ELECTROSTATICS:

ElectricCharge&ElectricField
AsearlyasthefourthcenturyB.C.,Platonotedthatayellowsubstancethenknownas
elektronattractedlightweightobjectswhenrubbedagainstapieceoffur.
Thismaterialisnowknownasamber,andithasbeenshowntobethefossilizedresin
frompinetreeswhichoccasionallytrappedancientinsects.(Yes,likeinJurassicPark.)
In1733CharlesFrancoisdeCisternayduFaynoticedthatobjects
thathadbeenrubbedsometimesattractedandsometimesrepelledeachother.
Heexplainedthisbyproposingtwodifferentkindsofelectricity.Vitreous
electricity(fromtheLatinfor"glass")isproducedwhenglassorgemswere
rubbed.Resinouselectricity(fromtheLatinfor"resin,"or"amber")isobtainedby
rubbingamber,silk,orpaper.DuFayarguedthatobjectswithdifferentkindsof
electricityattracteachother,whereasthosewiththesamekindofelectricity
repel.
DuFay'sdiscoveryledtoatheoryofelectricitythatassumedtheexistenceoftwofluids.Objectsthat
arenotelectrifiedwereassumedtohaveequalamountsofthesefluids,whichneutralizeeachother.
Rubbinganobjectwasassumedtoremoveoneofthefluids,leavinganexcessoftheother.
InJuneof1752,BenjaminFranklinflewhisfamouskiteinalightning
storm(foolthathewas).Franklinsuspectedthatlightningwasan
electricalcurrentinnature,andhewantedtoseeifhewasright.One
waytotesthisideawouldbetoseeifthelightningwouldpass
throughmetal.Hedecidedtouseametalkeyandlookedaroundfor
awaytogetthekeyupnearthelightning.Asyouprobablyalready
know,heusedachild'stoy,akite,toprovethatlightningisreallya
streamofelectrifiedair,knowntodayasplasma.Hisfamousstormy
kiteflightinJuneof1752ledhimtodevelopmanyofthetermsthat
westillusetodaywhenwetalkaboutelectricity:battery,conductor,
condenser,charge,discharge,uncharged,negative,minus,plus,
electricshock,andelectrician.
In1780anItaliananatomistLuigiGalvaniwhileexperimentingwithstaticelectricityanddissectedfrogs
stumbleduponwhatistodayknownaselectriccurrent.In1791hepublishedapaperregardingthe
presenceofacontinuousflowofelectricity,atthetimereferringtoitasanimalelectricity.In1800
ItalianAlessandroGuiseppeAntonioAnastasioVoltasexperimentsleadtothefirstversionofthe
battery.Itwouldnotbeuntil1807 in London that Sir Humphrey Davys discovery of the
electric arc during experiments with a 2,000-cell battery, would lead to the beginning
stages of incandescent lighting.

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |2

StaticElectricity;ElectricCharge&ItsConservation
ThewordelectricitycomesfromtheGreekwordelektronascoinedbyPlato.Staticelectricityisliterally
electricityatrest.Staticelectricityisanelectricalchargethatbuildsupduetofrictionbetweentwo
dissimilarmaterials.Frictionremovessomeelectronsfromoneobjectanddepositsthemontheother.
Eachobjectissaidtobecharged.Theoneacquiringeissaidtobenegative,whiletheonethatlost
electronsissaidtobepositive.
Piecesofpapercanbepickedupwithaplasticrulerthatyouhavejustvigorouslyrubbedwithclothor
papertowel.Youveprobablyexperiencedstaticelectricitywhen
combingyourhairortakingapieceofclothingfromthedryerthatis
madeofasyntheticfabric.Youmayalsohavefeltashockwhen
touchingsomethingmetal,likeadoorlatch,afterslidingacrossacloth
carseat.

Likechargesrepelandunlikeoroppositechargesattract.
Asimpledemonstrationprovesthereareindeedtwodifferentkindsofelectric
charge.
Part(a)
Aplasticrulerissuspendedwithathreadandrubbedvigorouslywithaclothto
chargeit.Whenasecondrulerthathasbeenchargedthesameway
approachesthesuspendedruler,itisfoundthattherulersrepel.
Part(b)
Similarly,ifarubbedglassrodisbroughtclosetoasecondchargedglassrod,
theyalsorepeleachother.
Part(c)
However,ifthechargedglassrodisbroughtclosetothechargedplasticruler,
theyattracteachother.
Therefore,therearetwotypesofelectriccharge.Furtherexperimentationshowsthattherearetwo
andonlytwotypesofchargeandBenFranklinnamedthempositiveandnegative.Hischoiceofwhich
namewentwithwhichchargewasarbitrary,buthecalledtherubbedglassrodpositiveandphysicists
stillfollowthatconventiontoday.Franklinproposedthatwhenacertainamountofchargeisproduced
ononebody(byrubbing),thenanequalamountoftheoppositetypeofchargeisproducedonanother
body.

TheLawofConservationofElectricCharge
Thenetamountofelectricchargeproducedinanyprocessiszero.

Soundfamiliar?Thislawisacompaniontotheconservationlawswevestudiedsuchasenergyand
momentum.
RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |3

ElectricChargeintheAtom
Onlywithinthepastcenturyhasitbecomeclearthatelectricitystartsinsidethe
atomitself.RecallthatitwasJune,1752thatBenFranklinflewhiskite.Itwould
beanother145yearsbeforeJ.J.Thomsonwoulddiscovertheelectron!
Recallthatatomsareneutralhavingequalnumbersofp+ande.The
p+andn0arepackedintoaverydensenucleus.Theelectronsarein
constantmotionintheelectroncloud.Thepictureyouseeaboveis
notthebestrepresentationofthisarrangement.Itimpliesthatthee
havefixedorbitswhichiswrong!Therepresentationatright,while
notascute,isfarmoreaccuratesinceitdepictstheprobabilityregions
inwhichelectronsaremostlikelyfound.
Isotopeshavedifferingnumbersofneutrons,thereforedifferentmasses,butitisthenumberofprotons
thatdeterminesanisotopesidentitysuchasthecommonisotopesofuranium: U& U.Also
recallthationshavegainedetoformnegativeanions,orlostetoformpositivecations.
Nowwecanbetterexplainthiswholerubbingorchargingconcept.Whenaplasticrulerischarged
byrubbingitwithacloth,electronsaretransferredfromtheclothtotheplastic,sotheclothispositively
chargedandtherulerisnegativelycharged.Furthermore,oncetherulerischarged,itcantholdits
chargeforever.
So,wheredoesthechargego?Itleaksawaybycollidingwithoppositelycharged
ionsintheair[rare],orbycollidingwithwatermoleculesintheair[farmore
common,thinkhumidity].
Recallwaterisaneutralbutpolarmolecule.Itsshapeitdeterminedbythe
repulsionsbetweenelectronpairs.Thelonepairsrepelwithmoreforcethanthe
sharedpairs.Weusevectors,calleddipolemoments,toindicatethedirectionofthe
unevenchargedistributionaswellasthesignsofthecharges.Thecrosshatchon
thearrowindicatesthepositiveendofthedipolemoment.
Sincethesearevectors,wecanusevectoradditiontosolveforthenetmomenton
thewatermolecule,whichisshownasthefinaldrawingatleft.Thus(+)chargesare
neutralizedbycollidingwiththeoxygenendornegativeendofthewater
molecule.And()chargesareneutralizedbycollisionswiththehydrogenend,
sinceitisthepositiveendofthewatermolecule.

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |4

InsulatorsandConductors
Toconductornottoconduct?[ApologiestoShakespeare.]

Part(a)Startwithtwometalspheres,onehighlychargedandtheotherelectricallyneutral.
Part(b)Placeanironnailsothatittouchesbothspheres,itisfoundthattheunchargedspherenow
becomeschargedandthatthechargeisevenlydistributedbetweenbothspheres.
Part(c)StartagainwiththespheresinPart(a)andrepeattheexperimentwithwoodandthespheres
remainunaffected.Why?
Werebacktoatomicstructureagain.Metalsexistascationssurroundedbydelocalizedelectrons.In
English,thatmeanspositiveionssurroundedbyaseaofelectronsthataremobileandfreetomove
about.However,dontbemisled;theseelectronsdontleavethemetaleasily.
Insulatorsontheotherhandarenonmetalsthathavetheirelectronsboundtightlytothenucleus.
Nomovingelectrons,meansnoconductionofelectricity.However,therearesomeelementssuchas
silicon,carbonandgermaniumthathaveanintermediateelectronsituationandarereferredtoas
semiconductors.

InducedCharge;theElectroscope

Apositivelychargedmetalrodisbroughtincontactwithanunchargedor
neutralmetalrod(a).Electronswillpassovertothechargedrod,leaving
theonceunchargedrodelectrondeficientandthuspositivelycharged(b).
(Notethequantityofchargeisnotnecessarilyequal.)Thisprocessis
calledchargingbycontactorconduction.
Nowsupposewebringapositivelychargedmetalrodnearaneutral
metalrodbutweDONOTallowthemtotouch.Whathappensnow?
Thedelocalizedelectronsintheneutralrod(b)areattractedtothe
positivecharge.Theirmovementcausesasurplusofelectrons()atthe
endclosesttothechargedrodandleavesadeficiencyofelectrons(+)at
theoppositeend.Notethatnoelectronsweretransferred!Therefore,
nonetchargehasbeencreated;chargeshavebeensimplyseparated.
Achargewasinducedateachendoftherod.
RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |5

Yetanotherwaytoinduceanetchargeonametalobjectisto
connectitwithawiretotheground(a).Theobjectissaidtobe
groundedwhichisindicatedbythissymbol:
Earthprovidesanexcellentsinkforelectronssinceitconductswell
andissolarge.Ifanegativelychargedrodapproachesaneutral
groundedrod,thenearerepelledandconducteddownthewireto
Earth,leavingthemetalpositivelycharged(b).Ifyoucutthewire
now,beforemovingthenegativerodaway,therodwillhavelostits
etoEarth,thusapositiveinducedchargeremainsontherod(c).IF
youmovethenegativerodawaybeforecuttingthewire,thee
wouldhavemovedbackintotherodthroughthewireandtherod
wouldonceagainbeneutral.
Anelectroscopeisusedtodetectcharge.Itconsistsoftwomovableleaves(often
gold)connectedbyaconductortoametalballontheoutsideofthecase,but
insulatedfromthecaseitself.

Ifyoubringapositivelychargedrodnear(induction)themetalball,
electronsfromtheleavesmigratetotheball(a)andtheleaves
separatesincea(+)chargeisinducedoneachleafandlikecharges
repel.Ifyouremovetherod,theelectronsreturnandtheleavesfall
backtotheiroriginalposition.
Ifyoutouch(conduction)apositivelychargedrodtothemetalball(b),
theentiredeviceacquiresapositivechargeandtheleavesstay
separated,andthegreaterthecharge,thegreatertheseparation.
Thetroubleisanegativelychargedrodproducesthesameresult!
Ifyouwishtodeterminethesignofthechargethe
electroscopemustfirstbechargedbyconduction.The
onepicturedatleft(a)hasbeenchargednegativelyand
hasaslightseparationbetweenitsleaves.
IFtherodapproachingisnegative,thenelectronsinthe
ballarerepelledandrundowntheleaves,increasingthe
separation(b).IFtherodapproachingispositive,then
electronsintheballareattractedandevenmore
electronsleavetheleavestoentertheball,thusreducing
theinitialamountofnegativechargeontheleaveswhich
causeslessseparationbetweentheleaves(c).
RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |6

CoulombsLaw
Bynowyouprobablyhavethehangofthequalitativerelationshipsbetweenelectricchargesandforces.
Nowitstimetoquantifythoseforces.TheFrenchphysicistsCharlesCoulomb(17361806)investigated
electricforcesinthe1780susingatorsionbalance(similartowhatCavendishusedforthegravitational
force).Hehadnofancyequipment,butwasabletoproducechargedsphereswhoseratioofchargewas
known.Hestudiedtheeffectofchangingthechargesonspheresandtheeffectofchangingthe
distancebetweenthem.TheSIunitforcharge,thecoulomb(C),isnamedinhishonor.

Hefoundthattherewasadirectrelationshipbetweenthechargesofthespheresandhowthey
affectedeachother.Keepingthedistancebetweenthespheresthesameanddoublingthe
chargeononesphere,doubledtheforce.Triplingthechargeononespheretripledtheforce,
etc.Doublingthechargeonbothspheres,quadrupledtheforce,andsoon.
Hefoundthatincreasingthedistancebetweenthespheresofequalcharge,decreasedtheforce
withthesquareofthedistancebetweenthem.Ifhedoubledthedistance,theforcefellto of
itsoriginalvalue.Ifhetripledthedistance,theforcefellto ofitsoriginalvalue,andsoon.

MathematicallystatedCoulombsLawis:

Insertproportionalityconstantandequalsignandyouhaveamuchmoreusefulversionof
CoulombsLaw:

CoulombsLaw

10

Wherek=8.988

N
C

9.0

10

N
C

Theforceonetinychargedobjectexertsonasecondoneisproportionaltothe
productofthemagnitudeofthechargeonone,Q1,timesthemagnitudeofthecharge
ontheother,Q2,andinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthedistancerbetween
them.

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |7

CoulombsLawcalculatesthemagnitudeoftheelectricforcethateither
objectexertsonanother.Thedirectionoftheforceisalongtheline
betweenthetwoobjects.Rememberlikechargesrepelandopposite
chargesattract!Thechargesareconsideredpointcharges,whichmeans
theirsizeisreallysmallcomparedtothedistancebetweenthem,r.The
pointchargesarealsoconsideredtobeatrest(electrostatics).
Inactualfact,werarelyencounterchargesof1.0C.Chargesproducedbyrubbingordinaryobjectslike
acomborplasticruler,aretypicallyaroundamicrocoulomb(1C=106Candabout1013e)orless.
Incaseyourewondering,thechargeonaneisabout1.6021019C.
Sincetheelectronisthesmallestknowncharge*,andbecauseofitsfundamentalnature,itisgiventhe
symboleandisreferredtoastheelementarycharge,e=1.6021019C,notethatitisdefinedasa
positivenumber!Therefore,thechargeonanelectronisequaltoeandthechargeonaprotonis
simplye.So,electricchargeisquantized,existingonlyindiscreteamountssuchas1e,2e,etc.
*

Quarkshavechargessmallerthanelectrons,BUTtheyhavenotbeendetecteddirectly;theirchargesareequalto eor e.

BynowyouveprobablynoticedthatCoulombsLawresemblesthelawofuniversalgravitation
inthatbothareinversesquarelaws.Alsobothhaveproportionalitytoaproductofaproperty

ofeachbodymassforgravity,electricchargeforelectricity.However,theydifferinthatgravityis
alwaysanattractiveforce,whiletheelectricforcecanbeeitherattractiveorrepulsive.
Theconstantkisoftenwrittenintermsofanotherconstantcalledthepermittivityoffreespace,
symbolizedby0.Theconstantsarerelatedasfollows:

k=

and0=

8.85

10

C
N

Wewontusethistoomuchinthischapter,butwewilllater!
OnelastthingwhenyouplugthechargesintoCoulombLawcalculationsusingthesignandmagnitude
ofthecharges,a+FindicatesarepulsiveforceandaFindicatesanattractiveforce.
Example1
Determinethemagnitudeoftheelectricforceontheelectronofahydrogen
atomexertedbythesingleprotonthatisitsnucleus.Assumetheelectron
orbitsthenucleusatitsaveragedistanceofr=0.531010m.

8.2108N(thenegativesignindicatesattraction)
RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |8

Example2
Whichislargerinmagnitude,theforcethatQ1exertsonQ2,ortheforcethatQ2exertsonQ1?

Newtons3rdLawtellsusthatthesetwoforcesmusthaveequalmagnitude.

SolvingProblemsInvolvingCoulombsLaw&Vectors
So,howdowedealwithsituationswhenachargeatrestisinthepresenceofmorethanoneother
charge?Weusevectoraddition.Thisisalsoreferredtoastheprincipleofsuperpositionforforces.

Fnet=F1+F2+F3

Itisimportanttodrawafreebodydiagramforeachbodyinvolved.InapplyingCoulombsLaw,we
usuallydealwithchargemagnitudesonly(leaveouttheminussigns)anddeterminethedirectionofthe
forcephysicallyandshowtheforceonthediagram.Vectoradditionisrequired!
Example3
Threechargedparticlesarearrangedinaline.Calculatethenet
electrostaticforceonparticle3duetotheothertwocharges.

1.5Ntotheleft
RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |9

Example4
Calculatethenetelectrostaticforceon
chargeQ3asshowninthefigureduetothe
chargesQ1andQ2.

Q3 =+65C

30cm

60cm

30

Q2 =+50C
52cm

Q1 =86C

290Nactingatanangleof65

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |10

TheElectricField
Wevespentagooddealofclasstimediscussingcontactforces.Incontrast,itisimportanttonotethat
boththegravitationalforceandtheelectricalforceactatadistance.
MichaelFaradaydevelopedtheideaofafieldtobetterexplainthebehavior
offorcesthatactatadistance.Anelectricfieldextendsoutwardfrom
everychargeandpermeatesallofspace.Whenasecondcharge,Pinthe
diagramatright,isplacednearthefirstcharge,itfeelsaforcebecauseof
theelectricfieldthatisthere.BeveryclearonthefactthatafieldisNOTa
kindofmatter!
Westudyelectricfieldsbyprobingthemwithatestcharge.Thetestchargeis(+)andvery,verysmall.
Sosmallthattheforceitexertsdoesnotsignificantlyalterthedistributionofotherchargespresentthat
createdthefieldinthefirstplace.
Inthediagramatleft,atestchargeqisplacedatpointsa,thenb,thenc
aroundasinglepositivepointchargeQ.Noticefirst,thatalloftheforces
aredirectedradiallyoutwardfromQ.Now,letsanalyzeeachforce:Fais
thegreatestsincethetestchargewaspositionedclosesttoQ.Fbisless
thanFasincethetestchargeisplacedfartherawayfrompointQ.Fcis
lesserstillsincethetestchargewasplacedfarthestawayfrompointQ.

ElectricField
whereqisatestcharge,orsubstitute

forFandexpressas

whereQisasinglepointcharge

ElectricfieldisdefinedastheforceFexertedonatinypositivetestchargeatthat
pointdividedbythemagnitudeofthetestchargeq.

Eismeasuredinunitsofnewtonspercoulomb

N
C

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |11

Example5
Anelectrostaticcopierworksbyselectivelyarrangingpositivecharges
(inapatterntobecopied)onthesurfaceofanonconductingdrum,
thengentlysprinklingnegativelychargeddrytoner(ink)particlesonto
thedrum.Thetonerparticlestemporarilysticktothepatternonthe
drumandarelatertransferredtopaperandmeltedtoproduce
thecopy.
Supposeeachtonerparticlehasamassof9.01016kgandcarries
anaverageof20extraelectronstoprovideanelectriccharge.
Assumingthattheelectricforceonatonerparticlemustexceedtwice
itsweightinordertoensuresufficientattraction,computetherequired
electricfieldstrengthnearthesurfaceofthedrum.

5.5103N/C

Example6
CalculatethemagnitudeanddirectionoftheelectricfieldatapointPwhichis30cmtotherightofa
pointchargeQ=3.0C.

3.0105N/Ctotheleft

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |12

Theelectricfieldduetoa(+)chargepointsawayfromthecharge,whereasEduetoa()chargepoints
towardthatcharge.Whatifmorethanonechargeispresent?Yeah,afraidsowearebacktothe
superpositionprincipleandvectoraddition.
Example7
Twopointchargesareseparatedbyadistanceof10.0cm.Onehasachargeof25Candtheother
+50C.
(a) WhatisthedirectionandmagnitudeoftheelectricfieldatpointPinbetweenthemthatis2.0cm
fromthenegativecharge?

(b) IfanelectronisplacedatrestatP,whatwillitsaccelerationbeinitially?

(a)6.310 N/C(b)1.110 m/s

8

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

20

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |13

Example8
Calculatethetotalelectricfield(a)atpointAand(b)atpointBduetobothcharges,Q1andQ2.

B
30

40cm

30cm

60cm

Q2=+50C

26cm

26 cm

Q1 =50 C

(a)4.5106N/Cand76(b)3.6106N/Cinthe+xdirection
RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |14

JusttorecapifwearegiventheelectricfieldEatagivenpointinspace,thenwe
cancalculatetheFonachargeqplacedatthatpointasfollows:
F=qE(andisalsoequaltomg,ofcourse!)
(a) Thepointisassumed(+)andEradiatesoutfromitinany
directionwejustneedareferencepointforthisdiscussion
(b) Ifqis(+),FandEwillpointinthesamedirectionsinceF=+qE
(c) Ifqis(),FandEwillpointinoppositedirectionssinceF=qE

FieldLines
SinceEisavector,electricfieldsarevectorfields.Wedrawa
seriesoflinestoindicatethedirectionofanelectricfieldat
variouspointsinspace.Eachlinecorrespondstothelinesof
forceandisdrawnsothattheyindicatethedirectionoftheforce
duetothegivenfieldonapositivetestcharge(a).Thelines
pointradiallyoutwardfroma(+)chargeandradiallyinward
towarda()charge.Thereareafewrulestofollow:
1. Thenumberoflinesstartingonapositivechargeorendingonanegativechargeis
proportionaltothemagnitudeofthecharge.
2. Thecloserthelinesaretogether,thestrongertheelectricfieldinthatregion.

(a) Theelectricfieldlinescurvewhen2chargesarepresent.ThedirectionofthefieldEatany
pointistangentialtothefieldlinesasshownbythearrowatpointP.
(b) Likechargesrepel,sotheirfieldlinescurveawayfromoneanother.
(c) Oppositechargesattract,sotheirfieldlinesoriginateonthe(+)chargeandterminateonthe()
charge.Alsonoticethattherearetwiceasmanylinesradiatingfromthe+2Qchargeasthere
areentering1Q.
(d) Thefieldlinesbetween2oppositelychargedparallelplatesstartoutperpendiculartotheplate
andgodirectlyfromoneplatetoanother,butfringeabitattheedges.

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |15

ElectricFields&Conductors
Recallthatconductorsaregoodconductorsduetothefacttheyhavemobileelectrons.Thesemobile
electronsoftenparticipateintheprocessofinductionthatwediscussedindetailearlier.
Theelectricfieldinsideagoodconductoriszerointhestaticsituation(thechargesareatrest).
Ifthiswerenottrue,thentheelectronswouldexperienceaforcesinceF=qE.Aninteresting
consequenceisthatanynetchargeonagoodconductordistributesitselfonthesurfaceofthe
conductor.
Considerapositivechargeplacedwithinametalhollowsphere(the
crosssectionisshownatleft).Thepositivechargeplacedwithinattracts
themobileelectronswithinthemetal.Sincethereisnoelectricfield
withinthemetalitself,thefieldlinesleavingthe(+)chargemustendon
negativechargesontheinnersurfaceofthemetalsphere.Nowa
quantityofchargeQhasbeeninducedontheinnersurface,thusan
equalquantityof(+)charge+Qmustexistontheoutersurfacesincethe
sphereisneutral.So,nowanelectricfieldexistsoutsideofthemetal
conductorasiftheconductorwerenteventhere!
Furthermore,theelectricfieldisalwaysperpendiculartothesurfaceoutsideof
aconductor.IFtherewereacomponentofEparalleltothesurface,ofa
conductorelectronswouldmovealongthesurfaceinresponsetothisforce
untiltheyreachedpositionswherenoforcewasexertedonthemwhich
wouldbeuntiltheEwasparalleltothesurface.
Thesepropertiespertainonlytoconductors.Insideanonconductoranelectric
fieldcanexist.Remembernonconductorshavenomobileelectrons.So,theelectricfieldoutsidea
nonconductordoesnotnecessarilymakeanangleof90tothesurface.
Example9
Ahollowmetalboxisplacedbetweentwoparallelchargedplatesasshown.
Whatsthefieldlikeinsidethebox?(ThisiswhatisknownasaFaradayCage.)

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |16

ConnectingPhysicstoBiology&Chemistry
BynowyouhavehadjustenoughBiology,Chemistry&Physicscoursesto
makeyoudangerous!But,thegoodnewsisthatyouhavealsoacquired
enoughbasicknowledgefromeachtomakeallthreemoreinteresting.Lets
revisitDNAandapplywhatweknowaboutelectrostaticstoexplainsome
basicconcepts.
LongagoyoulearnedChargraffsbasepairingrule:Adeninepairswith
thymine(oruracilinRNA)whileguaninepairswithcytosine.Youalsolearned
thatDNAhasafairlyuniformdiameter(whichiswhyitisahelixandnotaspiral)andthatenzymes
catalyzethestepsinDNAreplication.Letsstartexplaining
WHYallofthisisso.
1. WhydoesAalwayspairwithTandGalwayspairwithC?
Theanswerliesinanexaminationofthemolecularstructure
ofDNAsnitrogenbasesandasimpleunderstandingof
electrostatics.Examinethemolecularstructureof
thyminenoticeithasonering.Examineadeninenoticeit
hastworings.Performthesameanalysisoncytosineand
guanine.Thebaseshaving2ringsarepurines;thosehaving
1ringarepyrimadines.TheconstantdiameterofDNAis
maintainedbecausethenitrogenbasespairsuchthata
purinepairswithapyramidineand3ringsarealways
present.
2. So,ifcytosinepairedwithadenine,3ringswouldbe
present.Whydoesntthatcombinationwork?
Electrostatics,thatswhy!Lookmoreclosely.Thedotted
linesrepresentelectrostaticattractionsbetweenhydrogenatomsononebaseandahighly
electronegativeelementonanotherbase.Unfortunately,wecallthatahydrogenbond,wheninactual
factanelectronpairisnotbeingshared.Thisisactuallyanintermolecularelectrostaticforce!Notethat
thereare2hydrogenbondsformedbetweenA&TandthreebetweenC&G.IftheymismatchA&Gor
T&C,thentheatomsdontlineupproperlyandtheelectrostaticforcesareactingatagreater(angular)
distance,thustheattractiveforceisdissipatingaccordingtoCoulombslaw.
Electronegative,letsexplainthatbetterwhileweareatit.(EnterCoulombslaw,stageleft)
Fluorine,oxygenandnitrogenaresmallatomswithahigheffectivenuclearchargesandhighnumbers
ofvalenceelectrons.Hydrogenissmallbuthasaverysmalleffectivenuclearcharge,nottomention
onlyonelousylittleelectronwhichistiedupinbeingboundtoanatomonaringinthesestructures.
So,thevery(+)Hatomisveryattractedtothemany()valenceelectronsofneighboringNandOatoms
overshortatomicdistances,thustheelectrostaticforceofattractionisstrong.
RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.

A P * P h y s i c s B : E l e c t r o s t a t i c s |17

3. Howdoenzymesfactorin?
Thecellismostlywater,moleculesaremovingaroundinresponsetothermalenergyandcollisions
occurconstantly.Enzymeslowertheenergyrequiredforchemicalbonds(orintermolecular
electrostaticattractions)totakeplacebyprovidingasurfacethatpositionsthereactantsmore
favorably.TheDNAligaseenzymethattiesthetwohalvesofthedoublehelixtogetherprovidesa
mechanismforaligningtheatomssothat2hydrogenbondscanoccurbetweenA&Tand3hydrogen
bondscanoccurbetweenG&C.
Howdotheenzymesdothat?Yeah,electrostaticsagain.Enzymesareproteinsthathave20differing
Rgroups.Someofthosegroupsarepolarandsomeareionic.Eitherway,theycarrysomecharge
thattheelectronegativeatomsresidinginthenitrogenbasesofDNAareattractedto.Theenzymeslure
thebasesintopositionandtheCoulombicelectrostaticforcestakeitoverfromthere.

Summary

CoulombsLaw

Wherek=8.988

10

N
C

9.0

10

N
C

Fismeasuredinunitsofnewtons(N)

ElectricField
whereqisapositivetestcharge

whereQisasinglepointcharge

Eismeasuredinunitsofnewtonspercoulomb

N
C

ElectricFieldLines
Aredrawnfromthe(+)tothe()andthenumberoflinesdrawnareproportionaltothemagnitudeof
thecharges
Theelectricfieldiszeroinsideagoodconductor,thereforechargeisalwaysdistributedontheoutside
ofaconductorandtheelectricfieldlinesareperpendiculartothesurfaceofachargedconductor

RenMcCormick
NationalMath&ScienceInitiative,Inc.
AP isaregisteredtrademarkoftheCollegeBoardwhichwasnotinvolvedintheproductionofthisproduct.