GLE 594: An introduction to

applied geophysics
Electrical Resistivity Methods
Fall 2004

Theory and Measurements

Reading:
Today: 210-223
Next Lecture: 223-251

Two Current Electrodes: Source and Sink

Why run an electrode to infinity when we can use it?

source

sink

rsource
P

rsink

Vsource =

Total Voltage at P:

i
2rsource

Vsin k =

Vp = Vsource Vsin k =

i
2 rsink

i 1
1

2 rsource rsink

Measurement Practicalities
Cant measure potential at single point unless the other end of
our volt meter is at infinity. This is inconvenient. It is easier to
measure potential difference (V). This lead to use of four
electrode array for each measurement.

Resulting measurement given as

V = VP1 VP 2 =

Can be rewritten

V = I

G*
2

I 1 1 1 1
+
2 r1 r2 r3 r4

where G*/2 is sometimes referred as the Geometrical Factor

Current density and equipotential lines

for a current dipole
d
fraction total current
2z
2
i f = tan1
d

if=0.5 at

z=

d
2

if=0.7 at z = d
Wider spacing Deeper currents

Apparent Resistivity
Previous expression can be
rearranged in terms of resistivity:
=(V/I) (2/G).
This can be done even when
medium is inhomogeneous. Result
is then referred to as Apparent
Resistivity.

Definition:Resistivity of a fictitious homogenous subsurface

that would yield the same voltages as the earth over which
measurements were actually made.

Geometrical Factors

Array advantages and disadvantages

Array

Advantages

Disadvantages

Wenner

1. Easy to calculate a in the 1. All electrodes moved each

sounding
field
2. Sensitive to local shallow
2. Less demand on
variations
instrument sensivity
3. Long cables for large depths

Schlumberger

1. Fewer electrodes to move 1. Can be confusing in the field

each sounding
2. Requires more sensitive
2. Needs shorter potential
equipment
cables
3. Long Current cables

Dipole-Dipole

1. Cables can be shorter for

deep soundings

1. Requires large current

2. Requires sensitive instruments

Governing Equation
Continuity: What goes in must comes out
jy

j
j

y jy + jz z z jz = 0
jx x x jx + jy
x
y
z

j
j
j
x x y y z z = 0
x
y
z

jz +

jz
y
y

jx

z
jy +

jy
jx +

jx
y
y

j y
y
y

Current Density
(like hydro q):
r
r i
j=
A

jz

Governing Equation
Applying
Ohms Law:

jx =

1 V
1 V
1 V
; jz =
; jy =
x
y
z

1 V 1 V 1 V

+
+
=0
x x y y z z
or using
x = r cos , y = r sin , and x 2 + y 2 = r 2

2V 2V 2V
+ 2 + 2 =0
2
x
y
z
2
V = 0 LaPlace' s equation
2
2
V 1 V V

+
= 0
+
r 2 r r z 2

Governing Equation - Solution

The Laplaces equation is a homogeneous, partial
second order differential equation
Solution:
Exact solutions: only for simple geometries
Graphical solutions: Flow nets, master charts
Numerical solutions: finite difference and finite elements
solutions
Approximate solutions: methods of fragments
Physical analogies (electrical, hydraulic and heat flow)

Geo-electric Layering
Often the earth can be simplified within
the region of our measurement as
consisting of a series of horizontal beds
that are infinite in extent.
Goal of the resistivity survey is then to
determine thickness and resistivity of
the layers.
Longitudinal conductance (one layer):
Transverse resistance (one layer):
Longitudinal resistivity (one layer):
Transverse resistivity (one layer):

SL=h/=h
T=h
L=h/S
T=T/h

Longitudinal conductance (one layer):

Transverse resistance (one layer):

SL=(hi/i)
T=(hii)

Voltage and Flow in Layers

Tangent Law: The electrical current is bent at a boundary
i1

dl1

Relations:
Current:
Voltage:
Resistivity:

dV1

i2

i1=i2
dV1=dV2
1>2

2 tan 1
=
1 tan 2

dl2
dV2

If 2<1 then the current lines will be refracted away from the normal
If 2>1 then the current lines will be refracted closer to the normal

Voltage and Flow in Layers

Method of electrical image
S

Voltages at points P and Q:

r1
P

r3

1
2

r2

VP =

I1 1 k
+
4 r1 r2

VQ =

I 2 1 + k

4 r3

S
where k =

2 1
2 + 1

Solving the differential equation for

two layers and a source and sink
C1

Governing Equation
2 V 1 V 2 V
+
+
=0
r 2 r r z 2

Boundary Conditions

P1

zint = h

1. i z = 0 z =0

No current at surface

2. V1 = V2 at z = z interface

Voltage is continuous

3.

1 V1 1 V2
at z = z interface
=
1 z 2 z

4. V =

i1

2 r 2 + z 2

1
2

at r = 0, z = 0

Normal current density is continous

Particular solution

Layer Calculations
Can use for image theory for multiple
boundaries. For two layer case:
Vp =
=

k=

2 1
2 + 1

I1 1 2k 2 k 2
2k n
+
+
+ ..... +
+ ....
2 r r1
r2
rn

I1 1
kn
+ 2
2 r
n =1 rn

where
rn = r 2 + (2 nh )

It obviously gets much more difficult

with more layers.

Layer Calculations (cont.)

I
Integral method: V p = 1 K ( ) J 0 (r )d
2 0
J0 is the Bessel function of zero order.

K() given by relationship

K ( ) =

T1 ( )

Ti() solved for recursively upward from bottom layer to layer 1

using:
Ti ( ) =

where

[Ti +1 + i tanh(hi )]

[1 + Ti +1 tanh( hi ) / i ]

tanh(h i ) =

e 2 h i 1

e 2 h i + 1

and
Tn ( ) = n

Solutions for a Wenner Array

for two layers
C1

P1

P2

C2

k=

2 1
2 + 1

Vertical Electric Sounding

When trying to probe how
resistivity changes with
depth, need multiple
measurements that each give
a different depth sensitivity.
This is accomplished through
resistivity sounding where
greater electrode separation
gives greater depth
sensitivity.

VES Data Plotting Convention

Plot apparent resistivity as a
function of the log of some
measure of electrode separation.
Wenner a spacing
Schlumberger AB/2
Dipole-Dipole n spacing
Asymptotes:
Short spacings << h1,
a=1.
Long spacings >> total
thickness of overlying layers,
a=n
To get a=true for intermediate
layers, layer must be thick relative
to depth.

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Equivalence: several models produce

the same results
Ambiguity in physics of 1D interpretation such that
different layered models basically yield the same
response.
Different Scenarios:
Conductive layers between two resistors, where
lateral conductance (h) is the same.
Resistive layer between two conductors with
same transverse resistance (h).

Equivalence: several models produce

the same results

Although ER cannot determine unique parameters, can

determine range of values.
Also exists in 2D and 3D, but much more difficult to
quantify. In these multidimensional cases simply referred to
as non-uniqueness.

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Suppression
Principle of suppression:
Thin layers of small
resistivity contrast with
respect to background will
be missed.
Thin layers of greater
resistivity contrast will be
detectable, but equivalence
limits resolution of
boundary depths, etc.

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