INTRODUCTION

TO COSMOCHEMISTRY
Planet Earth
Why ist the Earth so special?
How did Earth form?
Why is water on Earth?
Why and since when does life exist on Earth?

















Origin of the elements

Big Bang theory - ~15x109 years ago

Formation of the primordial elements (H, D, He) by primordial nucleosynthesis
Formation of the heavy elements by stellar nucleosynthesis within star nebula
Hydrogen fusion (e.g. sun) and Helium fusion
H + D -> 3He + + 5,493 MeV
3He + 3He -> 4He + 2H + 12,859 MeV
Stellar Fusion; Formation of the heavier elements
4He + 4He -> 8Be
8Be + 4He -> 12C +
12C + 4He -> 16O
Neutron capture
Formation of the heavy elements;
Supernova-explosion threw out high mass elements into space
62Ni + 1 -> 63Ni +
63Ni -> 63Cu + - + + 0,0659 MeV
etc.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


Element abundance in our solar system

Nebula-hypothesis

Planetary nebelae: Primordial gases (H, D, He); dust

Gravitation -> contraction -> rotation -> Proto-Sun
Condensation -> increase of temperature (106 K) -> core fusion; hydrogen fusion
Liberation of huge energy masses; E=mc2
Accretion of planets: via gravitation formation of planetesimals (condensed, solid
bodies of 1-10 km in diameter), that rotate around the sun. Impact processes form
even larger planets (planet accretion) ca. 4.56109 years ago = Age of the Earth
Earths age determination based on meteorites: Ca-Al-silicate-inclusions in
chondrites (a specific class of meteorite) reveal an age of 4567.20.6 Ma
Prograde condensation; condensation of chemical compounds depending on the
distance (and temperature) from the sun;
Close to the sun: refractory elements (Mg, Fe, Al, Si, Ca) plus O -> form solid
compounds with oxygen -> terrestrial planets (inner planets)
Further away from the sun: light, volatile elements (S, C, N, H) -> methane,
ammonium, H2O-ice -> outer planets

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002















from Grotzinger et al. (2008).

Mass of the Earth: 5,9741027 g
Average density of the Earth: 5,142 g cm-3
Age of the Earth: 4,56109 Jahre
3 heat sources in early planets

Kinetic energy by meteoric impacts

Compression of matter by gravitation
Radioactive decay of von haevy elements (U, Th, K)

Differentiation of the Earth

Chemical differentiation
Earth was predominantly liquid (T> FpFe)
Heavy elements Fe-Ni sink into the Earths core
O-Si-Mg form an intermediate layer - > Earths mantle
O-Si-Al-Fe-Ca-K-Na swim at the surface -> Earths crust

Chemically differentiated layers existed already ca. 4.3 Ga (?) ago
Degassing from inner parts of the Earth formed an early atmosphere (H2O, HCl, NH3, N2,
CH4, He etc.); formation of the oceans via gas condensation due to cooling


Rheologischer Lagenbau

Physikalische Eigenschaften

Kompositioneller Lagenbau

Introduction to Mineralogy aOzeanisch

nd Petrology
for PE, 620.010 and 620.002 Oceanisch

Kontinental
65 km dick

15 C
500 C

1.0105 Pa
9.7109

Pa

2.8 gcm-3
3.3

gcm-3
-3

120 km dick

Lithosphre:
kalt, starr, sprd
350 km

7 km thick

Kontinental
35-80 km thick

Elemente

Minerale

3
Kruste:
O > Si >> Al
> Fe > Ca > Na
> K > Mg
(total = 98.6 wt%)

Silikate
Oxide
Hydroxide
Karbonate



























Evidence for the layered Earth

Propagation of seismic P- and S-waves

Total density of the Earth
Inclusions in volcanic rocks
Composition of volcanic rocks
Portions of the Earths mantle on surface
Composition of meteorites

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Early development of the Earth

Heat increase melting oceans of magma?

Oldest minerals: ca. 4.35 Ga
o Zircon from Jack Hills, W.A.
o SiO2-rich continental crust existed
Also most likely water and oceans
Oldest rocks on Earths surface; ca. 3.8 Ga
o Isua Greenstone Belt; SW Greenland
o Erosion; deposition of sediments

The oldest minerals on Earth Zircons from Jack Hills, W.A., ca. 4350 Ma (A. Cavosie, www). Cross-
sections of these zircons in a cathodoluminescence image (left), numbers illustrate 207Pb/206Pb ages,
Pb-age distribution (right)

The oldest sediments on Earth, ~3.8 Ga years old; Isua Greenstone Belt, SW Greenland. Banded iron
ore (left), metaconglomerate (right)

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Development of life on Earth

Most important is the right distance to the sun; water as liquid

Life is possible between15C and 150C; also within the upper crust -> deep
biosphere
First organisms were thermophile microorganisms
Did life start by accident?
3.5-3.4 Ga: First life forms (Archaea and Bacteria)
2.7 Ga: Increasing production of oxygen via photosynthesis by Cyanobakteria
<2.7 Ga: Stromatoliths
2.4 Ga: Big Oxidation Event (GOE); free oxygen in the atmosphere 0.54 Ga

Our solar system with the inner and outer planets (from Grotzinger et al. 2008).

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

WHAT BUILDS THE EARTH UP?

The Earths crust and mantle are formed by rocks. A rock is composed of one or more
minerals. A mineral is defined as a homogeneous material of clearly defined chemical
composition, which occurs on Earth. A crystal is defined by a crystal lattice, which is
formed by atoms and/or molecules that build up a 3-dimensional symmetrical structure
(= crystal lattice). Furthermore, the chemical compounds of the crystal lattice are hold
together by chemical bonds. The type of chemical compounds in the crystal lattice, the
distance between these compounds, their symmetrical order and the type of bond
determine all the physical and chemical properties of a crystal. A crystal, which occurs
naturally on Earth is also characterised by its thermodynamic stability. This means the
crystal exists at certain temperature and pressure conditions within a certain chemical
environment. If a mineral is formed deep in the Earth and it will come to the Earths
surface (e.g. via geotectonic processes) at lower T-P conditions, it will be instable.
However, it will not fall apart immediately, because the reaction kinetics are very slow.
This status is called metastable.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY AND PETROLOGY

SUBJECT: CHEMICAL BOND

Structure of the atom: An atom is composed of a central nucleus (protons + neutrons)
and an electronic shell (electrons, maximum of 7 main orbitals, diameter ranges
between 0.5 and 2.5 ).

The number of protons in the nucleus determines the atomic number (periodic table),
the number and the location (energy level) of the electrons in the shell determines the
electron configuration (= finger print of the atom).


TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS WITHIN A CRYSTAL LATTICE

1) Formation of electron pairs = Covalent bond

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2) Assimilation of an electron = Ionic bond

3) All electrons involved in the bond are free, not attached to any nucleus (they form
an electronic gas) = Metallic bond

4) Weak bonds = van der Waals bonds, occur predominantly in noble gases and in
specific positions within certain crystal lattices (e.g. phyllosilicates).

Bonding force = Coulombs force

K = 1/ x e1 x e2/(r1 + r2)2

e = electron charge
r = ionic radius

= dielectrical constant

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PRINCIPLE CRYSTAL-CHEMICAL LAWS


1) ISOMORPHISM (ISOMORPHOUS MIXTURE) the exchange of different
chemical compounds in the crystal lattice without changing the structure of the
crystal lattice. End-member minerals form solid solutions.

NaCl KCl, MgSiO4 FeSiO4


2) ISOTYPE STRUCTURES two distinct crystals are characterised by identical
crystal lattices

NaCl PbS

3) POPLYMORPHISM one solid chemical substance can exist in more than one
distinct crystal structures

C -> graphite, diamond

FeS2 -> pyrite, marcasite

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY AND PETROLOGY

SUBJECT: SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY

90 elements are involved in the Earths composition. However, 8 elements only are
making up around 98.66 wt% of the Earth. That is the reason why there are not
unlimited minerals existing. We know around 3600 minerals on Earth. Oxygen is the
most abundant element within the Earths crust, therefore most minerals have oxygen in
their mineral formula.



MINERAL CLASSIFICATION

Mineral classification is based on the chemical composition also taking the crystal
structure into account (e.g. quartz, SiO2, belongs to the silicates, it is not an oxide).


I.
MINERALS WITH OXYGEN

1. Oxide (O2 as an anion)
2. Hydroxide (OH- as an anion)
3. Silicate (basic compound is the SiO44- tetrahedron)
4. Carbonate (basic compound is the CO32- group)
5. Sulfate (basic compound is the SO42- tetrahedron)



II.
MINERALS WITHOUT OXYGEN

1. Sulfide (S2- anion)
2. Halogenides
3. Elements


The classification of the oxides is based on the metal (X) : oxygen ratio:

1. Metal : oxygen = 1:1 (XO-Type) e.g. Periklase (MgO), Wstite (FeO)
2. Metal : oxygen = 2:1 (X2O-Type) e.g. Cuprite (Cu2O)
3. Metal : oxygen = 2:3 (X2O3-Type) Corundum-Type
Corundum (Al2O3)
Hematite (Fe2O3)
Ilmenite (FeTiO3)
Perowskite (CaTiO3)
4. Metal : oxygen = 3:4 (XY2O4-Type) Spinel-group
Aluminum-spinels (Spinel MgAl2O4, Hercynite FeAl2O4)
Ferrit-spinel (Magnetite FeFe2O4)
Chromium-spinel (Chromite FeCr2O4)
5. Metal : oxygen = 1:2 (XO2-Type)
TiO2-minerales Rutile, Anatase, Brookite
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Pyrolusite (MnO2)
Cassiterite (SnO2)
Uraninite (UO2)



Common properties of the OXIDES:

High lattice symmetry
High hardness
High melting point
High chemical resistence

The reason for these characteristic properties is predominantly based on the type of
chemical bond. Oxides are characterised by a mixture of atomic and ionic bonds.
Oxides are further characterised by typical, symmetrical order of the oxygens in the
lattice either hexagonal, or cubical most dense package.

Hexagonal package. Order of layers = A, B, A, B, A...

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Cubical package. Order of layers = A, B, C, A, B, C, A ...

OXIDES of X2O3-TYPE

Corundum group Corundum (Al2O3), Hematite (Fe2O3)
Structure: trigonal, oxygens form a hexagonal package, metals occupy octahedral spaces.
Complete solid solution between corundunm and hematite.

Al2O3 represents the most important raw material for the Al-industry. It derives from
bauxite.
Corundum is mainly used as grinding and polishing material, based on its hardness of 9
according to the Mohs-scale. Impurities of Cr, Ti, Fe etc. lead to the gem stones ruby
stone and sapphire.

Hematite represents an important iron ore. It occurs predominantly in banded iron
formations (BIF). Hematite does not occur in magmatic deposits.

Ilmenite (FeTiO3)
Structure: trigonal, in comparison to corundum, ilmenite belongs to a crystal class of
lower symmetry (two different metals in the lattice).

Ilmenite is an accessory mineral constituent of many rocks (predominantly in magmatic
rocks). It represents the most important carrier of Ti. It further occurs economically in
placer deposits (hardness, chemical resistence).

It is mainly used as alloy metal and Ti-ore.
Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

OXIDES of X(6)Y2(4)O4-TYPE (SPINELS)

Structure: all spinels belong to the isometrical crystal system. Oxygens form acubical
package, the metals occupy octahedral and tetrahedral spaces in between.

Economically important are:
Magnetite Fe3+(6)Fe2+(6)Fe3+(4)O4
Chromite Cr2(6) (4)O4

Magnetite represents, apart of hematite, the most important iron ore. It occurs in
magmatic deposits, however, economically most important are BIFs.

Chromite ist the classical Cr-ore mineral and occurs almost exclusively in magmatic
deposits, such as layered intrusions (e.g. Bushveld Complex, South Africa) = stratiform
chromitites, and in mantle rocks = podiform chromitites.

HYDROXIDES

Goethite (Fe(6)O(OH)
Limonite (FeO(OH) . n H2O

Fe-hydroxides are typical weathering minerals (rust) and occur predominantly within
oxidation horizons of primary sulfide and oxide mineral deposits. Within the oxidation
zone they are the main constituents of the so-called gossan. Fe-enriched gossan are
also used as Fe-ore.
























Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

SILICATES

Silicates make up around 92 % of the Earths crust. Their classification is based on
polymerisation (= various combinations) of the SiO4-tetrahedrons.

Nesosilicates (isolated SiO4-tetrahedrons)

Sorosilicates (group-silicates Si2O7) simple combination of 2 SiO4-tetrahedrons

Cyclosilicates (ringsilicates, 3, 4 and 6 SiO4-tetrahedrons are combined to form a ring
structure; Si3O9, Si4O12, Si6O18)



Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Inosilicates (single chain silicates Si2O6)

Inosilicate (double chain silicates Si4O11)

Phyllosilicates (sheet silicates Si4O10)

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Tectosilicates (SiO2)

NESOSILICATES

Olivine group Mg2SiO4 (Forsterite) Fe2SiO4 (Fayalite)
End members form complete solid solution series.

Binary system Forsterite Fayalite, showing solid solution field of endmemebers


Olivine is a major constituent of ultramafic rocks and a predominant mineral of the
Earths mantle.

It is used in the refractory industry due to ist high melting point (depending on the Mg :
Fe ratio).


Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


Garnet group
Structure: all garnets belong to the isometrical crystal system.

General formula: A32+B23+(SiO4)3

A = Mg, Fe2+, Mn2+, Ca
B = Al, Fe, Cr

Pyralspite group
Pyrope
Mg3Al2(SiO4)3
Almandine Fe3Al2(SiO4)3
Spessartine Mn3Al2(SiO4)3

Ugrandite group
Uwarowite Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3
Grossular
Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
Andradite Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3

Crystal morphology and forms of garnet

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY AND PETROLOGY

SUBJECT: INO-, PHYLLO- UND TECTOSILICATES

1. INOSILICATES PYROXENE GROUP

Pyroxenes are simple chain silicates (Si2O6); general formula:

(Ca,Na,Li)0-1(Mg,Fe,Al)1-2(Si2O6)

Octahedral- Tetrahedral-
Position
Position


Depending on the occupancy of the octahedral position, orthopyroxenes (no occupancy
of the octahedral position) and clinopyroxenes (octahedral position occupied) can be
distinguished. Orthopyroxenes have orthorhombic structure, clinopyroxenes are
monoclinic.

Orthopyroxenes (OPX)
Enstatite

Mg2(Si2O6)
Bronzite

(Mg,Fe)2(Si2O6)
Ferrosilite
Fe2(Si2O6)

Klinopyroxenes (CPX)
Diopside

CaMg(Si2O6)
Hedenbergite
CaFe(Si2O6)
Augite

Ca(Mg,Fe)(Si2O6)
Jadeite

NaAl(Si2O6)
girine (Acmite)
NaFe(Si2O6)
Spodumene
LiAl(Si2O6)

OPX members form a solid solution series, the same applies to CPX members, but there
is very limited solid solution between OPX and CPX.

Occurrence:
Pyroxenes are rock-forming minerals. They represent, together with olivine, major
components of the Earths mantle. OPX are also characteristic minerals for high-grade
metamorphic rocks and occur within mafic volcanic rocks. CPX are characteristic for
mafic plutonic and volcanic rocks and are diagnostic for metamorphic calc-silicate rocks.
Na-rich pyroxenes are typical for alkali-rich igneous rocks.





Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

2. INOSILICATES AMPHIBOLE GROUP

Amphiboles are double chain silicates (Si4O11).

General formula:

A 0-1(10,12)X2(8)Y5(6)(OH,F)(Si4O11)

A = Na, K
X = Ca, Na, Mg, Fe2+, Mn
Y = Mg, Fe2+,Mn, Al, Fe3+, Ti4+
Z = Si, Al

Amphiboles represent a large mineral group. Similar to pyroxenes, orthoamphiboles
(orthorhombic structure) and clinoamphiboles (monoclinic structure) can be
distinguished.

Three main series can be distinguished:

1. Orthoamphiboles, Mg-Fe-Amphiboles
Cummingtonite
Grunerite
Anthophyllite
Gedrite

2. Ca-Amphiboles (Clinoamphiboles)
Tremolite
Actinolite
Hornblende

3. Alkali-amphibole Na>Ca (Clinoamphiboles)
Glaukophane
Riebeckite

Amphiboles are rock-forming minerals and are representative for the mineral
composition of many metamorphic rocks (e.g. amphibolites). Rarely amphiboles can
grow in form of very thin needles. In case the needles have a thickness of < 2 m and a
length of > 5 m, they are defined as amphibole asbestos.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

3. PHYLLOSILICATES (SHEET SILICATES)

Phyllosilicates are basically composed of a tetrahedral sheet (Si2O5) = T-sheet and an
octahedral sheet (Mg,Fe,Al)2-3(OH)4 = O-sheet.
Based on the combination of the T-O-sheets and the occupancy within the O-sheets (i.e.
either all octahedral spaces are occupied by Mg or Fe, or 2/3 of the spaces are occupied
by Al), the following phyllosilicates can be distinguished:

(Si2O5)-sheet

1. 2-sheet phyllosilicates (T-O)

Serpentine

Mg3(OH)4(Si2O5)
Kaolinite


Al2(OH)4(Si2O5)
Haloysite


Al2(OH)4(Si2O5) . 2H2O
2. 3-sheet phyllosilicates (T-O-T)
Talc


Mg3(OH)2(Si4O10)
Pyrophyllite

Al2(OH)2(Si4O10)
Phlogopite (Biotite)
K(Mg,Fe)3(OH,F)2(Si4O10)
Muscovite

KAl2(OH)2(Si3AlO10)
Saponite


Mg3(OH)2(Si4O10) . nH2O
Montmorillonite

Al2(OH)2(Si4O10) . nH2O

3. 4-sheet phyllosilicates (T-O-T-Mg(OH))

Chlorite


(Mg,Fe,Al)3(OH)2(Si,Al4O10) . Mg3(OH)6


Diagnostic properties: perfect cleavage in (001), low hardness (1-3 according to Mohs),
pearly lustre on cleavage planes, color varies from black (biotite), via green (chlorite) to
colorless, tranparent (muscovite).
The swelling property is a further characteristic feature of water-bearing phyllosilicates
(=many clay minerals, e.g. smectites -> montmorillonite, haloysite, saponite). The water is
released in cases where the phyllosilicate is dried. However, as soon as the phyllosilicate
gets into contact with water again, the water molecules are getting adsorbed and the
thickness of the phyllosilicate sheets are significantly increasing. Instead of water, other
molecules can be adsorbed too.
Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


Serpentine (chrysotile) may grow under certain conditions in form of tiny reels. If these
reels achieve a thickness in the range of around < 3 m and a length of > 5 m, these
chrysotiles are defined as serpentine asbestos. Serpentine asbestos occurs
predominantly in altered ultramafic rocks, where the serpentine mineral forms during
serpentinisation (alteration of olivine and pyroxenes under Co2-rich hydrous conditions
into serpentine). This type of asbestos had numerous applications (i.e. isolation material,
heat resistant material, facings for clutches and brakes in cars, for roof tails etc.) until
around 1998. Today (i.e. since 1998) these applications are strictly prohibited.
The health risk potential of serpentine asbestos is by far less than that of amphibole
asbestos, because serpentine asbestos forms reel structure, whereas amphibole
asbestos is represented by fine needles. Furthermore, serpentine asbestos will become
dissolved after a few months if it will get into the human pulmonary tissue (i.e.
serpentine asbestos is chemically almost exclusively composed of Mg and Si, apart of O,
and the human body is undersaturated in these two elements. Amphibole asbestos
contains, apart of Mg, always some Fe).



































Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


4. TECTOSILICATES

(SiO2)


Tectosilicates are characterised by a three-dimensional bonding of the SiO4-
tetrahedrons, thus the basic formula is SiO2. Part of the Si in the lattice can be
substituted by Al -> feldspars

Overview onto the classification of the tectosilicatse:

1. SiO2-Group
Quartz
Tridymite
Christobalite
Coesite
Stishovite
Opal

2. Feldspar-Group
Alkali-Feldspars
K(Si3AlO8)
Plagioclase-Group
Na(Si3AlO8)




Ca(Si2Al2O8)

3. Foides
Leucite


K(Si2AlO6)
Nepheline

(Na,K)(SiAlO4)

4. Zeolite-Group
Natrolite


Na2(Si3Al2O10) . 2H2O
Phillipsite

KCa(Si5Al2O16) . 6H2O
Chabasite

>Ca(Si4Al2O10) . 6H2O

and many more

The nembers of the SiO2-Group are modifications of quartz (see polymorphism !), which
are stable under various P-T-conditions. Opal represents a cryptocrystalline/amorphous
variety of quartz (i.e. opal is not crystallised, it is gel-like). Other varieties of quartz form
by chemical impurities (i.e. such as Fe, Al, Li, H etc.) leading to different colors of quartz:
Amethyst (purple), Rose-quartz (pink), Smoky quartz (grey to black), Citrine (yellow),
Milky quartz.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


The most important industrial application of quartz is based on its very special crystal
lattice. The SiO4-tetrahedrons are ordered like a screw. Thus we can distinguish
between a left-handed and a right-handed quartz (i.e. depending on the sense of rotation
of the screw). This specific crystal lattice causes the piezo-electrical effect. If we cut a
sheet out of the quartz, perpendicular to its crystallographical c-axes, the ends of this
platelet are charged. If this quartz platelet (= quartz chip) is exposed to an ac voltage,
the quartz will start to swing (= oscillatory movement), the quartz chip gets into
rhythmical extension and compression. This application of quartz represents the
prerequisite for any modern communication (e.g. TV, radio computer technology etc.).


The feldspar-group is composed of two miscibility series, the alkali-feldspar and the
plagioclase series. Feldspars are rock-forming minerals and represent significant mineral
constituents of many magmatic and metamorphic rocks. They are also the most common
minerals within the Earths crust.

The minerals of the zeolite-group are characterised by crystal lattice with common
open spaces and cavities, in which large cations (e.g. Na, K, Ca etc.) and water molecules
are located. These cations and water may be absorbed and adsorbed. This is the reason
for the important industrial application of zeolites as ion-exchanger (e.g. water softener,
treatment of radioactive water - adsorption of 137Cs, 90Sr, water and gas cleaning, etc.).

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY AND PETROLOGY

SUBJECT: CARBONATE MINERALS

Structures are characterized by flat, triangular CO32- oxyanion groups in which

the CO bonds are covalent and strong. Neighbouring CO32- groups do not share
oxygens with each other, therefore there is no polymerisation (in contrast to the
silicates)

Although the C-O bond is strong, it is not as strong as the covalent bond in CO2.
Hence, all carbonates react with acids:
2H+ + CO32- CO2 + H2O
This "fizzing" reaction with diluted HCl is used as a diagnostic test for carbonate
minerals
Charge balance is achieved by accommodating the divalent cations Ca2+, Mg2+
and Fe2+
The compositions of the common carbonates can be expressed in terms of three
end-members (CaCO3, MgCO3, FeCO3), although solid-solution between all
end-members is not complete (i.e. the compositional triangle contains large
miscibility gaps):

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Calcite
(L. calx = "burnt lime")

Hexagonal-rhombohedral CaCO3

Structure is analogous to halite (NaCl), in which the small Na+ sites are filled by
Ca2+ ions and the large Cl- sites are replaced by CO32- groups

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

The triangular CO32- oxyanions lie in planes at right angles to the c-axis, which
consequently has 3-fold rotational symmetry. Thus instead of being isometric,like
halite, the symmetry of calcite is reduced to the rhombohedral crystal class
The Ca2+ ions are in 6-fold coordination with oxygens in the CO32- groups. Each
oxygen is coordinated to two Ca ions as well as to one C ion at the centre of the
CO32- groups
Composition is mostly pure CaCO3, but also limited low-temperature solid
solution with < 3 mol% MgCO3, <9 mol% FeCO3

Properties: Calcite occurs in over 300 different combinations of crystal forms! Most
important are long or short prisms, rhombs, and scalenohedrons. Also stalactitic.
Colour: white, colourless (also almost any other colour); Transparent to
translucent; H = 3 on cleavage planes (Mohs' index mineral!) H = 2.5 on basal
crystal faces; D = 2.7 gcm-3; Vitreous lustre; Cleavage: { 1011 } perfect at 75;
Effervesces in cold, dilute HCl.
Use: Manufacture of cement (by heating calcite to 900C: CaCO3 CO2 + CaO; the
CaO reacts with water to form CaO-hydrates, which harden with time); soil
fertiliser; flux for ore smelting; roading gravel.


MagnesiteSiderite
Hex.-rhombohedral (Mg,Fe)CO3 solid-solution series
(magnes = "Mg-bearing"; sidero = "iron")

Same structure as calcite (i.e. isostructural)

Solid-solution between magnesite (MgCO3) and siderite (FeCO3) is complete.
Small amounts of Ca may be present.

Properties: Rhombohedral crystals, magnesite aggregates often massive; Magnesite

colour: white, grey; Siderite colour: light to dark brown; Transparent to
translucent; H = 3.55; D = 3.04.0 gcm-3; Vitreous lustre; Cleavage: { 1011 }
perfect; Effervesces in hot, dilute HCl.
Use: Magnesite used to manufacture refractory bricks etc. (e.g. Trieben Mine,
Steiermark; Austria produces ca. 700 000 tonnes of ore per year); source of MgO
for chemical industry (but metallic Mg is produced from seawater, not from
magnesite). Siderite is an ore of Fe (e.g. Erzberg Mine, Steiermark, produces ca.
1.4 million tonnes of ore per year).

Dolomite
Hexagonal-rhombohedral CaMg(CO3)2
Structure is similar to calcite, but Ca- and Mg-layers alternate along the c-axis
Solid-solution exists with the Fe-bearing end-member ankerite CaFe(CO3)2
Properties: Rhombohedral crystals, sometimes saddle-shaped; Colour: pink, white,
grey, colourless, ankerite is usually oxidized to yellowish-brown colours;
Transparent to translucent; H = 3.54; D = 2.9 gcm-3; Vitreous lustre; Cleavage:
{ 1011 } perfect; Crystals effervesce in hot, dilute HCl, powder effervesces
slowly in cold, dilute HCl.
Use: Manufacture of certain cements, refractory bricks for steel-making process, MgO
for chemical industry
Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002



Aragonite
Orthorhombic CaCO3
(Aragon = locality in Spain)
Aragonite is a polymorph of calcite (see lecture notes on polymorphism)
The radius ratio of Ca:O in calcite is 0.714, which is very close to the limiting
value (0.732) between 6- and 8-fold coordination. When the calcite structure is
compressed, the oxygen ions become smaller and the Ca:O radius ratio increases,
allowing aragonite to adopt a compact orthorhombic structure with 9coordination. Thus both the density and hardness of aragonite are greater than
calcite (aragonite D = 2.94 gcm-3, H = 4; calcite: D = 2.71 gcm-3, H = 3)
Although aragonite is metastable at surface T-P conditions, it precipitates at low
pressure from warm springs (kinetically favoured in complex solutions) and in
the shells of mollusks (extra energy supplied by living organism)
Properties: Acicular and tabular habits are common, also hexagonal prisms; Colour:
colourless, white, pale yellow; Transparent to translucent; H = 3.5-4; D = 2.94
gcm-3; Vitreous lustre; Cleavage: {010} distinct, {110} poor; Effervesces in cold,
dilute HCl.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


SUBJECT: SULPHATE MINERALS

Structures are characterized by small, highly polarizing S6+ ions covalently
bonded to oxygen in tetrahedral SO42- oxyanion groups. As in the carbonates,
neighbouring SO42- groups do not share oxygens with each other, therefore no
polymerisation results.
Charge balance is achieved by accommodating divalent cations, such as Ca2+ and
Ba2+
The orthorhombic Ba-sulphate, barite (BaSO4) has such a high density (4.5 gcm-3)
that it is used as "heavy-mud" to support drilling rods in the oil- and gas-industry

Gypsum
Monoclinic CaSO42H2O
Structure consists of layers parallel to {010} in which SO42- groups are bonded to Ca2+
ions. These layers are separated by sheets of H2O molecules, which are only weakly
bound to each other via hydrogen bonds. Cleavage along these H2O sheets is
therefore excellent.
Properties: Prismatic and tabular crystals, often swallow-tail twins; Colour: colourless,
white, grey, yellow; Transparent to translucent; H = 2 (Mohs index mineral!); D
= 2.3 gcm-3; Lustre: vitreous to silky; Cleavage: {010} perfect, yielding thin
sheets; conchoidal cleavage surface parallel to {100}, fibrous cleavage parallel to
{011} (these 3 different cleavages are diagnostic of gypsum); Dehydrates
completely upon heating to 95C.
Use: Manufacture of "plaster of Paris" (made by heating gypsum to 75C to drive off
75% of H2O molecules. When later mixed with water, the partially dehydrated
gypsum re-absorbs H2O molecules and hardens). Also used for wallboard,
paints, soil fertiliser. Austria produces ca. 900 000 tonnes of gypsum per year.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


Baryte

Orthorhombic BaSO4

(barys = schwer)
Structure consists of large bivalent cations zweiwertige Kationen (Ba) bonded to
sulfate-iones. Each Ba is surrounded by 12 oxygens, the latter belonging to 7 distinct
SO42- oxyanion groups
Properties: perfect cleavage along {001}; H = 3 - 3.5; D = 4.5 gcm3 (pretty heavy for a
non-metallic minera !); Color is colorless, white to light blue, yellow, red,
transparent; tabular crystal form common, also rosette aggregates
(Wstenrose)
/

Use: as "heavy mud" in oil drillings (i.e. supports the stability of the drillings and
prevents puff blowing); Color industry; Paper industry; radiation protection; contrast
material in medicine.

















Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


SUBJECT: SULFIDE MINERALS

The sulfides are the main group of ore minerals, being the major sources of many
transition-elements and of sulfur
Metalsulfur bonding (e.g. M2S, MS, MS2) varies between ionic, covalent and
metallic
Partial metallic character makes many sulphides soft and electrically semiconductive
Most sulfides are opaque, and have distinctive crystal colours and streaks

Pyrite
(pyros = "fire", because it emits sparks when struck by steel)

Isometric FeS2

Structure is analogous to halite (NaCl), where Fe occupies the Na sites and S2 pairs
occupy the large Cl sites
Properties: Equidimensional cubic, "pyritohedral", and octahedral crystals. Cubic
crystals usually have striated faces. Colour: pale brass-yellow; Streak: greenish
or brownish-black; H = 6-6.5; D = 5 gcm-3; Conchoidal fracture; Brittle; Lustre:
splendent metallic; Opaque; Paramagnetic.
Use:

Main Fe-ore in countries where Fe-oxides are scarce; Major source of S for
production of H2SO4 and FeSO4 (dyeing, inks, wood preservative, disinfectant).
Also important source of Au, which often occurs as microinclusions in pyrite

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


Galena

Isometric PbS

Structure is analogous to halite (NaCl) with Pb in place of Na and S in place of Cl.

Properties: Crystals in cubic or cubic + octahedral forms. Colour: lead-grey; Streak:
lead-grey; H = 2.5; D = 7.5 gcm-3; Cleavage {001} perfect; Lustre: bright
metallic; Opaque
Use:

Main ore of Pb and important source of Ag, which occurs in solid-solution.

Used in batteries, low-melting alloys, metal pipes and other products; shields
against radioactivity; as oxide used to make glass, glazes, paints.

Sphalerite

Isometric ZnS

(sphaleros = "treachery", because it can look like galena but contains no Pb; also
Zinkblende, where blende = blind or deceiving)
Structure is analogous to diamond, where half the C sites are replaced by Zn and half
by Fe
Properties: Commonly as tetrahedral, cubic and octahedral crystal forms. Colour:
colourless, green, yellow, brown to black; Streak: white to yellow and brown;
Transparent to translucent; H = 3.5-4; D = 4 gcm-3; Cleavage {010} perfect;
Lustre: non-metallic and resinous to submetallic.
Use:

Main ore of Zn. Used in alloys (e.g. brass = Zn + Cu), galvanized iron, electric
batteries, paint manufacture, wood preservatives, dyeing, medicine.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Chalcopyrite
(chalkos = "copper" + pyrite)

Tetragonal CuFeS2

Structure is analogous to sphalerite (ZnS), where half the Zn sites are replaced by Cu
and half by Fe.
Properties: Usually massive habit but sometimes as tetragonal scalenohedrons.
Colour: brass-yellow, often tarnished to bronze or iridescent; Streak: greenishblack; H = 3.5-4; D = 4.2 gcm-3; Conchoidal fracture; Brittle; Lustre: metallic;
Opaque
Use:

Main ore of Cu. Used in alloys, electrical cables, etc.

Crystal lattice of chalcopyrite

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002


SUBJECT: HALIDE MINERALS

Halogens form large, singly-charged anions in minerals, of high electronegativity.

When combined with large, electropositive cations, the structures consist
essentially of perfect spheres with ionic bonding
The ionic packing which results forms crystals with high symmetry, brittle
tenacity, high melting points but high aqueous solubility

Halite
(halos = "salt")

Isometric NaCl

Each cation and each anion is surrounded by 6 closest neighbours in octahedral

coordination
Properties: Cubic crystals; Colour: colourless to white, yellow, red, blue, purple;
Transparent to translucent; Salty taste; H = 2.5; D = 2.2 gcm-3; Cleavage {001}
perfect; Brittle; Melting point at 1 bar = 801C .
Use:

Food additive and preservative; Chemical industry: HCl and sodium

compounds, leather treatment, fertilizer, road salting, weed killer.

!
Fluorite
Isometric CaF2
(fluere = "to flow", because more easily melted than similar minerals)
Face-centred cubic lattice in which each Ca2+ is in cubic coordination with 8
surrounding F- ions; each F- is tetrahedrally coordinated to four Ca2+ ions
Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

10


Properties: Usually cubic crystals; Colour: light green, yellow, bluish-green, purple,
colourless, white, pink, blue, brown; Transparent to translucent; fluoresces
under UV light; H = 4 (Mohs index mineral!); D = 3.2 gcm-3; Cleavage {111}
perfect; Brittle; Lustre: vitreous
Use:

Chemical industry: production of HF; fluorine compounds, flux for steels,

glass, fibreglass, pottery, enamels, optical lenses and prisms

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

11


SUBJECT: SOME IMPORTANT ELEMENTS
Graphite
(derives from Greec: to draw)

Hexagonal C

Structure: C atoms are bonded together (i.e. very strong covanlent bond) in form of
hexagonal rings. Between these hexagonal ring-sheets weak Van der Waals
bonds. Distance from sheet to sheet is 3.44 ).

Properties: perfect cleavage along {0001}; H = 1 - 2; D = 2.23 gcm-3; metallic lustre,

sometimes dull; Color: black to black-grey; Streek: black greasy, loosing color
very easily!
Use: Steel manufacture; founding technology; facing of cucibles; grease; pencils;
batteries; electrodes; reactors.

Diamond
(derives from Greec: adamas = undestroyable)

Isometric C

Struktur: Polymorph of graphite. Crystal structure is formed by tetrahedrons of C,

which are bonded by strong covalent bonds; C-C distance is 1.54 .

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

12

Properties: perfect cleavage along {111}; H = 10 (Mohs); D = 3.52 gcm-3; Lustre:

diamond lustre, unpolished crystals look fatty; Color: colorless to sometimes
pale yellow to pink (fancy diamonds); octahedrons common crystal forms
Use: gem stone, grinding, polishing and cutting material, drilling heads.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

13

Pressure-temperature diagram showing stability fields of graphite and diamond

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

14

ROCK (Gestein)

Rock =

natural formed aggregate of one or more types of minerals

(strictly: any naturally formed aggregate or mass of mineral matter, whether or not coherent,
constituting an essential and appreciable part of the earth's crust)

How to classify rock?

Chemical analysis

mineral composition

Physical conditions of rock formation

geometric properties
grainsize
shape
relation between grains

Physical conditions include:

Temperature
Pressure
Deformation (Differential Pressure)

Definitions:

mineral = natural formed chemical compound having a definite range in chemistry

and a characteristic crystal form.

crystal = regular polyhedral form, bounded by plane surfaces, which is the outward
expression of a regular repeating internal arrangement of atoms.

grain = particles which comprise a rock.

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

PLATE TECTONICS AND ROCK FORMATION (1)

SOURCES OF HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH

Earth has not completely cooled since its molten state approximately 4 109 years ago

In addition to residual heat (= left over from that originally caused by meteorite
impacts and gravitational compression), radioactive decay of certain elements
continually adds heat to the Earth

Most important sources of radioactive heat are K, U, Th:

40

K
40
K
232
Th
238
U
238
U

40
!
Ar + " + 1.51 MeV (mostly as heat)
40
#
!
Ca + " + heat
208
$
! K !
Pb + 6" + 4# + heat
! K ! 207Pb + 7" + 4 # $ + heat
! K ! 206Pb + 8" + 6 # $ + heat

Example: Typical heat production of granite: 3.4 10-2 J/kgyear

High flow of heat from interior to surface of Earth drives huge convection cells in
Asthenosphere (and at deeper levels), dimension 103 km; rates of movement cm /
year

CONSEQUENCES OF ASTHENOSPHERIC CONVECTION FOR LITHOSPHERE

Ascent of thermally buoyant Asthenosphere in upflow path of convection calls

increases heat-flow into Lithosphere thinning of Lithosphere and generation of
new crust by magmatism constructive lithospheric plate boundaries (e.g. at midoceanic ridges)

Descent of cooled Asthemosphere in downflow path of cell decreases heat-flow

locally mechanical subduction of lithospheric plates destructive lithospheric
plate boundaries (e.g. at oceanic trenches)

Thus, sinc about 4 109 years ago, the Lithosphere has been divided into slowingmoving plates (movement rates cm / year)

Mechanical interaction of these plates (collision, sliding along edges, overriding, etc.)
is known as plate tectonics

Plate tectonics has lead to the migration of continental and oceanic crust across the
Earth's surface, and to the formation of Earth's topography (mountain chains, high
plateaux, deep ocea basins, etc.) (see Lectures from Geology 1)

Heat flow and gravity are thus the driving forces of plate tectonics. In this context
and on long time-scales, Earth is therefore best viewed as a dynamic system (cf. static
model in lecture 1)

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

PLATE TECTONICS AND ROCK FORMATION (1)

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

PLATE TECTONICS AND ROCK FORMATION (2)

CYCLING OF ROCKS WITHIN THE LITHOSPHERE

Plate tectoncs drives rocks through cycles of P-T-deformation conditions. Rocks

formed by magmatism ("magmatic" or "igneous" rocks, e.g. granites) can be uplifted
above sea-level, eroded and redeposited as sediments in rives, lakes and ocean
basins (hardening of these sediments produces "sedimentary rocks"). Deep burial of
these sediments (or magmatic rocks) in, for example, subduction zones, leads to
mineralogical recrystallisation (the recrystallised rocks are termed "metamorphic").
Metamorphic rocks sometimes melt to form new magmatic rocks, or they may be
uplifted and eroded, and so on through the cycle ...

Because of plate tectonic cycling, rocks can have long complicated P-T-deformation
histories.

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

PLATE TECTONICS AND ROCK FORMATION (2)

Approximately ranges of pressure and temperature over which the traditional

recognized sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous (or magmatic) rock-forming
processes operate. The indefinite boundaries between the three reals are real. Both P and
T increase with depth in the Earth, but at different rates in different geological
environments. A geothermal gradient which expresses the relation between T and depth
in the Earth, such as might occur in an active mountain belt, is shown by the curve line.
Heavy bars on the right of the diagram indicate the ranges of depths to the base of the
oceanic and continental crusts.

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

PLATE TECTONICS AND ROCK FORMATION (3)

MINERAL REACTION KINETICS

During plate-tectonic cycling, the minerals that make up rocks usually react to the
changes in P, T and deformation conditions. E.g. with increase in P and T within a
subduction zone:
calcite aragonite

Whether minerals react completely (i.e. equilibrate) to changes in P-T-deformation

conditions depends on 3 main factors:
1. temperature (T)
2. time (t)
3. presence of fluids

T-t dependence : The rate, k, of a specific reaction is expressed by the Arrhenius

equation:

= A !e "E a / RT

where A is an empirical factor (meaning is not well understood) Ea is the

activation energy for the specific reaction (i.e. the height of the potentialenergy barrier to reaction), R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature.
Thus at low T, k is small (reaction is slow) and at high T, k is high (reaction is
fast)
Fluid dependence: Diffusion of chemical components through aqueous fluids or
silicate melts is faster than through crystal lattices or along crystal
boundaries, hence fluids in rock pores catalyse mineral reactions.
Depending on the rate of plate-tectonic cycling and on the thermal and fluid history,
some rocks may show no mineralogical "memory" (relict features) of their past, while
other rocks may contain evidence of many stages in their history.
Examples:
1) Most granites (cf. lab practical 1) do not preserve mineralogical evidence of their origin (e.g.
whether they derived from melted metamorphic rock or re-melted magmatic rocks). Most minerals
in granites are not thermodynamically stable in contact with ground-water. "Fresh" granites are
preserved preferentially in regions of cooler climates; tropical weathering often destroys the
magmatic minerals, i.e. the granite re-equilibrates at surface P, T and chemical conditions.
2) Diamonds are brought to the Earth's surface from depths of > 200 km by extremely rapid ascent
of magmas. Cooling is so rapid that the thermodynamically favoured reaction to graphite:

Cdiamond Cgraphite
is not possible (low T, short time). Similarly, kinetics are too slow at the Earth's surface to permit
the thermodynamically favoured reaction of diamond with O2 in the atmosphere:

Cdiamond + O2 CO2 (gas)

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

PETROGENETIC INTERPRETATION
ROCK MEMORY
In Lecture 1 we learned that thermodynamic equilibrium (the energetically most stable
state) is usually attained deep in the Earth's interior. Due to kinetic effects, most rocks
sampled in outcrops preserve minerals that are thermodynamically metastable at the
Earth's surface.
This common metastability or partial reequilibration of minerals constitutes a "memory"
of past states of the host rock. This is fortunate, because it allows us to reconstruct the
history of rocks, using detective methods known as petrogenetic interpretation.
Petrogenetic interpretation are based on several sources of information:
Source of information

Scale

Field relations

large scale (map)

Whole-rock chemical composition

hand-specimen

Mineralogical composition

hand-specimen

Crystal structure

sub-microscopic
hand-specimen to
microscopic
small scale
short term
all scales

Rock fabrics (= "Gefuge")

Experiments
Theory

EXPERIMENTAL PETROLOGY
The stability of minerals with respect to P-T conditions can be investigated
experimentally (P, T, bulk composition and time are all controlled)
data base of thermodynamic properties of minerals
reconstruction of rock history from relict mineralogical features
reconstruction of plate tectonic history of rock sample
prediction of location of natural resources (e.g. petroleum, gas,
metals), volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

ROCK FABRIC
Rock fabric (Gefge auf Deutsch) the set of geometric properties of a rock sample
(non-compositional)
SIX BASIC ROCK FABRICS
1) Sequential crystallization
2) Glassy
3) Drusy (aggregate of crystals, commonly incrusting the walls of a cavity)
4) Granoblastic (equidimensional elements)
5) Clastic (detritical, consisting of fragments of rocks)
6) Strained (deformed)

Many rocks are combinations of these fabric types

The fabric types do not always correspond to the classic genetic division into
magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

PETROGRAPHIC FEATURES

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

PETROGENETIC INTERPRETATION

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

SEQUENTIAL CRYSTALLIZATION

Mechanism of formation:
Solidification of a fluid solution, caused by changes in P, T or
composition (via reaction or mixing). Crystals grow in sequence,
according to their relative solubility in the mother solution.

Types of fluid solution:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Silicate melts or sulphide melts

Cool groundwater, riverwater, seawater
Hydrothermal solutions
Gases (volcanic, metamorphic, diagentic)

Rates of solidification:
Slow solidification of melts (e.g. magma chambers) precipitation of
silicate or sulphide crystals
cf. quenching glassy fabric
Slow crystallization from melts or precipitation from aqueous solutions
"perfect" crystals
Rapid crystallization or precipitation "imperfect" crystals, containing
solid or fluid inclusions.

Diagnostic features:
Perfect crystal form (euhedral) developed only by earliest crystals in
sequence; later crystals or glass adopt irregular shapes (anhedral)
determined by shape of remaining space.

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

SEQUENTIAL CRYSTALLIZATION

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

GLASSY FABRIC

Mechanism of formation
Interruption of sequential crystallization of fluid solutions

Rates of solidification
Slow, sequential crystallization of silicate melt in magma chamber is
interrupted by volcanic eruption
Extremely rapid cooling (quenching) of melt during eruption forms
glass in space between older crystals

Note: sulphide and carbonate melts do not form glass!

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

DRUSY FABRIC

Mechanism of formation
Interruption of sequential crystallization of fluid solutions

Rates of solidification
Sequential crystallization from aqueous solution stopped by exhaustion
of solutes in flowing solution or blockage of fluid flow

Escape of fluid during erosion leaves open spaces (druses, vugs) between
idiomorphic crystals

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

GRANOBLASTIC FABRIC

Mechanism of formation
Solid-state mineral growth (recrystallization of pre-existing minerals)
caused by changes in P, T or composition (via reactions)

Rates of recrystallization
Rapid for silicate, oxide, carbonate, sulphide minerals at very high
temperatures (near melting temperature of rock), hence common in
metamorphic rocks
Extremely slow at low temperature (no solid-state recrystallization
possible)

Diagnostic feature
Crystal faces at triple-junctions ideally meet at 120

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

CLASTIC FABRIC

Composed of broken fragments (clasts) of pre-existing rocks (lithoclasts) or

shells (bioclasts), usually within a matrix of finer grains or of crystalline cement.

Mechanism of formation:
Disaggregation, dispersal, deposition and lithification of pre-existing
rocks.
1) Disaggregation:
Surface weathering detritus
Volcanic explosion ejecta
Fault movement or slope collapse brecciation
2 ) Dispersal:
Relatively high-density clast transported by relatively lowdensity fluid (water, lava, gas, air). Abrasion during
transport produces rounded clasts.
3) Deposition:
Characterised by gravitational settling structures (e.g.
bedding, cross-bedding, sorting of clats sizes)
Marine and terrestrial sediments
Pyroclastic (volcanic) deposits
4) Lithification:
Cementation of clastic sediments (diagenesis). Welding of
pyroclastics

Diagnostic feature
Clasts do not show typical crystal forms

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

STRAINED FABRIC

Mechanism of formation:
Mechanical destruction or deformation of pre-existing mineral or rock
grains, by tectonic forces (brittle faulting, ductile shearing) or shock
forces (meteorite impact)

Deformation realms
Brittle processes common at low P-T conditions and at high strain-rates
Ductile processes common at high P-T conditions and at low strainrates

Diagnostic feature
Bending, distortion, rupture, flattening of mineral or rock grains;
reduction of original grain size

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

STRAINED FABRIC

Einfhrung in die Mineralogie und Petrologie, LV 620.073

INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY AND PETROLOGY

SUBJECT: SEDIMENTS (SEDIMENTARY ROCKS)
Importance

Sediments represent the worlds largest reservoirs for fossil energy resources
(petroleum, coal).

Important mineral deposits of metallic raw materials are hosted in sedimentary rock
sequences (e.g., Fe, Mn, Cu, Pb, Zn etc.).

Economically important industrial minerals (carbonates, salt, gypsum etc.) and

building materials derive from sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentary rocks form of the Earths surface, thus they are the most important
rocks regarding the fields of technical geology.

Fig. 1. Sedimentary rocks cover most of the Earths surface, whereas the Earths crust is mostly
composed of magmatic and metamorphic rocks (from Press & Siever, 1995).

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Sedimentary processes a summary

Source rock

magmatic

metamorphic

sedimentary

Wheathering

mechanical: components (clasts)

chemical: dissolved material

Transport

water

ice
wind
gravity

detrital components (clasts) suffer from:

decrease of grain-size

increasing roundness

detrital grain gradation

Deposition

Sediment (soft, unconsolidated)

mechanical
chemical
biochemical

Diagenesis

Sedimentary rock (solid,

consolidated)

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Fig. 2. Formation of sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary environments

Fig. 3. Sedimentary environments on land and in the sea

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Classification of sedimentary rocks

The classification of sedimentary rocks is based on the type of process they are formed.
Four main groups can be distinguished.

The boundaries between the 4 groups are gradational. One sedimentary rock can be
classified in more than one group.

CLASTIC SEDIMENTS
They form by mechanical deposition of rock clasts:
(1) Siliciclastic sediments

Conglomerate, Breccia

Sandstone

Siltstone, Mudrock (Shale, Argillite)

(2) Volcanoclastic (pyroclastic) sediments

Tuffs: Deposition of volcanic material (ash, lapilli etc.)

NONCLASTIC SEDIMENTS

(3) Biogene, biochemical and organic sediments

Limestone (and Dolomites)

SiO2-rich Sediments (Cherts)

Phosphorites

Coal und Oil shales

(4) Chemical sediments

Evaporites

Fe-rich Sediments (Iron stones; Banded Iron Formations)

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Classification schemes
Siliciclastic sediments - grain size

Biochemical and chemical sediments

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Diagenesis
After deposition the detrital components are compacted and transferred into solid
sedimentary rocks. The combination of mechanical, chemical and biological processes
leading to solid rock is defined as diagenesis.

Compaction due to overburden
Cementation due to precipitation of minerals from pore fluids
Recrystallisation of minerals due to increase of temperature and change of pore fluid
chemistry

Diagenetic processes result in changes in composition and fabric. Most processes result
in lithification of unconsolidated material.



















Fig. 4. Processes of diagenesis

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Fabrics of sedimentary rocks

Clastic fabric dominates in typical clastic and volcanoclastic sediments; strongly variing
ratio of detrital components and matrix.

The majority of sedimentary rocks display bedding textures (i.e. in most cases visible in
the outcrop as well as in hand specimens).

Important sedimentary textures

a) Bedding

Horizontal bedding

Cross bedding

Ripple bedding

Graded bedding

Growth bedding
b) Synsedimentary deformation

Debris flow

Sedimentary folding

Load casts
c) Chemical textures

Dissolution textures (e.g., stylolites, "bird eye structures")

Diagenetic cementation
d) Organic textures

Fossils
Growths lamination (e.g., Stromatolites)

Trace fossils

Fig. 5. Origin of horizontal bedding in sediments

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Siliciclastic sediments
Derivation of the detrital components: Magmatic, metamorphic, or sedimentary rocks,
that underlie erosion.

Transport: Wind, glacier, river, waves, tides, mud flows etc.

The detrital material is transported in suspension (fine) or at/close to the bottom
(coarse). Detrital material on the bottom is transported by jumping, rolling and sliding.

Fig. 6. Transport of clastic material in flowing medium

Suspension: Important criterium is that the ascending motion of the detrital particle is
higher than the sinking rate (w):
w =

d2g / 18

(Stoke`s Law)

density balance between particle and fluid (clast - fluid)

d = particle-diameter

g =

= dynamic viscosity of the fluids

gravitation constant

Turbulent flow dominates over laminar flow under the following conditions:
high current velocity, low viscosity.

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Current velocity: The transport media change velocity occording to the slope angle of the
river bed, or the intensity of the current (e.g., tidal current, river current, wind force).

Gradation: Reduction of the current velocity or change of the current in general (i.e.
turbulent vs. laminar) leads to selective deposition of the detrital components according
to the grain-size. The consequence is gradation as a function of grain-size and density of
the detrital material:

(1)

horizontal distance from the source area of erosion:

gravel (close to source area) sand mud (far away from source area)

(2)

vertical distance from the footwall into the hanging wall (graded bedding):

gravel, coarse sand (in the foot wall) silt mud (in the hanging wall)

Fig. 7. A typical fluviatile sedimentyry cycle

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology for PE, 620.010 and 620.002

Carbonate sediments
Sedimentary rocks composed predominantly of carbonate minerals are defined as
carbonate sediments. Those composed dominantly of calcite are defined as limestones,
sediments composed dominantly of dolomite are defined as dolostones.
Solubility of CaCO3 in the seawater:
Sea water is thermodynamically saturated with calcite (the triagonal CaCO3
polymorph) and undersaturated regarding aragonite (the orthorhombic
CaCO3 polymorph).
Calcite is characterised by retrograde solubility (i.e. solubility decreases with
increasing temperature, solubility increases with depth and decreasing
temperature).

Precipitation of CaCO3 in the seawater:
Calcite precipitates as mud (i.e. micrite) or in form of ooides in warm shallow
marine environments of tropical areas.
Most marine organisms build their skeletons in aragonite. Bioenergy is
required to stabilise aragonite compared to calcite under surface conditions.

Dissolution of CaCO3 in the seawater:
CaCO3 starts to dissolve several 100 m below the sea level. However,
plankton builds CaCO3 skeletons continuously. There is a balance of CaCO3
solubility and creation of CaCO3 between ~4.5 and 5 km depth ( carbonate
compensation depth, CCD) therefore, there is a complete lack of
carbonate sediments below 5 km depth!

Fig. 8. The carbonate compensation depth CCD-Grenze

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Classification of limestones

Fig. 9. Classification of limestones after Dunham (1962); from Klein and Philpotts (2013)















Fig. 10. Growth of stromatolites, one of the oldest life forms on Earth - an example of a boundstone

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Formation of reefs

Fig. 11. Model for the formation of reefs according to Darwin

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Carbonate platforms

























Fig. 12. Map and cross section through the Bahamabank (Press & Siever, 1978)

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Diagenesis of carbonates and formation of dolostone

Replacement by calcite: Aragonite in bioclasts (shales, etc.) is thermodynamically
metastable and will be replaced by coarse-grained thermodynamically more stable
calcite.
Replacement by dolomite: Calcite (primary or diagenetic) is stable in pore fluids with
high Ca/Mg; increase of Mg in the pore fluids leads to replacement of calcite by dolomite
(CaMg(CO3)2).

Mechanisms leading to a decease of the Ca/Mg ratio:

Input of Mg-rich ground water

Precipitation of calcite and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) by evaporation of seawater in a Sabkha

or restricted lagoon environment

Mixture of seawater with ground water

Input of formation fluids, released from compacted sediments, into sedimentary

basins

Fig. 12. Models of dolomitization

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SiO2-rich sediments (Cherts)

Chert = extremely fine-grained SiO2-rich sediment (amorphous/cryptocrystalline silica)
Genesis
(1) Banded SiO2-rich sediments

Primary deposition (marine, non-marine) of skeletons of plankton (Radiolaria,

Diatomea, Sponges) main source for SiO2-rich mud along the sea floor and in
lakes below the CCD-boundary. Banded texture results from annual variation in
the nutrient supply of plankton.

Primary chemical precipitation of SiO2 from hydrothermal fluids at the sea floor
(e.g., at mid-oceanic ridges)

(2) Nodular SiO2-rich sediments: secondary diagenetic formation of SiO2-minerals
within pore fluids; form chert nodules within limestones (flintstone)

Fig. 12. Microfossils (Radiolaria, Foraminifers) with SiO2- and carbonate skeletons from recent marine
muds; SEM image.

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Evaporites

Important source for halite, gypsum and other halides.

Marine evaporites form by evaporation of seawater within restricted marine

basins (lagoons) in arid climates; pogressive evaporation leads to enrichment of
Na+, Cl-, Mg++, SO4-- etc. in the seawater.

The characteristic evaporite sequence (i.e. starting with carbonates, then

gypsum, then halite, and finally K- and Mg-salts) is controlled by progressive
saturation of these elements in the evaporating seawater.

Repeated input of fresh water and continuous evaporitation is significant for the
generation of thick (i.e. up to several hundreds of metres thick) evaporite
sequences.

Fig. 13. Evaporiation of seawater in a logoon environment; from Press & Siever (1995)

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Other important sediments

Fe-rich sediments
These contain more than 15 wt.% Fe in form of ironoxides (hematite) und Fe-hydroxides
(goethite); Fe-silicates and Fe-carbonates (siderite) are less important.
The majority of banded iron ores (banded iron formations, BIF) have their origin at
an early stage of Earth development, at times when the atmosphere was poor in
oxygen; Fe was more soluble, was transported in seawater and was precipitated there.
Volcanism as an important derivation for Fe played an important role.
BIFs are the economically most important deposits for iron ore!
Organic sediments
Organic matter ist the most important source for fossil energy ressources, such as coal,
oil and gas. Coal is a biochemical sediment, that forms by diagenesis of plant material
(peat). Oil and gas represent fluids, that form via diagenesis of fossilized organic
matter (kerogen); deep burial transfers organic matter, deposited together with
inorganic material, into a fluid. The fluid may migrate into porous sediments (e.g.,
predominantly clastic and/or carbonate sediments) and may be accumulated and
stored there to finally form an petroleum deposit. Oil and gas are composed of organic
hydrocarbon complexes.

Fig. 14. Formation and migration of hydrocarbons in sedimentary rocks. Oil and gas migrate within
strata of high permeability (e.g. sandstone) and are trapped in an anticlinal structure. Blue is a cover
sequence of low permeability (e.g., shale).
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