams, cellular
manufacturing, supplier management etc. in an
integrated system. The core thrust of lean production
is that these practices can work synergistically to
create a streamlined, high quality system that
produces finished products at the pace of customer
demand with little or no waste [Shan & Ward,
(2003)].Lean manufacturing also called lean
Production is a set of tools and methodologies that
aims for continuous elimination of all waste in the
Production process. The main benefits of this are
lower production costs; increased output and shorter
production lead times. More specifically, some of
the goals include defects and wastage, cycle times,
inventory levels, standard processes, continuous
flow, pull production, quality at the source,
continuous improvement.
It is well known that lean manufacturing had been
influenced by many techniques and school of
thoughts. One such management thinking is TQM or
Total Quality Management influence of TQM on
lean manufacturing is very large therefore many
techniques are common to both lean manufacturing
and TQM .In lean manufacturing, we can discuss
TQM as one of its prime tools used to achieve its
objective. Many of TQM gurus like Deming and
Juran played a major role in shaping Toyota

Production System (TPS). SO, it is worth learning,
some of the total quality management techniques and
tools which are commonly used in lean
manufacturing. It is said that lean manufacturing can
bring all the results TQM alone can bring quickly. A
baseline technical definition of what TQM is all
about has been given by the American Federal
Office of Management Budget circular (cited in
Milakovich, 1990, p.209) TQM is a total
organizational approach for meeting customer needs
and expectations that involves all managers and
employees in using quantitative methods to improve
continuously the organizations processes, products
and services.TQM is an attempt to improve the
whole organizations competitiveness, effectiveness
and structure.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
In recent times due to increase in global competition,
scarce resources, and fluctuating economics it is not
surprising that lean production has become critical to
the long term survival of todays manufacturing
organizations. Lean is a management philosophy
focused on identifying and eliminating waste
throughout a products
entire value stream,
extending not only within the organization but also
along the organization supply chain network. Lean is
achieved through a set of mutually reinforcing
practices, including Just-In-Time (JIT),Total quality
management (TQM),Total productive maintenance
(TPM),Continuous Improvement ,Design For
Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA),Supply
Management, and Effective Human resource
management. After having gone through the
literature available on the present topic it has been
concluded that major manufacturing industries in the
developed countries have been trying to adopt new
manufacturing initiatives in order to stay alive in the
new competitive market place. Lean manufacturing
is one of these initiatives that focus on cost reduction
by identifying and eliminating non value added
activities. In developed countries work is being
carried out on successful implementation of lean
manufacturing in totality but such studies have not
evidenced in Indian context. In Indian industry a lot
of scope is there to improve inventory control,
reduce lead time, reduce set up time and improve the
availability of machines etc which will lead to
competitiveness of Indian industry. In present study
an attempt will be made to correlate lean
manufacturing and TQM. In a 2004 survey by
Industry Week Magazine, U.S. companies
implementing lean manufacturing reported a savings
of 7% of Cost of Goods sold (COGS) as a result of
implementing lean. Another way of looking at Lean
260

Manufacturing is that it aims to achieve the same

output with less input, less time, less space, less
human effort, less machinery, less material, less cost.
When a U.S. equipment manufacturing company,
ManTech, completed the implementation of lean in
1995, they reported the following improvements
compared to their batch-based system in 1991.
[Womack et. Al., (1996)].
Manufacturing space per machine was reduced by
45%
Defects were reduced by 90%
Production cycle time was reduced from 16 weeks to
5 weeks -14 hours; and
Product delivery lead-time was reduced from 4-20
weeks to 1-4 weeks.
Many lean manufacturers intentionally maintain
certain inventories of raw materials, semi-finished
products and finished products in order to: Protect
against variations in customer demand; Protect
against unexpected late shipments from suppliers or
production slowdowns; Smooth production flow by
producing some items on a continuous basis even if
not required by the customer; Accommodate the fact
that raw materials must be delivered in batches and
that finished products must be shipped in batches;
Accommodate the fact that some processing must be
done in batches due to the nature of the equipment or
the process. Replenishment pull is more common
when a company has a large number of small
volume customers who order standardized products.
In a replenishment pull system, production schedules
are more predicable so low inventories of raw
materials are required.
3. LEAN MANUFACTURING CONCEPTS
Lean manufacturing concepts are fundamentally
different from the conventional manufacturing
concepts. These are proven to be correct for past six
decades.
3.1 VALUE CREATION AND WASTE
In Lean Manufacturing, the value of a product is
defined solely based on what the customer actually
requires and
is willing to pay for. Production
operations can be grouped into following three types
of activities:
Value-added activities are those activities, which
transform the materials into the exact product that
the customer requires.
Non value-added activities are activities, which
arent required for transforming the materials into
the product that the customer wants. Anything,
which is non-value-added, may be defined as waste.
Anything that adds unnecessary time, effort or cost
is considered non value-added. Another way of
looking at waste is that it is any material or activity
for which the customer is not willing to pay. Testing
or inspecting materials is also considered waste since

this can be eliminated insofar as the production
process can be improved to eliminate defects from
occurring.
Research at Lean Enterprise Research Centre
(LERC) in the United Kingdom indicated that for a
typical manufacturing company the ratio of activities
could be broken down as follows [Hines P. et al,
(2000)].
Activities
Value-added activities
Non value-added
activities
Necessary non valueadded activities
Total Activities
Breakdown (%)
05
60
35
100
Table 1 (Breakdown of activities)
Figure 1 (Breakdown of activities)

3.2 FIVE PRINCIPLES OF LEAN (Womack and
Rrse, 1996):
Value The traditional definition of value is the end
product that the customer purchases. In the Lean
model, value is not just the end product, but the
chain of activities that are required to perform in
order to produce and end product/end services to be
delivered to the customer.
Value Stream Value is identified through value
stream mapping (VSM).This stream is comprised of
each step that is performed from raw materials to
end product and every step is designed ,in order to
fulfill customer expectations at minimum price.
Every role, functions, and responsibilities are
designed to make the delivery mechanism more
responsive with, minimum resources.
Flow Flow is the efficiency of the process that
transforms raw material into an end product. This
involves analyzing every step in the process that
touches and does not touch the end product and goal
is to provide a continuous flow without any
bottlenecks.
Pull-production Also called Just-in-time (JIT),
261

Pull-production aims to produce only what is

needed, when it is needed. Production is pulled by
the downstream workstation so that each workstation
should only produce what is requested by the next
workstation.
Perfection The improvements in the identification
of value, the analysis and flow of the value stream,
and the pulled product/service can be felt and seen at
the all levels of the organization.
3.3 WASTAGES IN LEAN MANUFACTURING
(MUDA)
In the book Lean Thinking (Womack and Jones,
1996) the very first word is interestingly the
Japanese word for waste (muda) and it is
concluded that muda is everywhere. Generally
manufacturers agree that there exist 8 types of
muda, which are waste absorbing resources that
create cost but no value. In any organization it is
believed that the 8 types of waste exist. Taiichi Ohno
(1912-1990), a Toyota executive identified seven
types of waste found in any process:
Transportation: - Unnecessary transport of parts
under production
Inventory: - Stacks of parts waiting to be completed
or finished products waiting to be shipped.
Motion: - Unnecessary movement of people
working on product
Waiting: - Unnecessary waiting by people to begin
the next step
Over-processing: - Over-processing the products
with extra steps
Over-production: - Over-production of products
not needed
Defects:-Defects in any products.
Some authors have added an eighth waste as goods
and services do not meet the customers need and
someone has added underutilization of people.
3.4.
OBJECTIVES
OF
LEAN
MANUFACTURING
Lean manufacturing, also called Lean Production, is
a set of tools and methodologies that aims for the
continuous elimination of all waste in the production
process. The main benefits of this are lower
production costs; increased output and shorter
production lead times. More specifically, some of
the goals include.
Defects and wastage - Reduce defects and
unnecessary physical wastage, including excess use
of raw material inputs, preventable defects, and costs
associated with reprocessing defective items and
unnecessary product characteristics which are not
required by customers.
Cycle Times Reduce manufacturing lead times
and production cycle times by reducing waiting
times between processing stages as well as process
preparation times and product /model conversion
times.
Inventory levels - Minimize inventory levels at all
stages of production, particularly work-in progress
between production stages. Lower inventories also
mean lower working capital requirements.
Labor productivity Improve labor productivity,
both by reducing the idle time of workers and
ensuring that when workers are working, they are
using their effort as productivity as possible
(including not doing unnecessary tasks or
unnecessary motions).
Utilization of equipment and space Use
equipment and manufacturing space more efficiently
by eliminating bottlenecks and maximizing the rate
of production though existing equipment, while
minimizing machine downtime.
Flexibility Have the ability to produce a more
flexible range of products with minimum changeover
costs and changeover time.
Output Insofar as reduced cycle times, increase
labor productivity and elimination of bottlenecks and
machine downtime can be achieved, companies can,
generally increase output from their existing
facilities.
4. TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Definitions and Concept of TQM: A variety of
definitions of TQM have been offered over the
years. Reviewing previous contributions a dominant
insight among experts seems to define TQM as an
approach to management characterized by some
guiding principles of core concepts that embody the
way the organization is expected to operate, which,
when effectively linked together, will lead to high
performance. Although there are some differences of
opinion, there is a general agreement regarding the
assumptions included in the TQM concept that can
be summarized in three main points.
Firstly, the core concepts of TQM can be
classified into two broad categories or dimensions:
social or soft TQM and technical or hard TQM. The
social issues are centered on human resource
management and emphasize leadership, team work,
training and employee involvement. The technical
issues reflect an orientation toward improving
production methods and operations and seek to
establish a working method through the
establishment of well-defined processes and
procedures to make possible the constant
improvement of goods and services to customers.
Secondly, the management of social or
technical TQM issues cannot be performed in
isolation. Social and technical dimensions (and the
core concepts that form them) should be interrelated
and mutually support one other, reflecting the
262

holistic character of TQM initiatives. This holistic

character is also extended to the expected results of a
TQM initiative because a balance of the
stakeholders interests should be considered when
the firm defines TQM practices.
Thirdly, the literature suggests that the
optimal management of TQM core concepts will
lead to better organizational performances, as studies
such as Kaynak (2003) have verified. The basic
theoretical foundation for this relationship is based
on the assumption that TQM provides superior value
to the customer by identifying customers expressed
and latent needs, responsiveness to changing
markets, as well as through improving the efficiency
of the processes that produce the product or service.
Therefore, TQM includes both an empirical
component associated with a statistics and an
explanatory component that is associated with
management, of both people and processes. The
terms hard and soft are commonly used to represent
these two components. TQM brought recognition to
the fact that task can be categorized as value adding
or not. The obvious corollary is that non value
adding tasks would be eliminated and value adding
ones improved. Many processes design an operation
tools have been highlighted in TQM, such as a
statistical process control, Kanban and flexible
organization.
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
Lean Approach: A five-step thinking process was
proposed by Womack and Jones, authors of LT
manual, to guide managers in their attempts to
5. A COMPARISON BETWEEN TQM AND LEAN
introduce Lean principles into the production. The

five principles are:
Setting the value of each product family
from final customers point of view.
Identifying all activities on the value
stream of each product family, eliminating
as much as possible those waste
generating activities.
Ranking value-adding activities in a
sequence (flow) of clearly identified steps,
so that the product should reach the final
customer through a process that should as
continuous as possible.
After value stream is established and
introduced, each interval or external
customer / beneficiary can apply the pull
system to the product from the production
line.
After the value is set, the value adding
activity identified and those generating
waste eliminated the value stream set and
introduces, the process can be
operationalized and repeated until it
reaches the optimal level of maximum
value and no waste.
In this section, some similarities and differences
between the TQM, and Lean are presented. The
overall similarities and differences between the
concepts regarding origin, theory, process view,
approach, methodologies, tools, effects and
criticism, are also discussed.
Concepts
Origin
TQM
The quality evolution in Japan
Theory
Process View
Approach
Methodologies
Focus on customer
Improve and inform processes
Let everybody be committed.
Plan, do, study, act.
Tools
Primary Effects
Secondary Effects
Analytical and statistical tools

Increase customer satisfaction
Achieve customer loyalty and improves
performance.
Criticism
No tangible improvements, resource

demanding, unclear motion.
Lean
The quality evolution in Japan
and Toyota.
Remove waste
Improve flow in processes
Project Management
Understanding customer value,
value stream, analysis flow, pull,
perfection.
Analytical tools
Reduce lead time.
Reduce inventory, increase
production and customer
satisfaction
Supply chain, not applicable in all
industries.
Table 2 (Comparison between TQM and Lean)

6. CONCLUSIONS
After
reviewing
the
available
literature
and
correlating lean manufacturing and TQM, it has been

concluded that major manufacturing industries in the
263

developed countries have been trying to achieve

TQM objectives by implementing Lean by
identifying and eliminating non-value added
activities to satisfy customer needs and improve
processes continuously. Lean manufacturing has
become an initiative that focus on cost reduction,
inventory control, and reduction of lead times, cycle
times, continuous improvement and finally customer
satisfaction. A focus is made on the 5 principles of
lean production and the 8 types of waste, in order to
find out the applications of lean principles to ensure
the Total Quality Management (TQM). We conclude
that waste exists in any organization and lean
thinking seems to be a useful tool for reducing the
different types of waste and in this way improving
quality in order to achieve TQM objectives.
6.
Melton T, June2005;The Benefits of Lean

Manufacturing, What Lea thinking has to
offer the.Process Industries, Trans
IchemE, Part A, , Chemical Engineering
Research and Design, 83(A6):662-673.
7.
Bhasin Sanjay; 2008 Lean and performance

management; Journal of Manufacturing
Technology
Management,Vol
19,No
5.pp.670-684.
8.
Singh Bhim, Garg SK, Sharma SK (2009)

Value stream mapping a versatile tool for
lean implementation: an Indian case study
of a manufacturing industry. J. of
Measuring business excellence.
9.
Bayou M.E, Korvin A. de;Measuring the

leanness of manufacturing systems-A case
study of Ford Motor Company and General
Motors.J.Eng. Technol.Mange .25 (2008)
287-304
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Womack. J.P. and Jones. D.T., 1996 Lean

Thinking: Banish Waste and Create Wealth
in Your Corporation.
(Simon & Schustes, New York, USA).
3.
Womack. J.P. and Jones. D.T., and Roos

.D; 1990 The Machine That Changed The
World: The Story of Lean Production
(Harper Collins Publishers, New York,
USA).
10. Natasha M Baker: Similarities and

Differences between TQM, Six Sigma and
Lean in Project Management Media
Gallery(2009).
4.
American Federal Office of Management

Budget Circular (cited in Milakovich, 1990,
p-209).
11. Van der Wiele ,A.,Williams,A.R.T. and

Dale, B.G. (2000), Total quality
management :is it a fad, fashon , or Fit?,
Qaulity Management Journal, Vol. 7 No.
2,pp. 65-79.
5.
Comm., C.I, and Mathaisel, D.F.X.(2000),

paradigm for benchmarking lean
initiatives for
quality,Improvement,benchmarking:An
International Journal,Vol.7No.2,pp. 11827.
12. Shiba, S., Graham, A. and Walden, D.

(1993), A New American TQM: Four
Practical Revolutions in Management,
Productivity Press, Portland,OR.
264

Facility Layout Analysis : a Case Study

Mr. A. M. Patel
PG student, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering,
Shri Sad Vidya Mandal institute of technology, Bharuch, India.
arjun_9711@yahoo.co.in
Mr. H. G. Shah
Associate Professor, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering,
Shri Sad Vidya Mandal institute of technology, Bharuch, India.
hg_shah@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Layout planning has been considered as one of the vital areas for improving performance of any business process. Its main
concern is reducing cost by maximizing adjacency of high interaction components of a system or reducing material handling
cost or distance between the components. I have taken existing layout of ABG Shipyard Company. The first approach
utilized the improvement of the existing layout. Section wise exchanges are made to the current layout to arrive at a better
layout than the currently being used layout. The exchange has been made according to CRAFT improvement routine.
KEY WORDS: facility layout; computer aided layout

planning; CRAFT.
INTRODUCTION
The placement of the facilities in the plant area,
often referred to as facility layout problem, is
known to have a significant impact upon
manufacturing costs, work in process, lead times
and productivity. A good placement of facilities
contributes to the overall efficiency of operations
and can reduce until 50% the total operating
expenses. Computers aid in plant layout design has
its own advantage. Computer can perform the
computations and generate several solutions much
more rapidly than manual procedures.
The computerized layout methods are heuristics;
they do not guarantee an optimal solution.
Nevertheless, an efficient solution is realized. These
methods are categorized as either construction or
improvement-type routines: Construction-type
layout generates a block layout based on the
relationship between different departments. Among
the most popular ones within this category are
CORELAP (Computerized Relationship Layout
Planning), ALDEP (Automated Layout Design) and
PLANET (Plant Layout Analysis and Evaluation
Techniques). Improvement-type layout requires an
input of a feasible block layout and aim to reduce

movement cost by attempting simultaneous pairwise (or more) position exchanging among the
departments.
Among
the
most
popular
improvement-type
methods
are
CRAFT
(Computerized Relative Allocation of Facilities
Technique).
DEFINITION OF LAYOUT PROBLEM
A facility layout is an arrangement of everything
needed for production of goods or delivery of
services. A facility is an entity that facilitates the
performance of any job. It may be a machine tool, a
work centre, a manufacturing cell, a machine shop,
a department, a warehouse, etc.
Due to the variety of considerations found in the
articles, researchers do not agree about a common
and exact definition of layout problems. The most
encountered formulations are related to static layout
problems were among the first to consider this class
of problems, and they defined the facility layout
problem as a common industrial problem in which
the objective is to configure facilities, so as to
minimize the cost of transporting materials between
them considered that the facility layout problem
consists in finding a non-overlapping planar
orthogonal arrangement of n rectangular facilities
265

within a given rectangular plan site so as to

minimize the distance based measure .
Defined that the facility layout problem as the
determination of the relative locations for, and
allocation of, the available space among a given
number of facilities. Reported that the facility layout
problem consists in arranging n unequal-area
facilities of different sizes within a given total
space, which can be bounded to the length or width
of site area in a way to minimize the total material
handling cost and slack area cost. Defined the
facility layout problem as an optimization problem
that tries to make layouts more efficient by taking
into account various interactions between facilities
and material handling systems while designing
layouts.
Numerous articles have been published in this area.
In order to highlight what seems to constitute
essential features to characterize layout problems, a
first possible rough tree representation of the
different factors taken into account in the literature.
In fact, the problems addressed in research works
differ, depending on such factors as: the workshop
characteristics (e.g. all, specificities of the
manufacturing systems, the facility shapes, the
material handling system, and the layout evolution),
what is the problem addressed (e.g., problem
formulation, objectives and constraints) and the
approaches used to solve it (Resolution approaches).
Although the tree representation can probably be
improved in future research work, we have found it
helpful in characterizing existing research works.
Consequently, the rest of this article is organized in
accordance with this representation and with the
most important features identified and maintaining
the integrity of the specifications.
PRODUCTS VARIETY AND VOLUME
The layout design generally depends on the
products variety and the production volumes. Four
types of organization are referred to in existing
articles, namely fixed product layout, process
layout, product layout and cellular layout. These
key organizations are sometimes discussed
differently according to the authors.
Fixed Position Layout
The product (by virtue of its bulk or weight)
remains at one location. Manufacturing equipment
is moved to the product rather than vice versa.
Construction sites and movie lots are examples of
this format. Fixed-position layout is characterized

by a relatively low number of production units in
comparison with process and product layout
formats. In developing a fixed position layout,
visualize the product as the hub of a wheel with
materials and equipment arranged concentrically
around the production point in their order of use and
movement difficulty. Thus, in building custom
yachts, for example, rivets that are used throughout
construction would be placed close to or in the hull;
heavy engine parts, which must travel to the hull
only once, would be placed at a more distant
location; and cranes would be set up close to the
hull because of their constant use.
Product Layout
Is one in which equipment or work processes are
arranged according to the progressive steps by
which the product is made? The path for each part
is, in effect, a straight line.
Production lines for shoes, chemical plants, and car
washes are all product layouts. The products
generally circulate within the production facilities
(machines, workers, etc.); in this particular type of
layout, the product does not move, it is the different
resources that are moved to perform the operations
on the product.
The major advantages are the total production time
is short. The material handling is reduced because
of the location of the machine to minimize the
distance between the consecutive operations. Less
skilled operator is required.
Process Layout
Groups facilities with similar functions together
(resources of the same type). This organization is
often reported to be suited when there is a wide
variety of product. Product layout is used for
systems with high production volumes and a low
variety of products. Facilities are organized
according to the sequence of the successive
manufacturing operations.
Since the machine is grouped, only fewer machines
are required. Better utilization of machines could be
achieved. High degree of flexibility exists. Highly
skilled labor is required in process layout.
Cellular Layout
Machines are grouped into cells, to process families
of similar parts these cells also need to be placed on
266

the factory floor. Therefore, one is also generally

concerned with so called intra cells machine layout
problems. Here, one is concerned with finding the
best arrangement of machines in each cell.
LAYOUT
DESIGN
METHODS
COMPUTER PACKAGES
AND
It is highly desirable that the optimum plant layout

be designed. Unfortunately, the magnitude of the
problem is so great that true system optimization is
beyond current capabilities. The approach normally
taken in solving the plant layout problem is to try to
find a satisfactory solution. Previously, facilities
layout problems were solved primarily by using
iconic models.
Then analytical approaches were developed. In
general, plant layout problems can be solved by any
of the following approaches: Exact mathematical
procedures, Heuristics, Probabilistic approaches,
Graph theory. A number of different procedures
have been developed to aid the facilities planner in
designing layouts. These procedures can be
classified into two main categories: construction
type and improvement type. Construction type
layout methods basically involve developing a new
layout from scratch. Improvement procedures
generate layout alternatives based on an existing
layout.
Based on the above two procedures, many
algorithmic approaches have been developed. Some
of them are Systematic Layout Planning (SLP)
procedure, steepest descent search method by pair
wise exchange, graph-based construction method,
programming, network, Tabu search, simulated
annealing and genetic algorithm. Based on these
approaches, many computer-aided layout routines
have been developed. Some of them are CRAFT
[Buffa], COFAD [Tompkins], CORELAP [Lee],
ALDEP
[Seehof],
PLANET
[Tompkins],
MULTIPLE [Bozer], BLOCPLAN [Katzel],
SHAPE [Hassan], DISCON [Drezner] and SPS
[Liggett]. [10]
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERISED
ALGORITHM METHOD
CRAFT (Computerized Relationship Allocation
of Facility Techniques)
CRAFT is representative of improvement type
layout algorithm. It is more popular than the other
computer based layout procedures. It is an
improvement algorithm and starts with an initial
layout and proceeds to improve the layout by

interchanging the departments pair wise to reduce
the total material transportation cost. It does not
give the optimal layout; but the results are good and
near optimal, which can be later corrected to suit the
need of the layout planner. [10]
CRAFT algorithms are originally developed by
Armour and Buffa. CRAFT is more widely used
than ALDEP and CORELAP. It is an improvement
algorithm. It starts with an initial layout and
improves the layout by interchanging the
developments pair wise so that the transportation
cost is minimized. The algorithm continues until no
further interchange is possible to reduce the
transportation cost. The result given by CRAFT is
not optimum in terms of minimum in majority of
applications. Hence, CRAFT is mainly a heuristic
algorithm. Unfortunately, plant layout problem
comes under combinatorial category. So usage of
efficient heuristic like CRAFT is inevitable for such
problem. This algorithm is characterized by
efficiently allocating the departments in heuristic
way. Under the criterion of minimizing the material
handling costs for multiple product items, where
this cost is expressed as a linear function of the
transportation distance. Basically, CRAFT seeks an
optimum design by sequentially improving the
layout, based upon material flow analysis, as given
in an initial layout specified as either an existing
layout or a predetermined spatial array. CRAFT is
an improvement procedure, but interchange of
departments is restricted to those that are either
equal in area or sharing a common boundary in
order to retain the original shape of the factory site.
Input data required for CRAFT include:
1. The initial layout
2. Material flow data
3. Material handling cost data
4. The number and location of all fixed
departments
5. Area of the departments
CRAFT procedure:
The steps of CRAFT algorithm are summarized
below.
Step 1. Input:
1. Number of departments
2. Number of interchangeable
Departments
3. Cost matrix
4. Flow matrix
5. Area of departments
Step 2. Compute centroids of departments in the
present layout.
267

Step 3. Forum distance matrix using the centroids.

Step 4. Give data on flow.
Step 5. Find all the possible pair wise interchanges
of departments based on common border or
equal area criterion. For each possibility,
interchange the corresponding centroids
and compute approximate costs.
Step 6. Find the pair of departments corresponding
to the minimum handling cost from along
all the possible pair of interchanges.
Step 7. Is the cost in the previous step less than the
total cost of the present layout? If yes, go
to step 8. If not go to step 11.
Step 8.
Interchange the selected pair of
departments. Call this as the NEW
LAYOUT. Compute centroids, distance
matrix and total cost.
Step 9. Is the cost of new layout less than the
present layout? If yes go to step 10. If not,
go to step 11.
Step 10. The new layout is here after considered as
the present layout. Its data on centroids,
layout matrix and the total cost is retained.
Go to step 5.
Step 11. Print the present layout as the final layout.
Step 12. Stop.
CORELAP (Computerized Relationship Layout
Planning)
CORELAP is representative of the construction type
of layout algorithm. It is concerned with generating
a layout based upon closeness ratings determined
from an activity relationship diagram. CORELAP
expresses the interdepartmental relationships in a
closeness relationship matrix, which is then used to
construct a layout. It constructs layouts by locating
rectangular shaped departments. The relationship
chart provides the basis for the order in which
different departments are placed. The input data
needed by CORELAP include:
1. The number of departments N,
2. The area of each department,
3. Activity relationship diagram for each
departments, and Weights for activity
relationships (which will be decided by the
layout planner e.g. A=6, E=5, I=4, O=3, U=2
and X=-1)
The closeness rating between departments i and j is
based upon the weight assigned to the activity
relationship between the two departments. [9]
COREPLAP follows the procedure below:
1. Choose the department having the largest Total
Closeness Rating (TCR) and place it in the
middle of the layout drawing.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Scan the relationship diagram to find any

department having an A rating with the
previously chosen department from step 1 and
place that department near to it. If no more
exists, a check is successively made to find any
department having an E rating, followed by an I
rating, then followed by an O rating. In case of
ties, the department having the largest TCR is
chosen.
If no department has been found so far, choose
an unassigned department with the largest TCR.
Place this secondly selected department near
the first selected department in the layout
drawing.
Scan the relationship diagram again to find an
unassigned department having an A rating with
the first selected department; if not, try to find
one with the secondly selected department. If
none exists, search for any unassigned
department having an E rating with the first
selected department and then with the secondly
selected department followed by a rating of I,
O, and U. For the case that no department is
found, choose an unassigned department with
the largest TCR. Then place the department
next to the first or second selected department.
(Now three departments have been placed in
the layout drawing).
Repeat the above search process until all
departments under consideration are placed
ALDEP (Automated layout programming)

ALDEP is construction type algorithm. This
algorithm uses basic data on facilities and builds a
design by successively placing the departments in
the layout. After placing all the departments in the
layout, a score is computed. This is nothing but the
sum of the closeness rating values of different
neighboring departments in the layout. This
algorithm is repeated. For a pre specified number of
times and the best layout is selected based on the
maximum layout score.
The basic data required for this algorithm a listed
below.
1. Total number of departments.
2. Area of each department.
3. Length and width of layout.
4. Closeness rating of various pairs of
departments in the form of relationship chart.
5. Minimum department preference (MDP) value.
6. Sweep width.
7. Number of iteration to be performed.
8. Location and size of each restricted area in the
layout if present.
268

Steps to be followed:
Step 0. INPUT:
1. Number of departments in the layout.
2. Area of each department.
3. Length and width of the layout.
4. REL-CHART (relationship chart).
5. MGP value.
6. Sweep width.
7. Number of iteration to be carried (N).
8. Current iteration number (I).
9. Location and size of fixed departments
if present.
10. Score of current layout (it is assumed as
a very high negative value before
performing the first iteration).
Step 1. Select a department randomly and place it in
the layout.
Step 2. Scan the relationship (REL)- chart and
classified the un selected department in to
two
lists, namely list A and list B. List
A contains the unselected department
whose relationship values in relation to the
lastly selected department are less than the
MDP value. List B contains the unselected
departments whose relationship values in
relation to the lastly selected department
are greater than or equal to the MDP value.
Step 3. Is the list B empty? If so, go to step 4;
otherwise go to step 5.
Step 4. Selected a department randomly from list A
and place it in the layout. Go to step 6.
Step 5. Select a department from list B which has
the maximum REL value in relation to the
lastly selected department and place it in
the layout.
Step 6. Whether all departments are placed in the
layout? If not go to step 2; if yes go to step
7.
Step 7. Compute the score of the layout.
Step 8. Is the score of layout more than the score of
the current best layout? If yes, update the
new layout as the current best layout and
store the corresponding score. Otherwise,
drop the new layout.
Step 9. Is the current iteration number I=N? If yes,
go to step 10; otherwise, increment the
iteration number by one (I=I+1) and then
go to step 1.
Step 10. Print the current best layout and the
corresponding score.
layout of ABG Shipyard Company. Department A is

stock department B is grinding, department C is
CNC workshop and department D is assembly.
Measuring the distance of all departments.
Interchange between two departments in CRAFT is
feasible only if the departments have the same area
or they share a common boundary. People needs
walking to move from one department to another,
even when the departments are adjacent. An
estimate of average walking required is obtained
from the distance between centroids of two
departments. Centroid of a rectangle is the point
where two diagonals meet. So, if a rectangle has
two opposite corners (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) then the
centroid is
x1 x2 y1 y 2
,
2
2
LAYOUT
Fig. 1 ABG Shipyard company layout

Calculate distance matrix:
Distance between two departments x A xB y A y B
Where, x A , y A is centre of department A
Centroids of A, B and C,
A (16,176)
B (112, 344)
C (64, 168)
D (144,168)
Centroid of Department A = xA , yA
Centroid of Department B = xB , y B
The distance between departments A and B is the
rectilinear distance between their centroids (16,176)
and (112, 344). Distance (A, B) is
xA xB y A yB
DISTANCE MATRIX
T/F
264
56
136
224
208
CASE STUDY
264
Consider the problem of finding the distance

between two adjacent departments, separated by a
line only. Taking the four department of existing
56
224
136
208
80
80
269

Fig. 2 distance matrix
A& C
143696
FLOW MATRIX
B&C
153232
B&D
165952
C&D
162736
T/F
Fig. 6 Summary of cost of pair wise interchange
CONCLUSIONS
140
157
211
70
105
By applying the CRAFT method we can say the

cost of the movement of material as well as other
resources will become optimum. In our case
reduction in cost of Rs. 16640 by using CRAFT
algorithm method.
Fig. 3 flow matrix

COST MATRIX
T/F
A
B
49
60
32
77
49
35
18
Fig. 4 cost matrix

Determine the total cost for all possible movements
between each department, Cost between each
department.
Cost between two departments = distance matrix *
Cost matrix
T/F
36960
8792
28696
15680
21840
12936
3360
7168
10472
10192
2800
1440
TOTAL COST = 160336 Rs

Fig. 5 total cost matrix
Similarly, pair wise interchange as above procedure

will give the total cost as shown in table below.
PAIR WISE
INTECHANGE
COST
(Rs)
A&B
189304
The interchange which promises the minimum

handling cost is selected for actual interchange in
the layout .The interchange between A and C result
into minimum cost of 143696 Rs. In the problem
considered, the approximate handling cost of
143696 Rs is less than the present layout cost of
160336 Rs. Print this layout as a final layout.
Therefore we will apply this method to actual layout

of the any company and find the optimal layout. So
we can say the layout made by CRAFT is the
optimal layout which helps to increase the
production rate and also reduce the cost. We can
also apply the CORELAP and ALDEP method for
improving productivity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my gratitude to my guide Assoc. Prof. Mr.
H G. Shah, for his expert guidance, encouragement
and suggestion throughout the preparation of this
work. He has been a pillar of support and inspired
me throughout this study, without him this would
not have been possible.
I also express my heartiest thank to Assoc. Prof. S.
J. Thanki, (Mechanical Engineering Department.)
for helping me throughout this work. I am grateful
to the teaching faculties of Mechanical Engineering
Department for their valuable suggestions and
instruction regarding my work. I have also received
tremendous amount of help from my friends insight
and outside the institute.
REFERENCES
Kheisin, DE (1992). "Dynamics of Ice Cover
Interacting with Ocean and Atmosphere," Int J
Offshore and Polar Eng, ISOPE, Vol 3, No 1, pp
270

43-50.
Drira A, Pierreval H, Hajri S (2007). Facility
layout problems: A survey, Annual Reviews in
Control, pp. 255267.
Koopmans T, Beckmann M (1957). Assignment
problems and the location of economic
activities,. Econometrica, 25(1), pp. 5376.
Lee Y, Lee M. H (2002). A shape-based block
layout approach to facility layout problems using
hybrid genetic algorithm, Computers &
Industrial Engineering, 42, pp. 237248, 2002.
Shayan E, Chittilappilly A (2004). Genetic
algorithm for facilities layout problems based on
slicing tree structure, International Journal of
Production Research, 42(19), pp. 40554067.
Meller R. D, Narayanan V, Vance P H (1999).
Optimal facility layout design, Operations
Research Letters, 23(35), pp. 117127.
Azadivar F, Wang J (2000), Facility layout
optimization using simulation and genetic
algorithms, International Journal of Production
Research 38(17), pp. 43694383.
271

272

A Review of Process Parameters of Hot

Machining for Different Materials
Nirav M. Kamdar
M.E. (CAD/CAM) Student, Sankalchand Patel College of Engineering Visnagar, Mehsana, Gujarat, India
nirav.me.mech@gmail.com
Prof. Vipul K. Patel

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sankalchand Patel college of Engineering, Visnagar, Mehsana, Gujarat,
vkpatel.mech@spcevng.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Materials with resistance to wear are frequently utilized in industry and these materials are notoriously difficult to
machine. During the machining process, instead of increasing the quality of the cutter materials, softening of the
workpiece is the preferred approach. One of the methods of softening the workpiece is Hot machining. In hot machining, a
part or the whole of the workpiece is heated. Heating is performed before or during machining. Hot machining prevents
cold working hardening by heating the workpiece above the recrystallization temperature and this reduce the resistance to
cutting and consequently favours the machining.
KEYWORDS: Cutting speed; Feed rate; Depth of

cut; Surface roughness; Tool life; Hot machining
INTRODUCTION
The turning of materials, which have the high
strength, wear resistance and toughness exhibit lot
of difficulties, while doing by conventional
machining methods and yields desirable results
only by the selection of optimum machining
parameters (S. Ranganathan and T. Senthilevan,
2010). Such materials are widely used commonly
in aerospace, nuclear industries and food
processing
industries.
Non-conventional
machining techniques such as abrasive jet
machining, electro chemical machining and
electrical discharge machining processes remove a
very small amount of material in every pass,
which is very expensive and consuming more time
as well. Hence, hot machining process has been
developed in industries to remove large amount of
materials without compromising machining and
quality. In hot machining, a part or whole of workpiece is heated. Heating is performed before or
during machining. Hot machining prevents cold
working hardening by heating the work-piece
above the recrystallization temperature and this

reduces the resistance to cutting and consequently
favours the machining. Hot machinable materials
are classified in four groups according to their
composition and properties. These classes are (i)
chilled cast iron, (ii) steel with hardness over 50
HRC, (iii) steel whose surface is hardened with
cobalt and other additional alloys and (iv) steels
hardened by cold working (M. Davami and M.
Zadshakoyan, 2008). A selection of improper
heating method of the work-piece material will
lead to undesirable structural changes, which
increases the machining cost. From the past
studies, it was understood that for heating the
workpiece during hot machining different methods
of heating, such as, furnace heating, flame heating,
laser heating, friction heating, electric heating and
plasma arc heating methods have been employed.
One of the primary objectives is to reduce the
machining cost without sacrificing the quality of
the machined parts (S. Ranganathan and T.
Senthilevan, 2010).
Pal and Basu investigated the tool life during hot
machining of Austenitic Manganese Steel and
273

they reported that the tool life is dependent on

work piece temperature and relative cutting
speed. Chen and Lo presented the experimental
investigation of the factors that affect the tool
wear in the hot machining of alloy steel. In this
study, alloy steels of different harnesses were
machined using several grades of carbide tools,
over a range of cutting speeds and heating
current. Raghuram and Muju reported that tool
life has been improved by magnetization and
also a reduction in tool wear was observed due
to an external magnetic field in hot machining.
Hinds and Almedia studied the plasma arc
heating for hot machining, which improved the
efficiency of heat transfer under high speed
heating of the materials. Kitagawa and Maekawa
discussed plasma hot machining for glasses and
engineering materials, such as, Pyrex, Mullite,
Alumina, Zirconia, Silicon nitride and sintered
high speed steel. Tosum and Ozler conducted hot
machining experiments up to 6000 C to optimize
the performance characteristics of manganese
steel using LPG. Tosum and Ozler computed
the tool life during hot machining using
artificial neural network (ANN) and regression
analysis method (RAM) by considering the
cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut and
temperature
as
machining
parameters.
Madhavulu and Ahmed compared the metal
removal of stainless steel (SS 410), alloy steel
and forged stainless steel rotor by hot turning
operation with undulations on the surface by
applying a plasma arc heating. Maity and Swain
investigated the tool life during hot machining by
using manganese steel as work piece material.
Larin and Martynow discussed the method of
heating during machining of steel. Mukherjee
and Basu outlined the statistical evaluation of
metal cutting parameters during hot machining
of nickel-chromium steel. Ranganathan and
Senthivalan studied the influence of the cutting
parameters on 316 stainless steel using analysis of
variance. N.R. modh and K.B. Rahod studied the
influence of the cutting parameters of AISI 52100
steel using analysis of variance(ANOVA).
PROCESS
PRINCIPLE
MACHINING PROCESS
OF
HOT
For the experiments, as shown in Fig. 1, a heating

apparatus was designed using gas flame heating.
The flame was generated by a torch (Gloor brand
number The torch burned a mixture of liquid
petroleum gas and oxygen. The flow rate of each
gas was kept constant during the experiment by
a flow meter. The flow rates for liquid petroleum
gas and oxygen were 110 ml/min and 30 ml/min,
respectively. The gas pressures were adjusted by
the pressure regulators. To provide controlled
flow of gas to the torch, two solenoid valves
(Lucifer brand) which were compatible with the
heating control apparatus were used. The
temperature of the workpiece was controlled by
the head control apparatus and an infrared
thermometer, solenoid valves and the heat control
unit mounted together. A pilot flame adjacent to
the torch was used to re-ignite the torch after the
valves turned off the gas flow. Solenoid valves
adjusted the flow of the gases depending on the
temperature of the workpiece. When the set
temperature
was
reached,
the
infrared
thermometer sent a signal to the heat control unit
and the unit shut off the gas flows. However,
when the temperature of the workpiece fell below
the set temperature, the heat control unit
opened the valves and the gas flows resumed
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 Experimental Setup of Hot machining
Fig. 2 Representation of the experimental design
274

REVIEW OF LITERARURE
A. Effect of Process parameters on Tool Life
on
Austenitic Manganese Steel
L. Ozler, A. Inan, and C. Ozel conducted hot
machining operation on austenitic manganese
steel. An expression for the tool life of sintered
carbide tool machining heated austenitic
manganese steel was developed. They utilized
liquefied petroleum gas and oxygen gas mixture
to preheat the metal. The influence of surface
temperature, cutting speed, feed rate, and depth
of cut on the tool life was investigated.
Afterwards, an expression for the effects of
cutting conditions on tool life was determined
using a mathematical model developed by a
factorial regression method. Both theoretical
and experimental determination of tool life was
carried out. Compared to conventional
machining, at room temperature the tool life in
hot machining of Austenitic manganese steel
was longer. Fig. 3 shows the cutting speed was
increased, the tool life was decreased. The
longest and shortest tool lives in hot
machining and conventional machining were
obtained at 22 m/min and 75 m/min tool
lives, respectively. These results indicate that
hot machining allows the use of higher
cutting speeds.
Fig. 3 The relationship between the tool life and

cutting speed (S=0.1 mm/rev, t=1.5 mm)
Fig. 4 shows the temperature is increased,

resistance to cutting is decreased, magnitudes of
cutting force were less and lesser tool wear,
hence tool life was observed.

Cutting Temperature (S=0.2 mm/rev, t=1.5 mm)
Fig. 5 The relationship between the tool life and Feed

rate (V= 75 m/min, t=1.5 mm)

Cutting Depth (V= 75 m/min, S=0.2)
Fig. 5 shows tool life was decreased as the

feed rate was increased. In experiments at
600C hot machining and conventional
machining, 14 min tool lives were obtained
from 0.4 and 0.1 mm/rev feed rates,
respectively. These results showed that in hot
machining higher feed rates would be used
275

without producing significant reductions in

tool life.
B. Experimental investigation of hot
machining operation on high manganese steel
K.P. Maity, P.K. Swain had carried out an
experimental investigation of hot machining
operation of high manganese steel using a
carbide cutting tool. The heating of the work
piece was carried out by Flame heating method.
An expression of tool life as a function of
cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and
temperature was developed using regression
analysis. The adequacy of the model was tested.
The effects of cutting conditions on tool life
were also investigated.
Fig. 7 Variation of chip reduction co-efficient with

respect to time
The tool life is influenced by work piece

temperature, cutting speed, feed and depth of
cut. The chip reduction co-efficient decreases
with increase in temperature as shown in fig.7.
C. Investigation of parameters on AISI 1060
Steel
M. Davami, M.Zadshkoyan had worked on
influence of hot machining method and
presented in two cases :
Case 1 : Work piece surface roughness quality
with constant cutting parameters and 300 0 C
initial work piece surface temperature.
Case 2 : Tool temperature variation when
cutting with two speeds 78.5 (m/min) and 51
(m/min). The work piece material and tool used
in this study were AISI 1060 steel (45HRC) and
uncoated carbide TNNM 120408-SP10
respectively. A gas flame heating source was
used for preheating of the work piece surface up
to 300 0C.
Fig. 8 Measured surface roughness in Vc =

35(m/min)
From the experiments Surface roughness in hot

machining got better when the work piece
surface temperature is 300 0C with less
variation, Ra = 0.6 m with Vc = 35(m/min). In
low cutting speeds, the discontinuous form
chips produced in machining may be changed to
continuous form.
D. Experimental investigation to optimize the
process parameters on AISI 52100 Steel
Nikunj Modh, G.D. Mistry, K.B. Rathod had
studied the influence of the cutting parameters
namely cutting speed (Vs), feed rate (fs) and
depth of cut (ap) at 200 C, 400 C, 600 C hot
machining of AISI 52100 Steel on Cutting
force, The optimum results can be achieved in
the experimental study by employing Full
Factorial Method.
From fig. 9, it can be seen that minimum cutting
force obtained is at cutting speed of 90.903
m/min, feed rate of 0.265 mm/rev and
temperature 600 C.
Fig. 9 Main effect plot for Cutting force
From fig. 10, it can be seen that minimum feed

force obtained is at cutting speed of 90.903
m/min, feed rate of 0.430 mm/rev and
temperature 600 C.
276

Fig. 10 Main effect plot for Feed force
Fig. 11 Main effect plot for Surface roughness
From fig. 11, it can be seen that minimum

surface roughness obtained is at cutting speed of
90.903 m/min, feed rate of 0.265 mm/rev and
temperature 600 C.
Hot machining process gives good surface
finish at high cutting speed, high temperature
and low feed rate and it is also beneficial in
terms of low cutting force and feed force.
Optimum results are achieved when Cutting
speed is 965 rev/min, Depth of Cut is 0.8 mm,
Feed is 0.265 mm/rev and Temperature is 600
o
C. During hot machining, the change of the
workpiece surface colour was also observed at
temperature of 600 oC.
SUMMARY
Hot machining process gives better result than
conventional machining. But wrong selection of
parameters and heating method creates
unexpected result. The following conclusions
can be drawn based on the research work
carried out for effect of process parameters
during hot machining:
Tool life greatly influenced by workpiece
temperature and cutting speed.
There is increase in tool life with increase
in workpiece temperature and increase in
tool life with decrease in cutting speed, feed

rate and depth of cut.
Hot machining process gives good surface
finish at high cutting speed, high
temperature and low feed rate and it is also
beneficial in terms of low cutting force and
feed force.
In low cutting speeds, the discontinuous
form chips produced in machining may be
changed to continuous form.
Literature review reveals that the researchers
have carried out most of the work on tool
wear rate but very limited work has been
reported on process parameters like cutting
force, material removal rate, feed force, chip
thickness and surface roughness. The following
suggestion may prove useful for future work.
Simulation modelling can be carried out
using the FEA or CFD Analysis and
comparison between experimental and
simulated result can be done.
Efforts should be made to investigate the
effects of Hot machining parameters on
performance measures by different heating
environment.
REFERENCES
B.K. Hinds and S.M. De Almedia (1981),
Plasma arc
heating for hot machining,
International
Journal of Machine Tool
Design and Research, 21 (2), 143-152
D.K. Pal and S.K. Basu (1971), Hot
machining of austenitic manganese steel by
shaping, International Journal
of Machine
Tool Design and Research, 11 (1), 4561
K.P. Maity and P.K. Swain (2008), An
experimental
investigation
of
Hotmachining to predict tool life,
Journal of
Material Processing Technology, 198, 344-349
L. Ozler and A. Inan (2001), Theoretical and
Experimental
determination of tool life in
Hot machining of
Austenitic
manganese steel, International Journal
of
Machine Tools & Manufacturer, 41, pp.163172
M.A. Lajis and T.L. Ginta (2009),Hot
machining of
Hardened Steels with Coated
Carbide Inserts,
American Journal
of Engineering and Applied
Sciences 2,
pp. 421-427
277

M. Davami and M. Zadshakoyan (2008),

Investigation of Tool
Temperature
and
Surface Quality in Hot
machining of HardtoCut materials, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology,
46
Nihat Tosun and Latif Ozler (2002), A study
of tool life in
hot machining using artificial
neural network and
regression analysis
method, Journal of Materials
Processing
Technology, 124, pp. 99-104
Nikunj Modh and K.B. Rathod (2011), An
experimental
investigation to optimize the
process parameters of
AISI 52100 steel in
Hot machining, International
Journal of
Engineering
Research
and
Application(IJERA),Vol. 1, issue 3, pp.483-489
N.N.S. Chen and K.C. Lo (1974), Factors
affecting tool life in hot machining of alloy
steels, International
Journal of Machine
Tool Design and Research,4
(2), 161173
S. Ranganathan and T. Senthivelan (2010),
Optimizing the process parameters on tool
wear of WC inert when hot turning of AISI
316 Stainless steel, Asian
Research
Publishing Network (ARPN), Vol. 5, No.7, pp.
24-35.
V. Raghuram and M.K. Muju (1980),
Improving tool life by
magnetisation in hot
machining, International Journal of Machine
Tool Design and Research, 20
(2), 87-96
278

The Effect of Electrochemical Parameters on

Corrosion Behaviour of Electroslag Strip
Cladded of Weld Overlays
Mr. Shailesh F. Parmar
Parul Institute of Engg. & Technology, Baroda, Gujarat, India
ran_shailesh@yahoo.co.in
Mr. Samarth Shelat

A.D Patel Institute of Engg. & Technology, New V.U.Nagar, Anand, Gujarat, India
samarth.shelat@yahoo.in
ABSTRACT
For internal protection of hydroprocessing reactors from high-temperature environmental effects, it is necessary to deposit
austenitic stainless steel weld overlays on carbon steel or low-alloy steel base materials. Among the many overlaying
possibilities for large-size reactors, submerged and electroslag strip cladding have emerged as primary candidates. Recent
reports have shown that the electroslag cladding process offers superior joint quality and is also more cost-effective. The
current paper describes the work done for establishing process parameters for electroslag strip cladding in the fabrication
of various critical applications.
KEY WORDS: Electroslag cladding, structural

changes, Corrosion and Wear resistances, Welding
Parameter- Current, Voltage and Travelling Speed.
INTRODUCTION
Highly alloyed materials, such as stainless steel or
nickel base alloys, are needed in many applications
to provide protection against corrosion. However, in
many cases, the comparatively high cost of this
material makes the deposition of a protective layer
on a less expensive load bearing mild or low alloy
steel the more realistic financial alternative.
DIFFERENT
PROCEDURES.
TYPES
OF
CLADDING
Mainly 2 types of cladding process:

1. Mechanical means (to achieve cold rolling
process )
2. Welding means.
Manual arc welding (MMA)
Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG)
Metal inert/active gas welding (MIG/MAG
welding)
Flux-cored wire welding (FCW)
Submerged-arc welding (SAW)
Electroslag strip welding (ESW)
Stainless steel strip cladding is widely used in the

production of components for the chemical,
petrochemical and nuclear industries. In many
cases, the vessel for this application weighs several
hundred tones.
279

Surfacing of Continuous Casting Rollers. (high

pressure)
Characteristics of ESSC
FIG-1 ESSC-ELECTROSLAG STRIP CLADDING
Fig-2 SASC- Submerged Arc Strip Cladding
Performance comparison (ESW vs. SAW)

Welding
process
Strip
Dimensions
(mm )
SAW
60 x 0.5
90 x 0.5
120 x 0.5
60 x 0.5
90 x 0.5
120 x 0.5
ESW
Current
( Amps)
Dilutions
(%)
Deposition
rate
( Kg/ hr)
750
1350
1500
1250
1800
2500
16
17
15
8
8
10
13
28
31
22
31
42
Applications of ESSC
Nuclear
Power
Components
(marine
environments )
Petro Chemical Industry ( High temp, high
pressure )
Chemical industry. ( High temp, high pressure )
Offshore Industry. (seawater environments )
Paper
industry.
(aggressive
service
environments.)
See Water Desalination Plants. (seawater
environments
Waste Water processing
Desulphuration Plants. ( acidic environments )
Electro-slag strip cladding is the modified

version of submerged arc strip cladding
process.
The heat generation in the case of ESSC is
due to the current flowing through the
electro-conductive slag.
Molten weld pool will be visible during
welding.
Radiation only in the visible and infrared
spectrum. No ultraviolet radiation because
of the absence of the arc.
Flux fed from front side only.
Automatic removal of the slag crust.
Very regular, finely ripped bead, without
any slag adherence.
Because of low penetration and newly
developed strip / flux combination low
carbon stainless steel deposits can be
achieved in single layer .
Low arc voltage (24 26V )
Can be applied on curved as well as flat
surfaces.
Low heat input in parent metal.
Low flux consumption. (0.4 -0.5 Kg/Kg
strip).
Increased welding speed (50% - 200 %
higher), resulting in higher area coverage
in m2/h.
Suitable for depositing both corrosion
resistant and wear resistant weld metal.
Advantages of ESSC
Low dilution by the base metal

Higher melting rate
Higher deposition rate
Low flux consumption
Smooth bead surface with a higher degree
of purity
Limitations of ESSC
Weld in the flat or down hand position

Adequate access for the welding head
The overlap between adjacent beads must
be controlled to avoid lack of fusion
defects.
The chemical composition & welding
parameters of the strip must be carefully
280

selected to take into account the level of

dilution
Fig: 3 Shell Cladding

WELDING PARAMETERS:
1.
2.
3.
Current
Welding Voltage
Welding Speed
The electroslag strip cladding process was stable

only when sufficient contact area between the
molten slag pool and the melting strip was
maintained. An excessive fast travels speed caused
the strip to be in contact with insufficiently heated
slag, thus resulting in sporadic submerged arcing
and process instability. On the other hand, too slow
a travel speed resulted in bead thickness increase
with an accompanying wetting angle so steep that
slag entrapment may occur at the bead overlaps.
At given welding current and voltage, the bead
thickness, bead width and penetration or dilution of
the base metal vary with welding speed as
illustrated by fig. 4
Fig: 4 Effect of welding Speed on Dilution, Bead

width, Penetration and Bead thickness.
The welding speed has a considerable influence on

bead geometry and dilution. The increasing welding
speed can be explained by the interaction between
decreased bead thickness, width and increased
penetration.
Heat transferred to the base metal is influenced by
the relative location of the strip electrode and the
molten metal pool. If the electrode is impinged on
solid base metal (through the slag), penetration
increases, alternatively, if the strip electrode is
impinged on previously melted metal, penetration
decreases. The deposited metal thickness decreases
with increasing travel speed, therefore penetration
increases with increasing travel speed, just as it will
if electroslag cladding is performed uphill. The
dilution greatly increases with increasing travel
speed.
The travel speed will depend on the desired
thickness of the surfacing layer. The greater current
density which can be applied along with the high
melting rate that can be achieved, make it possible
to attain higher welding speeds then would be
possible by SAW surfacing. A layer of 4 mm is
often specified encountered in processing
equipment; the welding speed will be between 160
to 200 mm / min. The extent to which the thickness
of the cladding can be reduced by increasing the
welding speed is limited since, a speed exceeding
200 mm / min; the strip electrode will tend to run
away from the slag pool. For this reason, lower
current densities are used to apply thin layers 3.5
mm. Not only can adjusting the welding speed can
regulate the surfacing depth; the degree of dilution
by the substrate material can also be influenced.
Fig: 5 Potentiodynamics effect of welding

Speed on clad metal
281

Table: 1 Electrochemical
Parameters
Potentiodynamics Scan in 0.1N H2SO4 Solution
Sr.
No
Samples
ESSC Clad
309L
160 WS
ESSC Clad
309L
180 WS
ESSC Clad
309L
200 WS
of
The Tafel plots for Cladded samples in 3.5% NACL

are shown in Fig: 6 and results are summarized in
Table: 2 corrosion rates for cladded samples at 160
to 200 mm/min welding speed is increases.
iCorr
ECorr
(mV)
C.R. (mpy)
23.60
A
-676
43.11
REFERENCES
260.0
A
-709
222.7
122.0
A
-651
474.7
The Tafel plots for Cladded samples in 0.1N H2SO4

are shown in Fig: 5 and results are summarized in
Table: 1. Corrosion rate for cladded samples at 160
to 180 mm/min welding speed is almost similar and
is going to decrease at cladded sample at 200
mm/min welding speed. All three samples also
exhibit passivation behaviour within shorter span of
time and longer period of time it will also show
double passivation behaviour.
Fig: 6 Potentiodynamics effect of Welding

Speed on clad metal
Table: 2Electrochemical Parameters of
Potentiodynamics Scan in 3.5% NACL Solution
Sr.
No
1
Samples
ESSC-Clad
309L
160 WS
ESSC-Clad
309L
180 WS
ESSC Clad
309L
200 WS
ECorr
(mV)
C.R. (mpy)
234.0
A
-462
428.5
241.0
A
-493
439.7
167.0
A
-489
306.1
iCorr
Iradj Sattari-Far & Magnus Andersson

Cladding Effects on Structural Integrity of
Nuclear Components, SKI Report 2006:23 p-p
4-5
Susan Pak, Solverig Rigdal, Lief Karlsson and
Ann-Charlotte Gustavsson Esab AB, Goteborg
Sweden. Electroslag and submerged arc
stainless steel strip cladding, p -1
For Electroslag And Submerged Arc Strip
Cladding- Soudokay
KARLSSON,
L.;
PAK,
S.
AND
GUSTAVSSON, A.-C.: Improved Disbonding
Resistance and Lower Consumable Cost
New Strip Cladding Concept For Hydrogen
Atmospheres. Stainless Steel World 7(1997)9,
pp. 46 51.
PAK., S., RIGDAL, S., KARLSSON, L.,
GUSTAVSSON
A.-C.:Electroslag
and
submerged arc stainless steel Cladding. ESAB
Svetsaren, Goteborg 51(1996)3,
pp. 28 33.
Shozaburo Nakano, Toshiharu Hiro, Noboru
Nishiyama, Jun inchiro Tsuboi Maglay
Process Electro Magnetic Controlled overlay
welding process with ESW, KAWASAKI
STEEL TEHNICAL REPORT No.2 March
1981
ESSC
:
Process
Characteristics
http://fabtech.in
Soundkay Strip Cladding- Bohler Thyssen
Welding
Tapobrata Datta : Electroslag Strip Cladding
Principle ,process control and Application,
Engineering Advances Descember1997 p- 69
Y.K OH, J.H. DEVLETIAN AND S.J.CHEN
Low dilution electroslag cladding for
shipbuilding, welding Journal vol. 69 (8), 1990.
P 38
282

An Application of Value Stream Mapping to

Enhance the Runtime in the Machine Shop
Mukhtar R Sama
PG student Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Tech. & Engg., M.S.University of Baroda, Vadodara
Mukhtar.sama@gmail.com
Dr. M. N. Qureshi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Tech. & Engg., M.S.University of Baroda, Vadodara
ABSTRACT
In this competitive world the challenges against manufacturing firm are on time delivery and quality. So it is necessary to
run machine at maximum possible time. So ultimately the think or the view developed that how to increase the efficiency of
the machine. This paper describes the use of value stream mapping to improve the efficiency of machine shop. Generally
there is mind set to use value stream mapping for whole process including all process stage and information. In this paper
an effort is to carry out to use value stream mapping to identifying the wastes occurring during machining only.
KEY
WORDS:
Runtime,
TPM,
Visual
Management, Kaizen
INTRODUCTION
There are a series of steps that need to be followed
to assure success:
1. Develop a clear sense of urgency to change.
2. Build the sense of urgency within the Senior
Management Team.
3. Create an agreement on the Strategic / Business
Plan and Strategic Vision with clear superior
performance goals
throughout the organization.
4. Communicate the Vision, Lean Implementation
Plan, and Superior Performance Goals to the
organization.
5. Empower and train the group that will start the
implementation.
6. Implement a pilot with a liberal time line to
demonstrate the feasibility and success of the plan.
7. Expand the effort to other areas.
One of the methods of recording a products
production path, material and information is Value
stream mapping. Value stream mapping can be used
by management, engineers, production associates;
schedulers, suppliers, and customer to recognize
identify waste and its causes. Value stream mapping
starts with current state while focusing on the
desired goal. Various lean tools are used to improve

the current state of the process.
A value steam mapping is visual representation
on the process or system describing the all steps of
process and information flow in the process or
system differentiating value added and non value
added activity. To improve the production process
Value stream mapping is a communication tool, a
business-planning tool, and tool to manage change
in production processes. VSM personnel first of
draw the current state by gathering information on
plant floor. In the Value stream mapping various
matrices like runtime, WIP, lead time etc.
Rother & Shook provide seven guidelines to follow
when generating the Future State Map for an
improved manufacturing system (Rother and Shook,
1999, p. 44-54):
1. Produce to takt time
2. Develop continuous flow
3. Use supermarkets to control production
where continuous flow does not extend
upstream
4. Schedule based on the pacemaker
operation
5. Produce different products at a uniform
rate (Level the production mix)
6. Level the production load on the
283

pacemaker process (Level the production

volume)
7. Develop the capability to make every part
every (EPE) <time period>
To make the value stream mapping following are
the key element
1. The customer requirement
2. Process in order
3. Key performance indicator
4. Supplier with material flow
5. Information and physical flow
6. Total lead time
The studies available in literature show that in any

organization about 70-90% activity are non-value
added that can be eliminated by applying lean. Also,
with the application of 5S and Kanban Tooling
resulted decrease in work-in-progress (WIP)? By
the effective application of the Lean Manufacturing
it becomes possible to obtain the effectiveness of
manufacturing strategies and identify the potential
opportunities for improvements
There are some Lean Tools which are helpful for
increasing efficiency. In today competitive market it
is very essential to implement the Lean concept in
the organization. To implement lean in the
organization it is essential to know the current state
of the organization and then implement the lean tool
step by step, it is not possible to implement the
entire lean tool simultaneously. Another advantage
of the Value stream mapping is to know the level of
seven wastes in the system and in future state the
seven waste levels are reduced step by step. This
seven waste are as under
1. Overproduction: To produce the product
more than customer demand
2. Over Processing: Unnecessary process to
meet the customer requirement.
3. Inventory: This is excess inventory as raw
material, work in process inventory,
finished product, spare parts etc
4. Defect: This is the non conformation of
product
5. Excess movement: This is the unnecessary
motion in the specific workstation. It

occurs due to bad design of the
workstation.
6. Transportation: This is the movement of
the product between the workstation
factory to organization etc
7. Waiting: This is non productive time which
occurs due to improper line balancing of
the lines
The above waste can be reduced by the various lean
tools like
1. Just-in-time
2. Kaizen
3. SMED
4. Standard work
5. Visual Management
6. TPM
7. Kaban cards
8. Value Stream mapping
Runtime and Big losses
The following are the major losses in process
1. Breakdown
2. Setup\Adjustment
3. Small Stops\Idling,
4. Speed loss,
5. Startup Rejects
6. Production Rejects
The runtime looks at theses losses and gives a
percentage number of how much time it took to
produce the good related to the time it could have
taken in an ideal world
Runtime can be calculated by formula= Total
Productive time\Total time
TPM
TPM, a unique Japanese system of managerial
expertise, was created in 1971, based on the PM
(preventive
maintenance
or
productive
maintenance) concept introduced from the United
States in the 1950 through the 1960s. Subsequently,
in the 1970s through the 1980s, TPM gradually
developed as its remarkable achievements became
recognized. TPM now permeates entire company
structures, every line of business, and all parts of the
world; this is evidenced by a sharp increase in the
number of business establishments receiving PM
awards based on TPM, the shift from productionsector TPM to company-wide TPM and the growing
number of countries in which TPM is practiced.
Kanban: Kanban is a flag or signal back to a
previous operation which tells that operation to
produce more products thus pulling production
through the process. There are many different types
of Kanban systems that use, from ConWIP to bin
systems, basically the imagination is your only
limiting factor in designing your Kanban system for
your lean implementation.
284

SMED: Single minute exchange of Die or SMED

is the lean manufacturing technique that uses to
reduce setup times. The aim is to reduce
changeover times down to single minutes rather
the hours that many companies take.
5S: The 5Ss actually stand for Japanese terms,
which loosely translate as Sort, Set in Order, Shine,
Standardize, and Sustain. A place for everything.
Everything in its place.5S is probably one of the
best known lean manufacturing tools, it is a
methodical way to make workplace more organized
and ergonomic, the benefit of 5S can be significant;
often 10% to 30% improvements in efficiencies are
realized.
Kaizen
The Japanese typically use Kaizen as an ongoing
process of many small improvements which
together adds up to a major improvement across the
whole company.
SMED: Single minute exchange of Die or SMED
is the lean manufacturing technique that uses to
reduce setup times. The aim is to reduce
changeover times down to single minutes rather
the hours that many companies take.
VSM: Value stream mapping is one of the most
important tools of lean manufacturing, it allows
mapping out whole value stream from materials
through to customer and identifying the areas of
waste and delays. Through the creation of current
value stream maps, can highlight the problems and
create future state maps and action plans to improve
value streams.
Research methodology adopted
The mapping effort starts with determine the Value
Stream to be improved and involves extensive
scoping efforts to identify the practical limits of the
mapping activity. The topic or process should be
one that the customer would perceive as creating
value. Ideally it is existing process that has a clear
start and end points and has indicator of
performance metrics will need to be established to
gage improvements. With the Value Stream
identified, the appropriate mapping participants are
selected, trained and prepped for the VSM activities
to come
Once the mapping team is in place, it draws the
Current State Map that shows how things really
work (not how the process is documented or how it
should work). This is the as-is condition with all
of the problems, inefficiencies, and flaws displayed
for the entire team to see. It is crucial that the
Current State Map be an honest depiction of what is
really happening. In order for the greatest
improvements to take place, there must be thorough
documentation of all non-value added activities. It is
critical at this point that the mapping team takes the
next step and identifies the wastes in the system and

more importantly the root causes of those
wastes. Waste is just a symptom that points to
problems within the value stream (or system). The
identification of the root causes leads to the
elimination of problems and the prevention of
similar problems from reoccurring.
Generally there is approach to use Value Stream
Mapping for whole system, considering the each
department in the organization. In this paper VSM
is used to improve the production effectiveness of
the machine shop.
Following steps is to be followed to improve the
efficiency of the machine shop.
1. Studying the flow of the process in the
machine shop.
2. Drawing the current state of the machine
shop by gathering one month data
3. Brainstorming with supervisor, operator
and top management for the kaizen
implementation
4. Drawing future state
5. Sustain the improvement action suggested
in the future state
Some of the symbol used in Value Stream
Mapping
Some of the abbreviation used in the VSM

RT-Runtime TC-Tool Change BD-Break Down
285

Current State Value Stream Mapping

As below diagram shows the graphically
presentation of technical process of components in
the form of value stream mapping. It starts from
shop planner from whom machine shop obtain short
term planning and respective kanban cards of
manufacturing components. That kanban cards
place on the centralize production leveling board by
shop supervisor. The kanban show the information
of sequence of process to be followed with work
center name for the components. The standard
process of the components is start with milling
operation followed by turning, drilling and boring
operation. In this current state total setup time is too
high which is around 477hrs with 25% of total
process time. Whereas self inspection, tool
change(TC) and Break down(BD) Contribute with
12%, 8% and 5%.and overall Runtime of the
machine shop is
48%.
From these figure
observation should be made that it is necessary to
take some steps for increase cut time or to reduce
the stoppages. The category other stoppages is
consists of remaining number of small stoppages
which cannot be identified as separately. From this
current state it can be clearly defined the area of
improvement at which need to be attack for
improvement.
Current State Runtime

100%
HOURS
39%
0
58% 36% 47% 80%

60%
40%
20%
0%
RT IN %
500
The self- inspection time is increased due

to the unnecessary measurement carryout by the
operator during the machining
Vertical head change time
The vertical head is changed in current state by
directly with the help of the crane due to this there
is too much difficulty in alignment of the head with
spindle
Break-Down time
Too many breakdown is occur due to improper
maintenance procedure carrying out by operator
How to implement the TPM concept in the future
state value stream mapping
To reduce the break down time, introduced cleaning
and inspection checklist. Cleaning and inspection
checklist is the graphical picture of components of
the machine which should be clean and inspect at
specific interval. Another concept is to introduce
tagging activity. Tagging is nothing but inspection
of whole machine with maintenance people and tag
the part which is found improper.
Implementation of the Visual management in the
shop
In the visual management part introduced the
centralize setup board. The centralize setup board
just give the supervisor the checklist for the status
of the components. Checklist include
Implementation of Kaizen in the future state
Small improvement introduced in the future state
value stream mapping is vertical head change tool to
reduce the vertical head change time. In the current
state value stream mapping the head change is
carried out by directly which include more
manpower, more time and safety issues.
Cut TimeMachine Other

Brainstorming for the root causes of delay
To find the root cause of the waste find in the
current state is found by the conducting the daily
runtime meeting with operator and supervisor.
Following reason came out for the waste in the
current state
Self-inspection
286

55% 66% 54% 68%
100%
RT IN %
HOURS
500
Future State Runtime
50%
0%
Machine Other
Cut Time
Results
Due the improvement action taken form current
state in the future state setup time decrease by 3%,
self-inspection 2%, break down time and tool
change time by1%. Overall runtime increased by
13%.
Conclusion
And of this paper it is found that value stream
mapping is one of the lean tool that describes
current issues occur in the process. The biggest
advantage of the value stream mapping is that it is
so simple that it can be used by any level of the
person there is no special training required to use
value stream mapping in organization.
Advantage of the Value Stream Mapping
1. Interrogates the manufacturing process to
supply chains, distribution channels
and
information
2. Links production control and scheduling
function such as production planning and
demand forecasting to production scheduling
and shopfloor
control using operating
parameters for the manufacturing system ex.
Takt time which determines the production rate
at which each processing stage in the
manufacturing
[6] Hines, P ,Rich,N & Esain.A..(1999), Value

stream mapping A distribution industry application,
Benchmarking: An International
Journal, Vol. 6 No. 1, 1999, pp. 60-77.
[7] Singh, B., Garg,S.K. and Sharma,S.K. (2010),
Value stream mapping: literature review and
implications for Indian industry, The International
Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology,
Vol.53, No. 5-8, 799-809
[8] Binodkumar Singh et al, Competitive
Advantage of Lean Manufacturing over Traditional
Manufacturing: A Case Study International
Conference on Industrial Engineering, 2003
[9] Abhishek Dixit et al. Lean manufacturing to
lean enterprise International Conference on
Industrial Engineering, 2011
[10] A.Gunasekaran et al. An Investigation into
the application of agile manufacturing in an
aerospace company Journal of Industrial and
system engineering Vol.2.No.3 2008
[11] Womack, J.P. & Jones, D.T (1996).Lean
thinking: Banish waste and create wealth in your
corporation. New York.
References
[1] Monden, Y., Toyota Production System: An
Integrated Approach to Just-in-Time, 2nd ed.,
Industrial Engineering and Management Press,
Norcross, GA, 1993.
[2] Womack, J. P. & Jones, D. T. (1996). Lean
Thinking: Banish Waste and Create Wealth in your
Corporation. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
[3] Rother, M. & Shook, J. (1999, June). Learning
to See. Version 1.2. Brookline, MA: Lean
Enterprise Institute.
[4] Apel, W. ( 2007), Value Stream Mapping for
Lean Manufacturing Implementation, Dissertation
[5] Hines,P & Rich,N.(1997)The seven value
stream mapping tools,International Journal of
Operations & Production Management, Vol. 17 No.
1, 1997, pp. 46-64.
287

288

A Framework for Maintenance

Performance Measurement and its Bench
Marking using Data Envelopment Analysis
in Supply Chains
Georgy Kurien Powathilath
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Babaria Institute of Technology, Varnama, Vadodara, Gujarat, India.
gpkurien@sify.com, gpkurien66@gmail.com
M. N. Qureshi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara,
Gujarat, India.
ABSTRACT
Successful Supply Chains (SC) use integrated Performance Measurement Systems (PMS) as a vehicle to achieve their
organizational goals. Performance Measurement and bench marking of Maintenance Units is a critical element in Supply
Chain Performance Management (SCPMS).Literature review indicates availability of many models for maintenance
performance evaluation; however these models do not provide a efficiency measure nor lays down achievable targets.
Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) helps in finding relative efficiencies of similar SCs, bench marking and evaluates areas
of possible improvements. An input oriented, constant return to scale model for Maintenance Units have been developed to
perform DEA. This paper demonstrates use of DEA for Maintenance Performance Measurement to facilitate measurement of
relative efficiencies, define targets and benchmarking of similar Maintenance Units
KEY WORDS: Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA),

Maintenance Performance Measurement, Maintenance
Management,
Performance Measurement System
(PMS), Supply Chain Management (SCM).
INTRODUCTION
Today the focus of Business organizations is to
capitalize on Supply Chain (SC) capabilities and
resources. SCs are competing with each other to
bring products and services to the market faster, at
the lowest possible cost, with the appropriate
product/service features, and the best overall value
(Gunasekaran et al., 2001). After sales service
including Maintenance Management is an important
component in most SCs. The customer satisfaction
as well as customer retention largely depends on the
performance of After Sales Maintenance and
Service component of the SC. Effective

Performance Measurement System (PMS) serve as
an indicator of how well the system is functioning.
Measuring performance can facilitate a greater
understanding of the system, monitor and improve
its overall performance (Charan et al., 2008).
Various performance measuring matrices have been
developed in the last two decades for measurement
of various aspects of SC and different perspectives
of Supply Chain Performance Measures (SCPM) are
available in literature (Taticchi et al., 2010).
However the SCPMSs developed have not always
provided success as intended. The reasons for this
paradox are attributed to implementation difficulties
and inherent limitations of existing PMS
frameworks. In addition, many of the frameworks
do not provide an efficiency measure of the unit nor
289

does it facilitate bench marking.

Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is a performance
measurement technique developed by Charnes et al.
(1978) and is used for determining the relative
efficiency of a set of comparable business and it can
also be used for benchmarking. The present research
is examining the Performance Measurement aspects
of Maintenance Units in SC and suggesting a
methodology for bench marking of Maintenance
aspects in SC using DEA. This study concentrates
on automobile industry and maintenance aspects
thus considered are more specific to an automobile
servicing and maintenance unit though the
principles can be applied to similar SCs with minor
adaptations.
This paper is organized into the following sections:
(i) Performance Measurement in SC; (ii)
Measurement of Maintenance Performance; (iii)
DEA for Performance Measurement and
Benchmarking; (iv) Demonstration of using DEA
for benchmarking Maintenance Performance in SC.
PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT IN SC
Literature review indicates that there have been two
phases in the evolution of PMSs. The first phase
was characterised by cost accounting and financial
orientation and was prevalent till 1980s. . This
orientation aimed at aiding managers in evaluating
the relevant costs of operating their firms. These
traditional financially-based PMS failed to measure
and integrate all the relevant factors critical to
business success. The mid-1980 was a turning point
in the performance measurement literature, as it
marked the beginning of the second phase. This
phase was associated with the growth of global
business activities and the changes brought about by
such growth. In the late 1980s, some frameworks,
which attempted to present a broader view of
performance measurement started to appear (Neely,
2005). They underscored the need for the alignment
of financial and non-financial measures in order to
be in accordance with business strategy. These
frameworks all have their relative benefits and
limitations. Literature review indicates that
empirical and theoretical validity of some of the
frame works are established whereas information
about others is not available (Taticchi et al., 2010).
facilitate and enhance the efficiency and

effectiveness of SCM. The main goal of SCPM
models and frameworks is to support management
by helping them to measure business performance,
analyze and improve business operational efficiency
through better decision-making processes (Tangen,
2005). An effective, integrated and balanced SCPM
can engage the organisations performance
measurement system as a vehicle for organisational
change. It also provides insight to reveal the
effectiveness of strategies and to identify potential
opportunities. It makes an indispensable
contribution to decision making in SCM,
particularly in re-designing business goals and
strategies, and re-engineering processes (Charan et
al., 2008).
The most widely cited PMS are the SMART (1988),
the performance measurement matrix (1989), the
Balanced Scorecard (1992), the integrated dynamic
PMS (1997) and the Performance Prism (PP)
(2001). In the Indian context, there have been many
attempts to measure the performance at the
organizational level, but very few attempts have
been made to measure the performance at interorganizational level (Saad et al., 2006). Table 1 lists
the major Performance Measurement Models based
on literature survey.
MEASUREMENT OF MAINTENANCE
PERFORMANCE
Performance measurement is a fundamental
principle of management. Like other SC functions,
performance measurement is important in managing
the maintenance function. Many approaches for
measuring maintenance performance are seen in
literature since 1990s. The different categories of
measures show different areas of interest in
maintenance performance in both literature and
practice.
Many of the literature studied proposes lists of
KPIs but lacks a methodological approach of
selecting or deriving them. As a result, users are left
to decide the relevant KPIs for their situation.
Further, an operational level-based maintenance
measurement model that links maintenance
objectives to maintenance process and results is also
lacking (Muchiri et al., 2011). A summary of
Maintenance Performance Measures observed from
literature is given at Table. 2.
Effective SCPM has been associated with a variety

of advantages including increased customer value,
increased profitability, reduced cycle times and
average inventory levels and even better product
design. The objective of SCPM therefore has to
290

Table 1. List of Performance

Measurement Models
Table. 2. Summary of Proposed Maintenance

Performance Systems
Period of
Introducti
on
The ROI, ROE, ROCE and derivates
Before
1980s
The economic value added model 1980
(EVA)
The activity based costing (ABC) 1988
the activity based management
(ABM)
The strategic measurement analysis 1988
and reporting technique (SMART)
The supportive performance measures 1989
(SPA)
The customer value analysis (CVA)
1990
The
performance
measurement 1990
questionnaire (PMQ)
The
results
and
determinants 1991
framework (RDF)
The balanced scorecard (BSC)
1992
The service-profit chain (SPC)
1994
The return on quality approach 1995
(ROQ)
The
Cambridge
performance 1996
measurement framework (CPMF)
The
consistent
performance 1996
measurement system (CPMS)
The
integrated
performance 1997
measurement system (IPMS)
The comparative business scorecard 1998
(CBS)
The
integrated
performance 1998
measurement framework (IPMF)
The business excellence model 1999
(BEM)
The
dynamic
performance 2000
measurement system (DPMS)
The action-profit linkage model 2001
(APL)
The manufacturing system design 2001
decomposition (MSDD)
The performance prism (PP)
2001
The performance planning value 2004
chain (PPVC)
The capability economic value of
intangible and tangible assets model
(CEVITA)
The
performance,
development, 2006
growth
benchmarking
system
(PDGBS)
The unused capacity decomposition 2007
framework (UCDF)
Maintenance Performance
Systems
Proposed By
Audit approach and value based

measurement
Aggregated measures like
maintenance productivity index
Strategic approach of managing
maintenance performance
Key Performance Indicator (KPI)
for managing the maintenance
function
Measuring the impact of
maintenance on businesss
objectives
Dwight, 1999
Name of PMS Model
(Source : Ref 3 and 13)
Lofsten, 2002
Tsang , 1998
Weber and
Thomas, 2006
Al-Najjar,
2007
(Source: Muchiri et al., 2011)

Performance Measures for After Sales Service
and Maintenance Unit
The Unit under study is a typical authorized service
station cum workshop of the OEM (say an
automobile manufacturer). The services provided by
the Unit includes preparation and inspection of the
equipment (say vehicle) before sales, provide free
scheduled preventive maintenance, warranty repairs,
paid preventive maintenance, breakdown repairs,
inspections to assess damage and estimate cost of
restoration, onsite repairs by mobile repair team and
defect analysis for future design improvements. The
procedure for undertaking work involves the
following sequence of actions: i. In- inspection to
asses defects and estimate costs; ii. Preparation of
job card; iii. Allocation of resources (mechanic,
ancillary facility, garage space, spare parts,
lubricant, test equipment etc); iv. Cleaning /washing
of the equipment; v. Repair/ Replace parts/ Adjust/
Calibrate/ Test; vi. Servicing/ lubricating; vii. Final
inspection and testing; viii. Cleaning; ix. Delivery to
customer.
Various resources are necessary to provide effective
maintenance support. These resources are
considered as the inputs to the system. The inputs or
the resources utilized for providing the
maintenance services are: i. Trained Manpower; 2.
Spare Parts; iii. Tools; iv. Test equipments; v.
Technical literature (workshop manual, circuit
diagram etc); vi. Ancillary Facilities (welding,
painting, upholstery etc); vii. Infrastructure (garage
space, water supply, power, air conditioning etc);
and viii. Administrative support.
291

The performance measures considered for this study

are: i. Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF); ii.
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR); iii. Equipment
Availability; iv. Jobs done per day; and v.
Percentage of income from return customers.
MTBF is the predicted elapsed time between
inherent failures of a system during operation.
MTBF can be calculated as the arithmetic mean
(average) time between failures of a system. The
MTBF is typically part of a model that assumes the
failed system is immediately repaired as a part of a
renewal process. MTBF provides a measure of
quality of maintenance and reliability.
MTTR gives a measure of efficiency of the repair
procedures and also related to customer waiting
time. Mean of the active time required for repair of
a system/ equipment. It does not include waiting
time.
Availability is the probability that an item, under the
combined influence of its reliability, maintainability
and maintenance support will be able to fulfill its
required function over a stated period of time or at a
given period of time (Srivastava, 2010).
Quantitatively, the Availability can be calculated as
a function of MTTR and MTBF as under:
Availability = MTBF/(MTBF + MTTR)
Eq. (1)
Jobs done per day gives mean normative output of
the equipments repaired per day. Percentage of
income from return customers is a measure of
customer satisfaction and quality of maintenance
done.
The summary of the performance parameters
discussed is given at Figue. 1.
Inputs
(Resources)
Trained
Maintenance
Manpower
Spare Parts
Tools
Test equipments
Technical
literature
Outputs
High MTBF
Low MTTR
Availability
Jobs done
per day
Percentage
of income
from return
DEA is a nonparametric method USED for the

estimation of efficiency frontiers. It has been
extensively applied in performance evaluation and
benchmarking. DEA approach has the following
benefits which make it suitable for bench marking
in SC:
DEA deals with individual cases (Madu et

al, 1998).
It can produce a single measure for each
company (Madu et al, 1998).
It places no restriction on the functional
form of the input-output relationship.
Able to handle disproportionate multiple
inputs and outputs (George et al. 2009)
Does not requiring the decision maker any
priory arbitrary weights(George et al.
2009).
It focuses on revealed best-practice
frontiers rather than on central tendency
properties of empirical data (Madu et al,
1998).
It can provide an indication of the levels of
improvement needed before an inefficient
company could be considered efficient
(Talluri 2000).
In DEA, efficiency is defined as:

Efficiency
Weighted sum of outputs

Weighted sum of inputs
Eq. (2)
The weights attached to each input and output is
not, however, specified a priori. Instead they are
computed to show each unit under comparison in its
most favorable light. The envelope, or frontier,
becomes the surface linking all units whose relative
efficiency cannot be exceeded. By definition units
on that surface are then assigned 100 percent
efficiency. The best possible efficiency for other
units in the sample then brings them as close as
possible to the envelope. The efficiency score
computed by DEA is a numerical value that
describes a systems relative efficiency in terms of
inputs and outputs.
If there are n DMUs, each with m inputs and s
outputs, the relative efficiency score of a test DMU
p is obtained by solving the following model
(Talluri, 2000).
Fig. 1 Maintenance Performance Parameters

DEA FOR MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT
292

Max
kp
k 1
m
jp
j 1
v k y
k 1
m
u j x
j 1
v k , u j 0
j, k
ki
ji
0
i
Max
kp
k 1
s .t .
ki
k 1
, u
j1
Eq. (5)
Where:
Outputs
Availability (A)
Jobs done per day
(J)
Percentage of
income from return
customers (R)
These dual variables (i) can be used to construct an

efficient hypothetical composite unit (HCU). HCU
can be used to measure excess use of inputs and
potential increase in outputs.
jp
j1
E = Efficiency score, and i = Dual

variable
Eq. (3)
The fractional program shown as above at [Eq. 3]

can be converted to a linear program for ease of
solving as an LPP. The linear formulation of the
DEA problem is given as follows (Talluri, 2000):
s
i x ki E . x kp
i 1
Where: k = 1 to s; j= 1to m; I =
1 to n
yki = Amount of output
k produced by DMU i.
xji = Amount of input j used by DMU i.
vk = Weight given to output k.
uj = Weight given to input j.
S.t.
Service and
Maintenance
Inspection
Cleaning
Repair
Replacement
Adjust
Calibrate
Test
i y ki y kp
i 1
ji
j, k
Eq. (4)
[2]
The above problem is run n times (one run per
DMU) to calculate the relative efficiency scores of
the DMUs. A DMU is considered to be efficient if it
obtains a score of 1 and a score of less than 1
implies that it is inefficient. Each DMU selects
input and output weights that maximize its
efficiency score. So the vk and uk values gives
output and input weight ages corresponding to max
relative efficiency possible for the DMU
considered.
Benchmarking in DEA. For every inefficient
DMU, DEA identifies a set of corresponding
efficient units that can be utilized as benchmarks for
improvement. The benchmarks can be obtained
from the dual of the DEA LPP formulation given
above at Eq. (4).
There are two basic DEA orientation models; viz.

input reduction, and output augmentation. The
former, also known as input-oriented model
emphasizes how to use minimum input resources to
achieve a given level of output. The latter, known as
output-oriented model, focuses on using a given
level of input to achieve the maximum possible
output.
DEMONSTRATION OF USING DEA FOR
MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT AND BENCHMARKING
A simplified and generic model has been considered
for present study of Maintenance Performance
Management. The Maintenance model is shown at
figure 2.
Min E
Subjected to:
293

Break downs
Warranty
Maint
Preventive
Maint
Inputs (Resources)
Trained Manpower (M)
Spare Parts (S)
Tools & Test
equipments (T)
Infrastructure (I)
Efficiency Score.
DEA calculates relative
efficiencies of Maintenance Units (DMUs) based on
the four input and three output parameters. The
efficiency Score of SCs evaluated is given at Table
4. The relative efficiencies indicate that MU-3, MU4 and MU-5 are relatively efficient whereas there is
scope for improvement in case of MU-1, MU-5 and
MU-6 with MU-1 as the least efficient.
Table 4. Relative Efficiency Score
Maint Unit
(DMU)
Fig. 2. Service and Maintenance Model

DEA is effective when organizations operating
under similar conditions are compared. SCs with
similar processes and features can only be compared
to establish benchmarking. In the current case four
input parameters (Trained Manpower (M), Spare
Parts (S), Tools & Test equipments (T) and
Infrastructure (I)) and two output parameters
(Availability (A), Jobs done per day (J), and
Percentage of income from return customers (R))
are considered. Six similar Service and Maintenance
Units (MU1, MU2, MU6) are considered in the
present study.
Data Set. The data set for the six different Service
and Maintenance Units is given at Table 3.
The DEA model is solved using the DEAFrontier
which is a Microsoft Excel Add-In developed by
Joe Zhu. The DEA model is solved as InputOriented and Constant Return to Scale (CRS)
Income from
return Cust (R) %
Jobs done per day

(J) (Nos)
Maint
Unit
(DMU)
Trained
Manpower (M)
Spare Parts (S)
(Rs in Lakhs)
Tools & Test
equipments (T)
Infrastructure(I)
(Relative Value)
Availability (A)
Table 3. Data Set of Input and Output Values of

DMUs under consideration
MU-1
MU-2
MU-3
MU-4
MU-5
MU-6
Relative Efficiency
(Input oriented CRS
Efficiency)
0.82339
0.86438
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.90621
The optimal Lamdas with Benchmarks is given at

Table 5. The result indicates the corresponding
efficient units which are related to the inefficient
DMUs; MU-1, MU-2 and MU-6. So it can be seen
that for MU-2; the benchmarking Units is MU-4
(being higher Lamda value)
Table 5. Optimal Lamda Values
DMU
Name
MU-1
MU-2
CRS
Efficiency
0.82339
0.86438
Sun of
Lamdas
1.021
0.199
MU3
0.182
MU4
0.910
0.737
MU3
0.172
MU4
1.000
1.000
MU3
1.000
1.000
MU4
Input Input Input Input Output Output Output
MU-1
MU-2
MU-3
MU-4
MU-5
MU-6
78
77
63
73
60
71
1.75
1.75
0.85
1.12
0.75
1.85
1.75
1.33
0.95
1.53
1.12
1.51
1.80
0.92
0.88
0.85
1.80
0.78
0.93
0.77
0.91
0.95
0.90
0.79
43
31
32
43
45
30
48
47
53
46
48
37
MU-3
MU-4
1.00000
1.00000
Optimal Lamdas
with Bench Marks
0.64
MU5
294

MU-5
MU-6
1.00000
0.90621
1.000
1.000
MU5
0.832
0.832
MU4
of similar organization. An attempt has been made to use

DEA for benchmarking Maintenance Performance of after
sales Service and Maintenance Units in SCs. The
procedure has been demonstrated with a sample case of
six similar Maintenance Units. The demonstration shows
how DEA can be used for benchmarking and evaluating
possible improvements in inefficient SCs. DEA results
provide management with improvement potentials,
targets, and peer DMUs. Hence, DEA offers a detailed
steering and controlling tool to specify possible changes
in structure and resource allocation.
Improvements Possible
Based on relative efficiencies and the weights
improvements possible at each of the input
parameters and output parameters are obtained. The
results are tabulated at Table 6 target inputs and
outputs. It indicates, for inefficient Maintenance
Units, the ideal combination of inputs and outputs
possible. For example for MU-1 the number of
trained manpower can be reduced from 78 to 64;
Spare Parts expenditure from 1.75 Lakhs to 0.85
Lakhs; Tools & Test Eqpt expenditure from 1.75
Lakhs to 1.18 Lakh and so on. No improvements are
possible for the efficient Maintenance Units; MU-3,
MU-4 and MU-5.
Income from
return Cust (R) %
Jobs done per day

(J) (Nos)
Spare Parts (S)

(Rs in Lakhs)
Tools & Test
equipments (T)
Infrastructure(I)
(Relative Value)
Availability (A)
Maint
Unit
(DMU)
Trained
Manpower (M)
Table 6. Target Inputs and Outputs
The limitation of the methodology is that, it can be

employed only for SCs with similar processes. DEA is
primarily a diagnostic tool and does not prescribe any
reengineering strategies to make inefficient units efficient
(Talluri, 2000). Such improvement strategies must be
studied and implemented by managers by understanding
the operations of the efficient units. Also further study is
required to validate that the sufficiency of inputs selected,
appropriate for the selected outputs and establish
correlations.
REFERENCES
Bititci US, Carrie AS, Mcdevitt L (1997). Integrated
performance measurement systems: a development
guide, Int J of Operations & Production Management,
Vol. 17, Nos 5/6, pp. 522-34.
Bititci US, Turner T (2000). Dynamics of Performance
Measurement Systems, I.J. of Operations & Prodtn.
Mgmt. 20, pp. 692-704.
Bourne, Neely A, Mills J, Platts K (2003). Implementing
performance measurement systems: a literature
review, Int J of Business Performance Management,
Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.1-24.
Target Output
0.93 43.00 49.64
0.83 31.00 47.00
0.91 32.00 53.00
0.95 43.00 46.00
0.90 45.00 48.00
0.79 35.76 38.25
Cagnazzo L, Taticchi P, Brun A (2010). The role of

performance measurement systems to support quality
improvement
initiatives at supply chain level,
International Journal of Productivity and Performance
Management, Vol. 59, No. 2, pp. 163- 185.
Maintenance Performance Measurement is a significant

parameter in SCM in todays dynamic and competitive
environment. Measuring Maintenance Performance is
necessary to monitor, control and improve overall SC
effectiveness and customer satisfaction especially in an
after sales service and maintenance unit. An input
oriented, constant return to scale DEA model has been
formulated to evaluate and benchmark six competing and
similar Maintenance Units.
George SA, Rangaraj N (2008). A performance

benchmarking study of Indian Railway zones,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 15 No.
5, pp. 599-617.
MU-1
MU-2
MU-3
MU-4
MU-5
MU-6
Target Input
64.22 0.85 1.18 1.48
59.02 0.82 0.96 0.80
63.00 0.85 0.95 0.88
73.00 1.12 1.53 0.85
60.00 0.75 1.12 1.80
60.71 0.93 1.27 0.71
CONCLUSION
DEA is a suitable tool for evaluating relative efficiencies
Charan P, Shankar R, Baisya RK (2008). Analysis of

interactions among the variables of supply chain
performance measurement system implementation,
Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 14, No.
4, pp. 512-529.
Gunasekaran A, Tirtiroglu E (2001). Performance

Measures and Metrics in a Supply Chain Environment,
I. J. of Operatn. & Prodn. Managt, 21/2, pp. 71-87.
Riccardo M, Alberto R, Pham H, Ferrari H (2010),
Maintenance for Industrial Systems, Springer
295

Dordrecht Heidelberg, London.
Saranga H., Moser R (2010). Performance evaluation of
purchasing and supply management using value chain
DEA approach, European Journal of Operational
Research, Vol 207, pp. 197205.
Talluri, S (2000). Data Envelopment Analysis: Models
and Extensions, Decision Line, May 2000, pp. 8-11.
Mobley RK, Higgins LR, Wikoff DJ (2009), The
Maintenance Engineering Hand Book, The McGrawHill, New York.
Mohamed BD, Salih OD, Raouf A (2009), Handbook of
Maintenance Management and Engineering, Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg, London.
Muchiri P, Pintelon L, Gelders L, Martin H (2011),
Development of maintenance function performance
measurement framework and indicators, Int. J.
Production Economics, Vol 131, pp. 295302.
Neely A (2005). The evolution of performance
measurement research: Developments in the last decade
and a research agenda, Int J of Operations &
Production Management, Vol. 25, No. 12, pp. 12641277.
Niebel, BW (1994), Engineering Maintenance
Management Industrial Engineering, CRC Press.
Saad M, Patel B (2006), An Investigation of Supply
Chain Performance Measurement in the Indian
Automotive Sector, Benchmarking: An I.J., Vol 13.
Pp. 36-53.
Soni G, Kodali R (2010). Internal benchmarking for
assessment
of
supply
chain
performance,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 17, No.
1, pp. 44-76.
Tangen T (2004). Performance measurement: from
philosophy to practice, Int J of Productivity and
Performance Management, Vol. 53, No. 8, pp. 726737.
Tangen T (2005). Insights from research: Improving the
performance of a performance measure, Measuring
Business Excellence, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 4-11.
Taticchi P, Tonelli F, Cagnazzo L (2010). Performance
measurement and management: A literature review and
a research agenda, Measuring Business Excellence,
Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 4-18.
Thakkar J, Kanda A, Deshmukh SG (2009). Supply
chain performance measurement framework for small
and medium scale enterprises, Benchmarking: An Int
J, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 702-723.
Xu J, Li B, Wu D (2009). Rough data envelopment
analysis and its application to supply chain

performance evaluation, Int.
J. Production
Economics, 122, pp. 628638.
APPENDIX
DEA FORMULATION FOR THE CASE UNDER
STUDY
E = Efficiency score of DMU under evaluation and
ij = Dual variable corresponding to the efficient
hypothetical composite unit (HCU).
For Maintenance Unit-1
formulation: Min E
s.t.
(1st
DMU),
the
LPP
78 11 + 77 12 +63 13 + 73 14+ 60 15 + 70 16 78
1.7521 + 1.7522 +.8523 + 1.1224+ .75 25 + 1.8526
1.75 (ii)
1.7531 + 1.33 32 +.9533 + 1.5334+ 1.1235 + 1.51 36
1.75 (iii)
1.841 + .9242 +.88 43 + 0.85 44+ 1.8 45 + 0.78 46 1.80
(iv)
0.93 51 + .77 52 +.9153 +.9554+ .9 55 + 0.79 56 0.93E
4361 + 3162 +3263 + 43 64+ 45 65 + 3066 43E
(vi)
4871 + 4772 +5373 + 46 74+ 48 75 + 3776 48E
(vii)
(i)
(v)
For Maintenance Unit-2 (2nd DMU), the LPP

formulation:Min E
s.t.
78 11 + 77 12 +63 13 + 73 14+ 60 15 + 70 16 77
(viii)
1.7521 +1.7522 +.8523 +1.1224+.75 25 +1.8526 1.75
(ix)
1.7531 + 1.33 32 +.9533 + 1.5334+ 1.1235 + 1.51 36
1.33 (x)
1.841 + .9242 +.88 43 + 0.85 44+ 1.8 45 + 0.78 46 0.92
(xi)
0.93 51 + .77 52 +.9153 +.9554+ .9 55 + 0.79 56 0.77E
4361 + 3162 +3263 + 43 64+ 45 65 + 3066 31E
4871 + 4772 +5373 + 46 74+ 48 75 + 3776 47E
(xiv)
(xii)
(xiii)
For Maintenance Unit-3 (3rd DMU), the LPP

formulation:Min E
s.t.
78 11 + 77 12 +63 13 + 73 14+ 60 15 + 70 16 63
(xv)
1.7521 + 1.7522 +.8523 + 1.1224+ .75 25 + 1.8526
0.85 (xvi)
1.7531 + 1.33 32 +.9533 + 1.5334+ 1.1235 + 1.51 36
0.95 (xvii)
296

1.841 + .9242 +.88 43 + 0.85 44+ 1.8 45 + 0.78 46 0.88
(xviii)
0.93 51 + .77 52 +.9153 +.9554+ .9 55 + 0.79 56 0.91E (xix)
4361 + 3162 +3263 + 43 64+ 45 65 + 3066 32E
(xx)
4871 + 4772 +5373 + 46 74+ 48 75 + 3776 53E
(xxi)
For Maintenance Unit-4 (4th DMU), the LPP

formulation:Min E
s.t.
78 11 + 77 12 +63 13 + 73 14+ 60 15 + 70 16 73
(xxii)
1.7521 + 1.7522 +.8523 + 1.1224+ .75 25 + 1.8526
1.12 (xxiii)
1.7531 + 1.33 32 +.9533 + 1.5334+ 1.1235 + 1.51 36
1.53 (xxiv)
1.841 + .9242 +.88 43 + 0.85 44+ 1.8 45 + 0.78 46 0.85
(xxv)
0.93 51 + .77 52 +.9153 +.9554+ .9 55 + 0.79 56 0.95E (xxvi)
4361 + 3162 +3263 + 43 64+ 45 65 + 3066 43E
(xxvii)
4871 + 4772 +5373 + 46 74+ 48 75 + 3776 46E
(xxviii)
297
Author Index
A. D. Patel
79
Dharmen Dubey
201, 207
Nisha V Bora
7, 27
A. M. Patel
265
Dhaval A. Patel
157
Nityam P. Oza
143
A.J.Patel
Adil A. Khan
Digvijay .Kulshreshtha
39, 61, 109
P. B. Jhala
149
Dilip S Kanetkar
99
Piyush P. Gohil
197
Ajay Kanjhariya
11
121, 125,
129
165
Dipak Gosai
109
Pravin k trivedi
221
Alkesh Mavani
135
G. A. Gandhi
149
Pravin P. Rathod
17, 93, 143
Alpesh V Mehta
87
Gunjan Bhatt
171
Pritesh K Jaradi
43
Amir D Patel
109
Georgy K Powathilath
289
Pushpak M. Patel
197
Amit S. Patel
157
H. G. Shah
265
R.I.Patel
221
Anant.J.Sheth
153
Harshal T Shukla
113
R.K.Patel
103
Ankitkumar K. Patel
17
Hemant Panchal
179
Ranvirgiri D. Goswami
191
Araniya K.K.
79
Hirenkumar Patel
21
S. K. Sharma
213
Arvind S. Sorathiya.
17
Imran Molvi
21, 87, 113
S.S.Pathan
153
Arvind.S.Mohite
67
J. R. Shah
213
Samarth Shelat
279
Ashish A Prajapati
61
Jayesh B. Khunt
55
Shailesh F. Parmar
279
Ashok Dhakiya
67
Kamlesh K Mehta
7, 27
Sharvil Shah
201, 207
Avdhoot Jejurkar
23, 49, 73
Kamlesh R. Parmar
121
Simit B. Prajapati
93
Ketan S. Vaghosi
225
Smit .V. Thakkar
39
Keyur Patel
239
Sonal Desai
21
Krunal S Kayastha
Sonam M. Patel
187
Swati Prajapati
Tejal M. Rana
49
V. Y. Gajjar
79
V.Seralathan
231
Vandana J. Rao
187
Vidya Nair
239
Vijaykumar C Patel
135
Vimalkumar Salot
103
Vipul K. Patel
Visvesvaran
Pandurangan
Vivek C. Joshi
273
B. C. Patel
213
B.S.Patil
11
Bhavin K Shah
67
Binod Kumar Singh
259
M. N. Qureshi
Brijesh Dharani
39, 61
M.I.Vyas
23
225, 245,
283, 289
55
C. Jegadheesan
231
Minesh Patel
73
Chanamohan Somayaji
43
Mitul Patel
201, 207
Chandan Bhar
259
Mohsin J Dadi
87
Chetan R. Patel
253
Mohsin Jujara
99
Chirag J. Patel
125
Mukhtar R Sama
283
Chirag Vithalani
245
Naran B Vasava
221
D U Panchal
165
Nikul K. Patel
94, 143
D.C.Gosai
11
Nilesh H. Pancholi
191
Devang Mahant
188
Nirav M. Kamdar
273
Devang Thakar
73
Nirmal S. Parmar
129
Devesh A Vankar
113
Nirvesh S. Mehta
73
259
49
299
PREAMBLE
The primary objective of Gujarat Technological University (GTU), is to develop the knowledge of Science,
Engineering, Technology, Management and Environment for the advancement of quality of life in general & in
relation to the domain of Engineering and Technological Development and Applications.
The objective of NCEVT'12, jointly organized by Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad and Parul
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Limda, Waghodia, Vadodara, is to bring researchers, Scientists,
Engineers and Scholar Students together to exchange and share their experiences, new ideas and research
results in all major areas of Engineering and identify the practical challenges encountered and the solutions
adopted through presentations and discussions of papers. The conference intends to encourage inventions,
scientific investigations and research to promote their application for development in all sectors of national
economy. In addition, NCEVT'12 aims to serve as a platform to promote the exchange of ideas between Industry
and Academia to equip them with the capability to meet with the emerging challenges and changing requirements
in the context of globalization and privatization.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The department of Mechanical Engineering was founded in the year 2003 with highly equipped staff. The
Department offers Under Graduate program in Mechanical and Post Graduate Program in Thermal Engineering.
The faculty are encouraged to take independent initiative with collective responsibility in all the relevant
academic and R&D dimensions like Curriculum Development, Research Development, Organizing
conferences, Symposia etc. During the last three years the Department conducted two Short Term Training
Programmes and Two National Conferences / Seminars.
ABOUT THE CONFERENCE
The main Objective of the Conference is to explore the advancement in the field of Mechanical Engineering &
also to reflect the current focus of Global Research, Recent Development, Challenges & Emerging trends in the
field of Mechanical Engineering.
PRIME THEME:
FUTURISTIC TRENDS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Original contributions are solicited from Scientists, Engineers, Academicians and Research scholars in the topics
mentioned below (Not limited to----)
Design & Manufacturing
Life Cycle Design of Products
Design for Environment
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Applications of FEA in Design
Concurrent Engineering
PDM, PLM, Collaborative Product Design & Commerce
Condition Monitoring and Vibration Analysis
Reliability Engineering
Industrial Tribology
Applications of AI Techniques in Design and Manufacturing
Modeling & Optimization of Systems and Processes
Automation and Robotics
Non-Traditional
Manufacturing Processes
Advanced Metal Forming, Welding & Casting
Techniques
Agile & Lean Manufacturing
Logistics and SCM
CAD/CAM/FMS/CIMS
Reverse Engineering, RP/RT
Micro-Machining, Nano - Technology &

Smart Materials
Mechatronics, MEMS & NEMS
Case Studies
Thermal Engineering
Computational Heat and Mass Transfer
Internal Combustion Engines
Alternate fuels
Advanced Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Turbo Machines and Fluid Power Engineering
Renewable and Non-conventional Energy Sources,
Energy Systems
Cryogenics
Computational Methods in Thermal Engineering,
Optimization Methods, CFD
Case Studies
Futuristic Trends in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ISSN 0971-3034

st
in 21 Century
GTU started its functioning in July 2008 with affiliation of 50 Degree Engineering colleges, 69 Degree Pharmacy
colleges, 59 Diploma Engineering colleges and 17 Diploma Pharmacy colleges. Approximately around 52000
students were enrolled as the first batch of the university & today the university has more than 4 lacs students
enrolled. GTU has bagged many awards like ICT Enabled University Award and Manthan Award for e-learning in the
year 2009; GESIA Award and Digital Learning World Education Summit Award in the year 2011. To Promote Industry
Academia Relations and to enhance the quality of research work that is really useful to Industry, GTU has
established Innovation Sankuls under the guidelines of Honorable VC Dr. Akshai Aggarwal.
IJTE & ISTE

The Indian Journal of Technical Education is published by the Indian Society for Technical Education on quarterly
basis with the aim to provide an appropriate platform presenting well considered, meaningful, constructively thought
provoking, non-political and non-controversial but critically analyzing and synthesizing present and future aspects of
Technical Education System with particular reference to our country. The contributors are expected to highlight
various issues of Technical Education along with meaningful suggestions for solution, refinement and innovations.
The Journal is sponsored by All India Council for Technical Education(AICTE), New Delhi. The International
Standard Serial Number (ISSN) of the Journal is 0971-3034.
The Indian Society for Technical Education is a national, professional & non-profit making Society registered under
the Societies Registration Act of 1860. First started in 1941 as the Association of Principals of Technical Institutions
(APTI), it was converted into "Indian Society for Technical Education" in 1968 with a view to enlarge its activities to
advance the cause of technological education.
PARUL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology (PIET) was established in year 2003. The institute offers various degree
engineering courses in Civil, Computer Science, Electrical, Electronics & Communication, Information Technology
and Mechanical disciplines. The Institute is affiliated to Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad and approved
by AICTE - New delhi. The Institute is accredited by NAAC-UGC and five of its UG programmes are accredited by
NBA-AICTE, New delhi. PIET comes under the aegis of Parul Arogya Seva Mandal. International and National level
technical Seminars, Symposiums, Workshops, Projections, Sports & Cultural events give the students and the
faculty much needed exposure. The college possesses state-of-the-art infrastructure, with highly equipped
laboratories, library, and eminent faculties.
Promoted by
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Special Issue of the

INDIAN JOURNAL OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Prof. D.P.l Agrawal

Prof. Ashok Ghatol

Prof. K.Balaveera Reddy

Prof. M.S. Palanichamy

Prof. N.V. Vasani

Prof. R.S. Sirohi, Vice Chancellor

Prof. H.P Khincha

Prof. B.S. Sonde, Former Vice-Chancellor

Prof. Krishna Vedula

Prof. T.S. Rathore

Prof. A.K. Chatterjee

Prof. V.K. Bhansali

Prof. Anand Rao Bhalerao

Prof. S.Y. Kulkarni

Dr. Renu Bapna

Special Issue of the

GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Dr. Akshai Aggarwal

3rd April, 2012

GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

I welcome you all to be part of this national conference.

Dr. Devanshu J Patel

From the Desk of Co-Convener

With best of wishes

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From the Desk of Coordinator

Prof. Imran M Molvi

Prof. Sohail M Siddiqi

To Study On Prognostics of Rolling Element Bearings using Soft Computing Techniques

Ph.D. : 03 (In progress), M.Tech: 05 (In progress), B. E.:

Proceeding of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part K, Journal of Multi-Body Dynamics.

Nonlinear Dynamics (Springer),

Sensors and Actuators A: Physical (Elsevier).

Computational Mechanics (Elsevier).

Journal of Vibration & Control (SAGE)

Sensors Reviews (Emerald)

International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Research.

Dr. Rahul Chhibber

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Name of the Paper

Enhancement in the design of Combustion Chamber Swirler

Single Fiber Friction and Strength Testing-Innovation and Challenges

Modeling Vendor Rating in Supplier Selection using Fuzzy Inference

Design and Comparative Analysis of Mathematical and Simulation Models

Quality Function Deployment: Translating Voice of the Customers into

Effect of process parameters on tensile shear strength of resistance spot

Facility Layout Analysis : A Case Study

Mr. A. M. Patel, Mr. H. G. Shah

A Review of Process Parameters of Hot Machining for Different Materials

The Effect of Electrochemical Parameters on Corrosion Behaviour of

An Application of Value Stream Mapping to Enhance the Runtime in the

A Framework for Maintenance Performance Measurement and its Bench

NCEVT 2012 Committee

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National Conference on Emerging Vistas of Technology in 21st Century

Design Methodology & CFD analysis of Rich

Mass flow rate of air in primary zone

Gas turbine, Rich Burn Quick Mix Lean Burn Micro

Mass flow rate of air in primary zone entering