Topic 8 Generators Loads

Synchronous Machines
Magnetic Field
DC field on the rotor.
Salient or round.
Excitation.
Induced voltages on loops.
3 armature windings on
stator.
Jan-May 2010
Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012
8- 1
Operation concept
The rotor is supplied by DC current If that

generates a DC flux f.
The rotor is driven by a turbine with a

constant speed of ns.
The rotating field flux induces a voltage in
the stator winding. The frequency of the
induced voltage depends upon the speed.
ns
B-
C+
N
A-
A+
The frequency - speed relation is

f = (p / 2) ns = p ns / 2
p is the number of poles.
Flux f
C-
B+
Typical rotor speeds are 3600 rpm for 2pole, 1800 rpm for 4-pole and 450 rpm
for 16-poles.
Jan-May 2010
8- 2
Operation concept
The value of the induced voltages are:
where:
kw = 0.85-0.95 is the winding factor.
At no load condition, the induced voltage is equal to the terminal voltage.

When the generator is loaded, the induced voltage drives a current Ia through the
load.
The load current produces a flux ar that reduces the field flux.
The armature generated flux has constant amplitude and rotates synchronously
with the field flux.
Jan-May 2010
8- 3
Operation concept
The armature flux induces a voltage Es in the

stator winding.
This voltage is subtracted vectorially from the
field induced voltage. The terminal voltage is :
Vt = Ef - Es .
The Es voltage can be represented by an
equivalent armature reactance times the
armature current Es = Ia j X a
Flux f
ns
B-
C+
N
A-
A+
S
C-
The reactance is:
Armature
B+
flux ar
Xar = Lar = (ar Na / Ia)
The armature produced voltage is:

Es = Ia j Xar.
Jan-May 2010
8- 4
Operation concept
The terminal voltage is:

V t = E f - E s = E f - I a j X ar
The equation permits the development of an equivalent circuit, that

consists of a voltage source Ef and a reactance Xar connected in
series.
The stator winding has resistance and some leakage inductance that is
added to armature reactance.
The Xa r+ X leakage is called synchronous reactance X syn.
Jan-May 2010
8- 5
Equivalent Circuit
jXsy
Ef
Jan-May 2010
Rs
Ef
Vt
Vt
I Rs
I Xsy
8- 6
Synchronous Reactance
Operation concept
The synchronous reactance is given in percent xsyn. The ohm value is

calculated by:
Xsyn = xsyn_pu ( V2/S)
where: V and S are the rated voltage in kV and MVA of the generator.
Typically generators have several equivalent reactances. The

synchronous reactance is used for steady-state analysis.
Reactances are usually measured by manufacturer under standard
testing of the machine.
The generator is classified as a synchronous machine because it is
only at synchronous speed that it can develop constant electromagnetic
torque.
Jan-May 2010
8- 7
Numerical exercise
A four pole, three-phase synchronous generator is rated 250 MVA, its

terminal voltage is 24 kV, the synchronous reactance is: 125%.
Calculate the synchronous reactance in ohm.
Calculate the rated current and the line to ground terminal voltage.
Draw the equivalent circuit.
Calculate the induced voltage, Ef , at rated load and pf = 0.8 lag.
Jan-May 2010
8- 8
Generators and Power System Operation
A synchronous machine supplies an electric network with constant

voltage under steady state conditions.
In a network several hundred synchronous generators operate in

parallel.
Each generator operates with the same electrical speed.
The generator speed is constant, at the synchronous speed determined

by the network frequency and the number of poles in the machine.
The proper interconnection of a rotating machine with the network is

called synchronization.
Jan-May 2010
8- 9
Generators and Power System Operation
The terminal voltage in the machine is kept constant by the regulation

of the field current. It regulates the reactive power as well.
The load increase is achieved by increasing the input power (increases

the torque). The speed remains constant. Therefore increases the
output electrical power of the generator (increases the power angle ).
The synchronous generator starting torque is zero, the machine has to

be driven by a mechanical device (turbine, reciprocating engine, etc).
Jan-May 2010
8- 10
Transient Behaviour Generator

If a bolted three-phase fault at terminals:
A fundamental frequency (which decays slowly).
A d.c. offset decays exponentially.
i(t) = iac(t) + idc(t)
e(t)
i(t)
idc
t
Jan-May 2010
iac(t)
8- 11
Jan-May 2010
8- 12
Rotor flux linkages vary then internal voltage source is not constant.
Armature magnetic flux is initially forced to flow through high reluctance
paths.
Complex effect on transient circuits (damper windings).
Short circuit currents contain harmonics (different reactances).
I
Subtransient Xd
Transient Xd
Synchronous
t
Jan-May 2010
8- 13

jX
Ef
Rs
I
Vt
Subtransient period (lasting for the first

few cycles rapid decay).
Transient period (lasting several cycles
slow decay).
Steady-state period (constant amplitude).
Fundamental or basic parameters No directly determined.

Derived parameters Observed behaviour as viewed from
terminals under suitable test conditions.
Standard parameters Time constants and reactances.
Obtained from open-circuit and short-circuit tests on unloaded
machines (IEEE standard 115-1983).
Additional tests and analytical methods (e.g: enhanced sudden shortcircuit tests, frequency-response tests, finite element analysis).
Jan-May 2010
8- 14

Standard Parameter
Hydro unit
Thermal unit
Synchronous reactance Xd (p.u.)
0.6 1.5
1.0 2.3
Transient reactance Xd (p.u.)
0.2 0.5
0.15 0.4
Subtransient reactance Xd (p.u.)
0.15 0.35
0.12 0.25
Transient time constant Td0(s)
1.5 9.0
3.0 10.0
Subtransient time constant Td0 (s)
0.01 0.05
0.02 - 0.05
Stator leakage reactance Xl (p.u.)
0.1 0.2
0.1 0.2
Stator resistance Ra (p.u.)
0.002 - 0.02
0.0015 0.005
Jan-May 2010
8- 15
Synchronous Generators - dq
To facilitate describing synchronous machine

characteristics, two axes are defined based on symmetry of
the machine.
The direct (d) axis, centered magnetically in the center of the north
pole.
The quadrature (q) axis, 90 electrical degrees ahead of the d-axis.
For purposes of analysis, the induced currents in the solid

rotor and/or damper windings may be assumed to flow in
two sets of closed circuits.
One set whose flux is in line with the d-axis.

The other set whose flux is along the q-axis.
Jan-May 2010
8- 16
Synchronous Generators - dq
Axis of phase b
q-axis
Field Winding
Armature
winding
b
S
r
Rotor
Rotor
d-axis
Axis of phase a
Air gap
a
c
Stator
Axis of phase c
Jan-May 2010
8- 17
Modelling Synchronous Generators

Rotation
q-axis
r elec. rads/sec
d-axis
b
ikq
eb
c
ib
a
ia
ea
ec
Axis of phase a
ikd
ic
Stator
Rotor
Jan-May 2010
8- 18
Dynamics of a synchronous machine is given by the equations of the

coupled stator and rotor circuits
Stator voltage and flux linkage equations for phase a (similar
equations apply to phase b and phase c)
ea = da/dt Ra ia = pa Ra ia
a = -laaia labib lac ic + lafd ifd + lakd ikd + lakq ikq
The equations are complicated by the fact that the inductances are
functions of rotor position and hence vary with time.
The self and mutual inductances of stator circuits vary with rotor position
since the permeance to flux path vary.
The mutual inductances between stator and rotor circuits vary due to
relative motion between the windings.
Jan-May 2010
8- 19
Parks Transformation
The dqo transformation, also called Parks transformation,

transforms stator phase quantities from the stationary abc
reference frame to the dqo reference frame which rotates
with the rotor.
[T]
Physical Domain
ia
iabc = ib
ic
Jan-May 2010
[L]
[L]
v
[ T ]-1
D,Q,0 domain
id
idq0= iq
i0
8- 20
Parks Transformation [ T ]
[P] =
2
3
cos
sin
1/2
cos ( 1200)
sin ( 1200)
1/2
cos ( 2400)
sin ( 2400)
1/2
[P]-1 = [P]T
id
ia
iq = [P] ib
i0
ic
Jan-May 2010
vd
va
vq = [P] vb
v0
vc
d
a
q = [P] b
0
c
8- 21
Parks transformation
Defines sets of currents, voltages and flux linkages for three
fictitious coils
One stationary 0-coil
Two rotating coils: d-coil, q-coil
Rotate synchronism with the Rotor
Flux linkages with field and any other

windings on the rotor are constant
Jan-May 2010
8- 22
a-axis
Direct
axis
id
R, Ld
f
If
f Rf , Lff
Quadrature
Axis
d & q windings are rotating
at the same speed as the
rotor
iq
d winding and field winding
act as two coupled windings
R, Lq
d & f do not couple
magnetically with q
c-axis
b-axis
0 sequence winding is stationary and not coupled.

(under balanced conditions doesnt carry current)
Jan-May 2010
8- 23
The dqo system may be viewed as a means of referring the stator

quantities to the rotor side.
With the stator quantities expressed in the dqo reference frame. All
inductances are independent of rotor position (except for the effects of
magnetic saturation).
The mmf due to id and iq are stationary with respect to the rotor and
hence:
Act on paths of constant permeance, resulting in constant self inductances

(Ld, Lq ) of stator windings.
Maintain fixed orientation with rotor circuits, resulting in constant mutual

flux.
The above simplify computation and analysis of results.
Jan-May 2010
8- 24
Power System Loads

Stable operation depends on ability to continuously match the electrical
output of generating units to the electrical load of the system. Loads
characteristics are influenced by changes in voltage and frequency.
Modelling of loads is difficult:
Composition (lights, refrigerators, motors,furnaces, etc.)

Composition changes (time, weather, economy)
Need to simplify.
Represent a composite load characteristic as seen from bulk power
delivery points (Includes loads, substation step-down transformers,
subtransmission feeders, distribution transformer and feeders, etc.)
Specific models for particular loads.
P + jQ
Jan-May 2010
8- 25
Daily Load Curve (Example)
Load Factor
Diversity Factor
P + jQ
Jan-May 2010
8- 26
Power System Loads

Load Models
Dynamic
Static
Described by algebraic
functions
Voltage and frequency
dependency represented as
changes in P and Q.
Jan-May 2010
Described by algebraic and

differential equations
Voltage and frequency
dependency represented as
changes in different
parameters.
Mostly used for load
centered studies.
8- 27
Power System Loads - Static Models

Voltage dependency modeled with exponential model
Exponents a and b define characteristic

0 - constant power
1 - constant current
2 - constant impedance
Composite loads
a and b depend on the aggregate characteristics.
Typical values: 0.5<a<1.8, 1.5<b<6.
b non-linear.
Tables and references.
Common practice: a=1, b=2.
Jan-May 2010
8- 28
Power System Loads - Static Models

Voltage dependency modeled with polynomial model
ZIP Model
(constant impedance,
constant current and
constant power).
Frequency dependency modeled by multiplying the model (exp. or

poly.) by a factor:
0<Kpf<3.0; -2.0<Kqf<0
f is not a state variable (derivative of bus voltage angle)
Jan-May 2010
8- 29

Topic 8 Generators Loads

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Synchronous Machines

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

The rotor is supplied by DC current If that

The rotor is driven by a turbine with a

The frequency - speed relation is

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

The value of the induced voltages are:

At no load condition, the induced voltage is equal to the terminal voltage.

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

The armature flux induces a voltage Es in the

The reactance is:

Xar = Lar = (ar Na / Ia)

The armature produced voltage is:

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

The terminal voltage is:

The equation permits the development of an equivalent circuit, that

The Xa r+ X leakage is called synchronous reactance X syn.

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

The synchronous reactance is given in percent xsyn. The ohm value is

Typically generators have several equivalent reactances. The

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

A four pole, three-phase synchronous generator is rated 250 MVA, its

Calculate the synchronous reactance in ohm.

Draw the equivalent circuit.

Calculate the induced voltage, Ef , at rated load and pf = 0.8 lag.

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Generators and Power System Operation

A synchronous machine supplies an electric network with constant

In a network several hundred synchronous generators operate in

Each generator operates with the same electrical speed.

The generator speed is constant, at the synchronous speed determined

The proper interconnection of a rotating machine with the network is

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Generators and Power System Operation

The terminal voltage in the machine is kept constant by the regulation

The load increase is achieved by increasing the input power (increases

The synchronous generator starting torque is zero, the machine has to

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Transient Behaviour Generator

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Transient Behaviour Generator

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Transient Behaviour Generator

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Transient Behaviour Generator

Subtransient period (lasting for the first

Fundamental or basic parameters No directly determined.

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Transient Behaviour Generator

Synchronous reactance Xd (p.u.)

Transient reactance Xd (p.u.)

Subtransient reactance Xd (p.u.)

Transient time constant Td0(s)

Subtransient time constant Td0 (s)

Stator leakage reactance Xl (p.u.)

Stator resistance Ra (p.u.)

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

To facilitate describing synchronous machine

For purposes of analysis, the induced currents in the solid

One set whose flux is in line with the d-axis.

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Power Systems Analysis ECNG 3012

Modelling Synchronous Generators