Compartment Fire

Compartment Fire
Compartment fire

Describe a fire which is confined within a room or similar

enclosure within a building
Room with volumes of the order of ~100m3

Important to predict

The onset of hazardous conditions

Property and structural damage
Changes in burning rate
Ignition of objects
The onset of flashover
Once flashover has occurred in one compartment, the occupants of the

rest of the building can be threatened directly

Brief description of compartment

fire
Ignition
Plume
Ceiling jet : plume impinges on the ceiling, the
gases spread across the ceiling as a momentum
driven circular jet
Gas Temperature : The hot air layer
The cold lower layer
Heat Transfer mechanisms inside the compartment
Vent flow
Flashover
The fully developed fire
Oxygen starvation
Backdraft

Compartment fire
Different stages of fire development, in terms of
gas temperatures:

Fully
developed
Flashover fire

1) Ignition
2) The growth period (or the early stage)
Flashover
3) Fully developed fire
Growth
4) Decay stage
Temperature stage
During the initial stage, the
fire is said to be fuel controlled.
When the fire grows towards flashover
-> ventilation controlled fire.

Decay
stage
Time
4

Ignition
Can be considered as an exothermic process
(increase in temperature greatly above ambient temperature)
Can be divided as :
piloted ignition
(spark, flaming match, other pilot source)
spontaneous ignition
(accumulation of heat in fuel)
5

Ignition
The concept of kc
Simplified effects of kc :

low kc, surface heats rapidly

fast ignition
high kc, surface heats slowly
slow ignition

Where k : thermal conductivity

: density of the material
c : specific heat capacity of material
6

Ignition

Defined as the onset or initiation of

combustion

Usually flaming

The fuel concerned is heated by source to

give combustion.

The fuel has to be raised to some temperature,

so that at a given supply of oxygen, the
combustion takes place readily and the
reaction is self-sustaining.
7

Ignition
3 conditions must be fulfilled to ignite a
condensed-phased material

Sufficient quantities of combustible vapour + gases due

to preheating the solid and liquid
Mixed with the oxidant in the gas phase
Mixture has to be
At a high enough temperature to induce self-accelerative

oxidation
Provided with a pilot source to heat up a minimum amount of
mixture to a temperature approaching flame temperature

Ignition of liquid combustibles

Heating of Liquid

Generally vaporize in the sense of a

thermodynamic phase change
Chemical structure of the vapor same as that
of liquid
Leaves no residue

Ignition of solid combustibles

Heating of solids

Thermochemical degradation or pyrolysis

Yields a complex combustible mixture of gases
and vapors
Pyrolyzate
Produced within the solid
At a rate depending on the local instantaneous

density and temperature

10

Examples of the ignition temperature for

common materials are:
Materials

Pilot Ignition Temperature C

Self Ignition Temperature C

Cotton
Paper
White pine
Polyethylene
PVC
Perspex
Polystyrene foam
Polyurethane

230 - 266
230
228 - 264
341
391
280 - 300
346
310

254
230
260
349
454
450 - 462
491
416

11

In general, heat generated by a burning material

is given by Arrhenius equation:
Q = Ae-E/RT
Q = Rate of heat generated per unit volume of the material.
A = Heat generation coefficient.
E = Activation Energy.
R = Gas constant.
T = Temperature of the material (in K).

12

Wood for example has:

A = 2 x 10-6 cal s-1 cm-3 and

E = 25 kcal mol-2.

Substituting into equation (4.1), wood requires

10 years to raise 1 C if it is initially at room
temperature.

But it takes only a few seconds if wood is

maintained at 200 C.
13

In this way, the heat generated is much greater

than the heat loss, its temperature rises
progressively and ignition occurs.

This is called self-ignition or spontaneous

ignition.

If the ignition is produced by external sources, it

is called pilot ignition if the source does not make
contact with the materials (i.e. by radiation), and
surface ignition if it is in contact (e.g. in contact
with the pilot flame).
14

Rates of heat production and Heat loss as function of temperature

Stable, high temperature
combustion reaction

Qc
L

Perturbations
lead to instability

Slight perturbation
about this point
are stable

P3

Qc

P2
L1

L2
Sufficient energy
Must be available
to transfer from
P1 (stable, lower temp) to P2
(unstable, higher temp)

P1
Temperature

15

Relationships between the HRR R(T) at different reactant conc.

and L(T) at a fixed surface temperature (Ta)

Rate of
Heat
production

Rate of
heat loss

16

In order to raise the fuel to its ignition

temperature, heat has to be transferred to or
generated within the fuel.

If heat is generated totally within the fuel, the

reaction is called a spontaneous combustion.

It can be chemical or biological in nature.

Sometimes, the rise in external temperature is less

than the ignition temperature, but it might
accelerate internal reactions so that heat is
eventually built up inside the field to a stage
where ignition occurs.
17

Heat comes from external source is referred to

ignition source.

It must have sufficient energy to raise the fuel up

to its ignition temperature.

Also the energy must be transferred to the fuel

rapidly enough for reaction to take place.

18

If the source is a small flame (usually about

600 C to 1000 C for luminous flame),
temperature of it is well above the ignition
temperatures of most combustible materials.

But it may not be able to ignite the fuel since heat

can be transferred away.

The amount of heat energy available in the source

is critical in determining ignition.

For example, a match flame is quite unable to

ignite a heavy wooden work bench.
19

The transfer process can be visualized as:

Heat Loss by
radiation
Radiation

Heat Loss by conduction

Conduction
Flame

(If in contact)

Material

20

The balance in heat transfer is important in the

process.

The heat capacity per unit volume of a material

is a function of the density and specific heat
C.

But the amount of heat conducted away from

the heated area is measured by the thermal
conductivity k.

21

Thermal Inertia kC

By solving the one-dimensional conduction

equation, the quantity kC would become a
measure of time taken to heat up the material
when exposed under a heat source.

Therefore, its value is significant in determining

ignition characteristic of the material.

Note that this quantity is different from the

thermal diffusivity k/C as in:

k 2

t C x 2

(4.2)
22

Therefore, from the above table, although

polystyrene (PS) foam has a higher ignition
temperature, but its kC is very low.

Therefore, when exposed to similar heat

sources, its surface will be heated up much
more rapidly.

23

Further, the incident radiation intensity of the

external source will also determine the time
required to ignite the materials.

For wood, the curve is as follows:

Incident
radiation intensity
Cal/m2 s
1.0

Critical
intensity
200

Ignition time /sec

For other materials, values of the critical intensities are:

Critical intensity (cal/cm2s)
Materials
Wood
Fibre insulating

Surface ignition

Pilot ignition

Spontaneous ingition

0.1

0.35

0.7

0.4

0.55 - 1.2

0.08

0.55

board
Cork

24

FIB = fibre insulating board;

PUF = polyurethane foam.
Figures are values of kcp, from:

s
t
1 exp
2

erfc k

when

k
c

Effect of thermal inertia (kcp) in W2s/m4.K2, on the rate of

temperature rise at the surface of a semi-infinite solid

with h = 20 W/m2.K
Ts = surface temperature

Fire Dynamics D.D. Drysdale (1985)

Heat flux

x = 0, Ts

25

Material

Thermal
conductivity
k (W m-1 K-1)

Density
(kg m-3)

Specific
heat c
(J kg-1 K-1)

Thermal
diffusivity
(10-6 m2 s-1)

Thermal
absorptivity kc
(J m-2 s-1/2 K-1)

Steel

44.0

7800

460

12.3

12600

Marbel

2.0

7650

1000

0.755

2300

Normalweight
concrete

1.7

2250

1200

0.630

2140

Brick

1.0

2100

900

0.529

1370

Lightweight
concrete

0.50

1450

1000

0.345

850

Plastic board

0.25

750

2500

0.133

680

Wood

0.15

550

1800

0.152

390

Mineral wool

0.04

160

1150

0.217

86

Typical values of the thermal properties of common construction

materials (in moistureless condition) for a temperature level
appropriate for a 20-min fire exposure
Fire safety design and concrete T. Z. Harmathy (1993)

26

Growth period
After localized burning has become established,
one of the following may happen

The fire may burn itself out without involving other

items of combustible material (if the item first ignited is
in an isolated position)
Inadequate ventilation self extinguish or continue to
burn at a very slow rate (dictated by the availability of
oxygen) may lead to backdraught
Sufficient fuel + ventilation may progress to full
room involvement all exposed combustible surface
are burning

27

Backdraught, from Drysdale

70 kW methane flame was
burned in a sealed chamber
The flame self extinguishing
due to oxygen starvation
(5.6 s after opening the vent)

From An introduction to fire dynamics by Drysdale

28

7.1 s after opening the vent

8.0 s sudden eruption of flame

(occurs when the fire is vented)
From An introduction to fire dynamics by Drysdale
29

30

Stages of an enclosure fire

flashover (an event):

due to the accumulation of heat inside a

compartment, the temperature of the ceiling and
surrounding walls rises rapidly
as the temperature increases, more radiant heat
is emitted from the ceiling to the surrounding
object until a time when the whole environment
reaches a point that spontaneous ignition occurs
(about 500 to 600C ceiling temperature)
suddenly the whole compartment ignites and
the event is defined as flashover
31

32

From growth period to flashover

The conditions associated with the onset of
flashover
The factors determine the duration of the
growth period

Time to flashover
Impact to life safety
Determine the time available for escape

33

From growth period to flashover

In the open, an isolated fuel bed will burn at a rate
determined by the heat flux from the flame to the
surface
Dominated by radiation
(for fuel bed < 0.3 m diameter)

Rate of burniing

For most fuel

~30% heat radiated
to the environment
Rest of the heat
dispersed convectively
in the buoyant plume

Latent heat of evaporation

1.76 kJ/g for solid polystyrene,
34

From growth period to flashover

Heat flux from external
e.g. heated ceiling
Affected by flame height,
hot smoke layer

For compartment fire

Q
"
Q
"
Q
"
"
E
L
F

LV

Burning area

Q F " QE " QL "

m
AF

LV

The rate of generation of fuel vapor

Thomas :
Rate of increase
in the area of
burning is more
important
35

From growth period to flashover

Transition to flashover (from Thomas, 1982)

The transition from a localized fire to the general

conflagration within the compartment when all fuel

surfaces are burning
The transition from a fuel controlled fire to a
ventilation controlled fire
The sudden propagation of flame through the
unburnt gases and vapors collected under the ceiling

36

Compartment Fire / Flashover

The definition of flashover and the 3 criteria often used to
indicate that flashover has occurred:
Radiation to floor level is roughly 20 kW/m2
Flames extend out of openings
Gas temperature is > 500 - 600 oC
Fuel control and ventilation control

37

Compartment fire
Pre-flashover fire :

growth stage of a fire

important in fire safety engineering
design for human safety

Post-flashover fire :

fully developed fire stage

important in studying the structural
stability, safety of fire fighters

38

Compartment fire
Four different stages of fire development, in terms of pressure
differences across the opening:
Stage A: Expansion of hot gases : due to the expansion of hot gas
the pressure inside the fire compartment is higher than the
pressure outside
Stage B: Expansion and outflow of gases
Stage C: The stratified case : hot gas out-->; cold gas in
Stage D: The well mixed case : for fully developed fire
the compartment is filled up with smoke and is assumed
well mixed ( assume single temperature
39

Factors affecting the development of a

compartment fire
The size and location of the ignition source
The type, amount, position, spacing, orientation and surface
area of the fuel packages
The geometry of the enclosure
The size and location of the compartment openings
The material properties of the enclosure boundaries

40

Heat Release Rate

Important

defines fire size

affect smoke and toxic gas production
For fire protection engineering, it is useful to
have the ability to accurately measure the heat
released by items such as wall lining, building
contents, furniture etc.

41

Heat Release Rate

Also known as Energy Release Rate

Measured in watts, kilowatts, megawatts
some characteristic values of energy released
from various resources
A burning cigarette - 5 W
A typical light bulb - 60 W
A burning wastepaper basket - 100 kW

42

Heat Release Rate

A burning of 1 m2 pool of gasoline-2.5 MW

Burning wood pallets, stacked to the height of 3
m - 7 MW
Heat Release Rate will vary with time

Q (MW)

Time (s)

43

Heat Release Rate

Depends on the type, quantity and orientation of
fuel
depends on the enclosure effect
2 factors from enclosure effect

radiate heat toward the fuel surface due to the boundary

and the hot gas layer --> enhance the burning rate
the boundary restrict the availability of oxygen

44

Enclosure Effect
Restriction of oxygen availability

decrease in the amount of fuel burnt

leading to a decrease in energy release rate
leading to a increase in the concentration of
unburnt gases
m (kg/s)

Enclosure burning
Free burning

Time
The enclosure effect on mass loss rate

45

Enclosure Effect
Fuel controlled fires

Sufficient air to react with all the fuel within

the compartment

Ventilation controlled fires

Insufficient air within the compartment

Some of the pyrolysis products will leave the
compartment possibly to react outside the
compartment
46

Enclosure Effect
Pyrolysis rate of the fuel

Depends on the fuel type

Fuel geometry
Fire induced environment

In compartment, the energy generated also

depends on

The conditions within the compartment

E.g. temperature, oxygen concentration

The mass flow rate of air or oxygen into the room

through a door or window important
47

Burning Rate
Determine Heat Release Rate

burning rate or mass loss rate

oxygen consumption

For mass loss rate

weighing the fuel package as it burns

m
H eff
Q

Heat Release
Kilograms / second

Effective heat
of combustion
48

Burning Rate
If the area of the fuel is known

A m
' ' H eff
Q
f
Burning rate per unit area

Area of the horizontal

burning area of the fuel

49

Heat of Combustion
Sometimes called the chemical heat of combustion
H C
it is different from the effective heat of
combustion H eff
H C --> measured by a device called the bomb
calorimeter--> sample complete combusted under
high pressure in pure oxygen--> no residue -->
release all its potential energy

50

Heat of Combustion
Potential
energy level

C5 H8 O2

3CO2+H2O +CO+C

PMMA

H eff

H C

5CO2 +4H2O
0

Sufficient
oxygen C5H8O2 +6O2 -->5CO2 +4H2O(g)

H C 24.9kJ/g

insufficient
+CO+C H 18.2kJ/g
C
H
O
+4.5O
-->3CO
+4H
O
5
8
2
2
2
2
oxygen
eff
51

Combustion Efficiency
H eff

H C
Combustion efficiency
Now, the energy release equation becomes:

"

H c
Q Af m
52

Oxygen Consumption
Calorimetry
for most gases, liquid and solids

a more or less constant amount of energy is

released per unit mass of oxygen consumed.
13100 kJ per kilogram oxygen consumed
is considered to be accurate to about 5 % for
many hydrocarbon materials (by Huggett)

53

Oxygen Consumption
Calorimetry

Example
The gases from a piece of burning PMMA

(polymethylmethacrylate) are collected in a hood and removed

through an exhaust duct.
The volumetric flow of gases and the gas temperature are
measured.
The mass flow of gases is calculated to be 0.05kg/s
The mass fraction of oxygen is found to settle at an average value
of around 15 %
Give a rough estimate of the average energy released by the object.

54

Oxygen Consumption
Calorimetry

The mass fraction of oxygen in air is ~ 23 %

The oxygen consumption rate is
(0.23-0.15)x0.05 kg/s

The heat release rate is

Q = 13,100 kJ/kg x(0.23-0.15)x0.05kg/s
=52.4kJ/s = 52.4 kW

55

Oxygen Consumption
Calorimetry
To blower

Exhaust Duct
Hood

Adequate mixing
both flow rate and
composition of gases
are measured

mf

56

Cone Calorimeter

The SFPE Handbook, 2nd Edition

57

ISO Room-corner Test

Figure 9.15(b),An introduction to fire dynamics

58

Cone Calorimeter

Cone Heater
Sample

59

Cone Calorimeter

Spark igniter

Cone heater

Sample
Load Cell

60

Cone Calorimeter

With gas analyser

61

Cone Calorimeter

62

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
McCaffrey, Quintiere and Harklerload method
Conservation of energy to upper layer

m
g c p Tg T q loss
Q
Energy
release of
fire (kW)

gas
Gas flow
temperature
rate out the
openings (kg/s)

Net radiative and

convective heat
transfer from the
upper gas layer (kW)
ambient
temperature

63

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
Effective heat transfer coefficient (kW/m.K)

q loss h k A T Tg T

Total area of compartment enclosing

surface

Combine the above two equations

Q
g c p T
Tg m

h k AT
T
1
gcp
m
64

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
From Rockett CST vol 12, 165-175 (1976)

x 3 2
T
T 1 2
2
3/2
g C d Wo H 0 [2g (1
) 1
m
Tg
Tg

3
Mass flow rate
of the gas
out of doors

Orifice
construction
coeff. (~0.7)

Neutral
plane
height

Since xN depends on Tg, Q, Ho, Wo

g : g A o H o
m
65

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
Data from experiments were used

Q
hkAT
23

1 3
g 480
g C p T A 0 H 0
g C p A 0 H 0

All determined by correlating with experimental data

Put in numerical data : g = 9.8 m/s2, cp=1.05 kJ/kg.K

g 6.85

A0

2
Q
1 3
Hh kAT

66

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
g 6.85

A0

2
Q
1 3
Hh kAT

Depends on time
To be determine using a steady-state approximation
When the time of exposure t is longer than the
Thermal penetration time tp

k
hk

c
t p
k 2

Thermal conductivity
Compartment surface
thickness

67

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
If exposure time is less than tp

k c
hk

1
2

t tp

Example:
Calculate the upper layer temperature of a room 3m x 3m floor area
2.4 m high
Door opening 1.8 m (high) x 0.6m (width)
The fire source is a steady 750 kW fire,
the wall lining material is 0.016 m gypsum plaster on metal lath.
Perform the calculation at 10, 60, 600 second after ignition

68

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
A T A walls A floor A ceiling A opening 45.72m 2

Q
hkAT
23
g 480

1 3
g C p T A 0 H 0
g C p A 0 H 0
Determine hk determine thermal penetration time first

c
t p
k 2

t p 161 .3 sec
69

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
Compare the time t with tp

t 10sec ( t p 161 .3 sec)

=0.581

1
2

k c
hk
0.24kW/mK
t
t 60sec ( t p 161 .3 sec)
1
2

k c
hk
0.098kW/mK
t
70

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
t 60 0sec ( t p 161 .3 sec)
k
h k 0.03kW/m.K

Sub AT and hk into

Q
hkAT
g 480
2 3
1 3
g C p T A 0 H 0
g C p A 0 H 0

t 10sec
t 60sec
t 600sec

Tg 254K
Tg 342K
Tg 506K

71

Methods for predicting preflashover

compartment fire temperatures
Methods of Foote, Pagni and Alvares
Upper gas
Temperature
Above ambient

Tg
T

H.R.R.

Effective heat
Transfer coefficient

- 0.36

Q
h
A
0.72
k
T
0.63 (
) (
)
g C p T
m
g Cp
m
Compartment mass
ventilation rate

This method follows McCaffrey et als correlation

And add data for forced ventilation fires.
72

Methods of Foote, Pagni and Alvares

The coefficient and exponents are based on

Data for well ventilated tests in a compartment

6m x 4m floor area
Height : 4.5 m
110 g/s to 325 g/s ventilation rates
With exhaust through 0.65 x 0.65 m duct located 3.6m
above the floor
4 air inlets of 0.5 m x 0.12 m high (centerlines :0.1 m
above the floor)
Methane gas burner with H.R.R. 150 kW to 490 kW
upper gas temperature 100 to 300 oC
73

Methods of Foote, Pagni and Alvares

They shown that the correlation for forced ventilation

fires agrees well with the data presented by
McCraffrey et al for free ventilation fires with

0.1 g A o H o
m

Ventilation factor: by Kawagoe

First use of this type of opening flow analysis
For evaluating post-flashover fire test data
74

Methods of Foote, Pagni and Alvares

Example

5m x5m floor area

4m high compartment
0.025 m thick concrete walls
Forced ventilation rate 2.4 m3/s
Fire size 1000kW
Ambient air temperature 300K
k=1.4 x 10 -3 kW/m.K
cp = 0.88kJ/kg.K
= 2000kg/m3
Estimate the temperature for t>tp
75

Methods of Foote, Pagni and Alvares

2

c 2000 0.88 0.025

t p
196s
3
k 2 1.4 10 2
k
2
for t t p h k 0.056kW/m .K

1000

0.63

T
2.81300
Tg 164K
Tg

Tg 164 300K 464K

0.72

0.056105
2.81

0.36

2.4m3/s x 1.18kg/m3
76

Available Safe Egress Time (ASET)

A model for predicting the smoke filling
process in a room of fire origin

ASET room model

Single room, 2 control volume (Zone) model
estimate: temperature rise and descent of smoke

layer
fire at floor level
modelling on fire effects (not on fire)
Laws of conservation:mass, momentum and energy
77

ASET
Only energy and mass are conserved
(vent flow assumed unidirectional)
rate of mass flow rate of mass generation
into the control volume in the control volume

rate of mass accumulation

within
the
control
volume

rate of mass flow

rate of mass consumption

out of the control volume in the control volume

(1)

78

ASET

79

ASET
Elevation of the bottom of
the fuel flames above the room floor

Fire heat release rate

out
m

(1 c )Q
c p T

(1 c )Q
c p T

z intf z fire
z intf z fire

(2)

Fraction of upper layer energy

lost by heat transfer into room barrier surfaces

Elevation change from smoke

layer interface to lowest point
of burning fuel

80

ASET
5
2
intf

plume 0.210 z Q
m

where
Mass of air
leaving the lower
air layer into the plume

*
Q

1
3

(3)

(1 r )Q
c p T g z

5
2
intf

81

ASET

Eq1: terms 1, 2 and 4 are zero value

rate of mass flow out: see eq.2
plume entrainment (eq. 3) is added to the rate of
mass flow out
taking the derivate of the lower-layer air mass
w.r.t. time:

dm lowerlayer
dt

A floor

d(z ceil z intf )

dt

(4)
82

ASET
A floor

out m
plume ); 0 z intf z ceil , (a)
(m
dz intf
out ;

m
z fire z intf 0, (b) (5)
dt
0;
z z fire ,
(c)

z intf
Q
T
t
; q
;
;
Q0
T
t0
Lc

(6)

Change of variables (non-dimensionalizing for generalization)

83

ASET

z intf
T
Q
t
;
; q
;
T
Q0
t0
Lc
1 5
3 3

c1q c2q ; 0 ceil , (a)

d

c1q ;
fire 0, (b)
d
0;
fire ,
(c)
Mass contribution from the
pyrolyzate

(7)

Mass contribution from the

plume entrainment
84

ASET
Mass conservation law used in ASET
T constant

(8)
z ceil

1
s ds

(z ceil z intf ) z intf

(9)

85

ASET
Energy conservation law when the smoke layer interface is
higher than the pyrolyzing fuel
1
3

5
3

[c1 q ( 1)c2 q ]
( ceil )

0 ceil
(10)

c1 q
( ceil )

fire 0

86

ASET

(1 c )t c Q
0
c1
c p T A floor L c

(11)

2 1
c 3

0.21t c (1 r ) Q 0 g L
c2 [
][
]
A floor
( c p T )

(12)

87

ASET
Entrainment height height5/3

Non dimensional elevation

0 ceil

(a)
5

c1 3
1 ceil
c2

(b)
5
3
ceil

d
c1 2Q 5(c1 c2)
] (c)
[ ][ t 0
8
d 0
c2
3
6 ceil

(13)

Quasi-steady assumption
88

Afloor

Floor area (m2)

cp,

Ambient air heat capacity, (kj/kgK)

Earths surface gravitational constant, (m/s2)

Hc

Heat of combustion (kJ/(kg K))

Lc

Characteristic length (m)

Mass of the lower air layer (kg)

Mass of air exiting the room from the lower air layer (kg/s)
Mass of leaving the lower air layer into the plume (kg/s)
Nondimensional heat release rate, Q/Q0

Fire heat release rate (kW)

Q0

Initial value of the heat release rate, (0.95 kW)

89

Dummy variable of integration

Virtual simulation time (seconds)

tc

Characteristic time (1 second)

Smoke temperature (K)

Ambient air temperature

Elevation (m)

zintf

Elevation change from smoke layer interface to lowest

point of burning fuel (m)

zfire

Elevation of the bottom of the fuel flames above the room

floor (m)

zceil

Elevation of the ceiling above the fuel height (m)

90

ASET
c

Fraction of upper layer energy lost by heat transfer into

room barrier surfaces

Fraction of actual heat release directed into radiative energy

Ambient air temperature

Nondimensional time, t/tcharacteristic

Nondimensional elevation, z/Lc

Nondimensional temperature, T/T

Combustion efficiency
91

ASET
Fire growth rate is not enhanced by
radiation feedback from the hot layer
Heat release rate can be:

H m
pyrolysis
Q
c

(14)

92

Other note
Heat losses to wall surface: fixed fraction
fuel area (entrainment)
plume is unconfined
mass conservation at lower layer
pressure accumulation not considered
others ref to manual

93

Predicting Flashover
Method of Babrauskas

m
g c p Tg T q loss
Q
Gas flow
Rate out the
opening

g 0.5A o H o
m

q loss Tg4 T4 0.40A T

Emissivity
of the hot gas

Stefan Boltzmann constant

5.67x 10-11 kW/m2.K4

Combine
And set gas
temperature of
flashover= 873 K
cp of air = 1.0kJ/kg.K
= 0.5

Energy loss:
Radiation
40% of wall area
94

Predicting Flashover
Method of Babrauskas
Assume

Compartment wall area

AT
50
Ao Ho

Ventilation factor

required for flashover

yields a minimum Q
600A H
Q
o

95

Predicting Flashover
airflow into the compartment
0.5A o H o
Max amount of fuel which can be burned completely
with this air is known as the stoichiometric amount

Q stoich 3000m g 3000 0.5A o H o 1500A o H o

Heat released per mass of air consumed
96

Predicting Flashover
600

Q stoich 0.4Q
min Q
stoich
1500
Babarauskas found that a best fit is

0.5Q

Q
stoich 750A o H o

97

Predicting Flashover
Method of McCaffrey, Quintere, Harkerload
From

Q
h k AT
23

1 3
g 480
g C p T A 0 H 0
gC p A 0 H 0
re arrange the terms

1.0

500oC
1
2

g
2
g c T
h k A T A o H o
Q
p

480
9.8
1.18

98

Predicting Flashover
Method of McCaffrey, Quintere, Harkerload

610 h A A H
Q
k T o
o
Effective heat
Transfer coeff.
(kW/m)/K

1
2

Total area of
compartment surfaces

99

Predicting Flashover
Example

hk=k/=0.03kW/m.K
AT=45.72 m2
Ao=1.08m2
Ho=1.8m

610 0.03 45.72 1.08 1.8

Q

1
2

860kW

100

Predicting Flashover
Thomas method
1.26

m
g c p Tg T q loss
Q

g 0.5A o H o
m
q loss

600oC

AT
AT
4
4
4
h c Tg Tw
2Tg Tw Tfloor
2
6
7.8 AT

7.8A 378A H
Q
T
o
o
101

Predicting Postflashover compartment fire

temperatures
Method of Babrauskas
Wall steady state
loss

Wall transient
loss
Combustion
efficiency

Tg T T T 1 2 3 4 5
Upper
Layer gas
Temperature

Empirical
Constant
= 1725 K

Burning rate
stoichiometry

Opening
effect

102

Predicting Postflashover compartment fire

temperatures
Burning rate stoichiometry 1

1 1.0 0.51 ln for 1

1 1.0 - 0.05 ln
Dimensionless
Stoichiometric coeff.
1 kg fuel + r kg air
(1+r) kg product

5
3

for 1

f
m

f,st
m

f,st
m

Fuel lean regime

0.5 Ao H o
r

Fuel rich burning

regime

Fuel mass pyrolysis rate

(kg/s)
Stoichiometric mass
Burning rate (no excess
Fuel and no excess oxygen)
103

Predicting Postflashover compartment fire

temperatures
Burning rate stoichiometry
This can also be obtained using heat release rate

Q
stoich

Q
stoich 1500 Ao H o

1500A o H o

For pool fire, with strong radiation coupling

1 1.0 0.092 - ln

1.25

Pool area

Ao H o

Af

Heat of
Vaporization
Of liquid

0 .5 h p

r Tg4 Tb4

Stefan Boltzmann constant

5.67x 10-11 kW/m2.K4

104

Predicting Postflashover compartment fire

temperatures
Wall steady state losses 2
Thickness
Of wall surface

A o H o
2 1.0 - 0.94exp - 54
AT

L

K

2
3

1
3

105

Predicting Postflashover compartment fire

temperatures
time

Wall transient losses 3

Ao H o
3 1.0 - 0.92exp - 150
AT

0 .6

Opening effect 4

4 1.0 0.205 H
Combustion efficiency 5

5 1.0 0.5 ln b p

kc
p

0.4

0 . 3
o

Maximum combustion
efficiency

106

Reference

1. R.F. Simmons, Fire Chemistry, Combustion

Fundamentals of Fire (chapter 7), Edited by Geoffrey
Cox, 1995 Academic Press Ltd.
2. PH Thomas, M.L. Bullen, J.G. Quintiere & B.J.
McCaffrey (1980), Flashover and instabilities in fire
behavior. Combustion and Flame, Vol.38, pp.159
171.
3. B.J. McCaffrey, J.G. Quintiere & M.F. Harkleroad
(1981), Estimating room temperatures and the
likelihood of flashover using fire test data correlation.
Fire Technology, Vol.17, pp.98119, and Vol.18,
pp.122.
107

Reference

4. J.G. Quintiere, B.J. McCaffrey & T. Kashiwagi

(1978), A scaling study of a corridor subjected to a
room fire. Combustion Science and Technology,
Vol.18, pp.119.
5. P.G. Holborn, S.R. Bishop, D.D. Drysdale & A.N.
Beard, Experimental and Theoretical Models of
Flashover, Fire Safety Journal 21(1993) p.257266.
6. S.R. Bishop, P.G. Holbom, A.N. Beard & D.D.
Drysdale, Nonlinear Dynamics of Flashover in
Compartment fires, Fire Safety Journal 21(1993) p.1
145.
108

Reference

7. D. Drysdale, An introduction to fire dynamics, 2nd

edition, Wiley (1999)
8. Karlsson, B., Quintiere, J.G., "Enclosure Fire
Dynamics"
9. Australian Fire Engineering Guidelines 1996
10. Klote and Milke, "Design of Smoke Management
Systems"
11. The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, Ed.
Di Nenno, et al, Society of Fire Protection Engineers,
Boston, Massachusetts, 1995.
109