TTE3810 Geometric Design Part One - Fall 2013 PDF

TTE3810 CLASS
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN (PART-I-)

Prepared By
Dr. Haitham Al-Deek, P.E.

Professor of Engineering
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Central Florida
Orlando, FL 32816-2450
Phone: (407) 823-2988
Fax: (407) 823-3315
E-Mail: Haitham.Al-Deek@ucf.edu
Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

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Haitham.Al-Deek@ucf.edu
Highway Geometric Design, Part-I
Table of Contents
Page Number
I- Design Features
II- Elements of Highway Geometric Design
1. Design Speed
2. Horizontal Alignment
2.1
Simple Curve
2.2
Review of Curvilinear Motion and Derivation of
13
Superelevation Equation
2.3
Superelevation
16
2.4
Transition Curves (Spirals)
27
3. Vertical Alignment
32
4. Sight Distance
44
4.1 Types of Sight Distance
44
4.2 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
46
4.3 Sight Distance on Vertical Curves
51
Appendix A: Metric Tables for Sight Distance on Vertical Curves
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I. DESIGN FEATURES
Geometric Design
Highway Alignment
z
y
X-Section Design
At right angle to direction of
alignment
Describes widths, clearances and
slopes...
x
x - Latitude
y - Departure (Positive y N)
z - Elevation above mean sea level
pts. along route are called stations
( the distance in feet from some
reference point)
The essential design features of a roadway are its location and its cross section. In the horizontal
plane, the locations of points are referenced to a coordinate system in which the positive y-axis is
north and the positive x-axis is east.
Points along the route are identified by stations. A station is defined as the distance in feet or
meter from some reference point, commonly the beginning point of the roadway. The location
of points in the vertical plane (or along z-axis) is given as the elevation above the mean sea level.
The cross section of a roadway is described by its dimensions at the right angle to the direction
of the alignment, including widths, clearances, slopes, and so on.
II. ELEMENTS OF HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

1. Design Speed
2. Horizontal Alignment
2.1. Simple Curve
2.2. Superelevation (e)
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2.3. Transition Curves (Spirals)

3. Vertical Alignment
4. Sight Distance
4.1. Types of Sight Distance
4.2. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
4.3. Sight Distance on Vertical Curves
5. Earthwork (covered in the Surveying course).
6. Cross Section Elements
7. Intersections and Interchanges
7.1. Intersection at Grade.
7.2. Grade Separations and Interchanges
The relationship of traffic to highway design

Traffic elements that influence highway design include the following:
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
Directional Distribution (D)
Percentage of Trucks (T)
Design Speed
Selection of the Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

Average Annual Daily Traffic "AADT" (vehicles per day) is not appropriate to use in the
geometric design of highways. Traffic engineers use hourly traffic volumes for design. Which
hourly traffic volume should be used?
The maximum peak hourly traffic volume during the year? Or
The average hourly traffic volume during the year ?
Answer: None!!
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EXHIBIT 8-8. RANKED HOURLY VOLUMES
Hourly Volume as percent of AADT
30
Recreational Access Route MN 169

Main Rural Route I-35
Urban Circumferential Freeway I-494
Urban Radial Freeway I-35E
25
20
15
10
5
100 200
300
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1100
Hour Rank
Source: Minnesota Department of Transportation
Source: HCM2000 and AASHTO 2001

AADT
Hourly Volume
24
14
10
30
100
Number of hours in one year with hourly volume

greater than that shown
The 30th highest hourly volume is used as the design hourly volume. This means that the
designer is willing to tolerate subjecting the public (travelers) to congested conditions for 29
hours during the year (this is only 0.3% of all hours during the year).
This Volume is referred to as DHV.
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DHV= K ADT
K does not vary much from year to year!
K=
Urban highways
Suburban highways
Rural highways
8 12%
10-15%
12-18%
FDOT (1995) uses different values. See below:

Area Type
Urbanized
Urban
Transitioning/Urban
Rural Developed
Rural Undeveloped
K-Factor
0.091
0.093
0.093
0.095
0.100
Note that DHV is the sum of hourly volume for both directions. To find the Directional Design
Hourly Volume or DDHV we need to multiply the DHV by a distribution factor called D to
split traffic volume between the two directions, or use ADT to calculate DDVH as follows:
DDHV = K D ADT
Where,
D = Directional split factor, which splits traffic into the heavy direction. So, D might be as high
as 0.7 or 70% in the heavy direction in rural highways during design hour, and the off-peak
direction carries only 30% of the traffic.
Normally, the peak/off-peak volume switches
directions between morning and evening peak hours. This means that one direction will be
heavy in the morning while the opposite direction will be heavy in the evening.
1. DESIGN SPEED
The elements of highway design are influenced by the design speed. The selection of the
appropriate design speed depends on:
Highway type (rural vs. urban, interstate, local)

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Traffic characteristics (volume and composition).
Vehicle characteristics (trucks, passenger cars).
Cost of land.
Topography (level, rolling, mountainous).
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2. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Horizontal curves are curves in plan used to provide change in direction of the center line of the
road.
2.1 Simple Curve

A simple curve is a circular joining two tangents.
Properties of a simple circular curve

PI
Back
Tangent
PC
y
P
l = arc
length
PC to P
100'
R
PC
R
Forward
Tangent
PT
L =arc
length
PC to PT
R
D = central angle
for 100' arc
(,R)
VARIABLES
PC = Point of curvature (Beginning of curve)
PI = Point of intersection
PT = Point of tangency (End of curve)
D = Degree of curvature (1)
PI = Point of intersection
R = Radius of curve
= Central angle (Intersection angle)
E = External distance
L = Length of curve (PC to PT)
M = Middle ordinate
l = Length of arc (PC to P)
C = Chord Length
= Central angle for arc length l

T = Tangent length (PC to PI & PT to PI)
= Deflection angle at PC between tangent and chord for P
= Deflection angle at PI between tangent and line from PI to P
x = Tangent distance from PC to P
y = Tangent offset P
Note: (1) This variable is used only for curve definition in traditional US units
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CIRCULAR CURVE EQUATIONS

D
5729.57795
=
E
( arc def.)
R
R sec -1
For any tangent distance x,
2
1/ 2
T tan =
y R - R 2 - x 2
4
D 50
Chord Def.
=
sin =
E
2 R
2 R o
L=
=
R radians
M =
R 1- cos
For any arc length l
360
2
x = R sin
2 R
l=
, L 100
=
=
C

360
D
=
T R tan
=
2 R sin
=
y
2
lD
=
2
200
R (1- cos )
Arc or chord measurements can be considered alike for all curve degrees less than 4 without
appreciable error.
Typical values of D
Type of highway
Max D
Interstate, level or rolling terrain

Interstate, mountainous terrain
Primary roads
Roads in mountainous terrain
3
6
5-7
10
Stations:
Stationing is continuous every 100 ft (or 100 meter) along a highway and around the curve.
Stations are located along the alignment by the distance from some reference point,
commonly the beginning point of the project.
The forward tangent is in the direction of increasing station numbers.
The back tangent is in the direction of decreasing station numbers.
The PC station is equal to the PI station minus the back tangent length.
The PT station is equal to the PC station plus the curve length from PC to PT.
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Example 1:
A circular horizontal curve has an intersection angle = 23o 42' right and degree of curve
D = 1o 45 (chord definition). Compute the tangent distance, curve length, and station of the
point of the tangency PT . The station of point of intersection PI = 27+85.50
PI
PT
PC
Solution to Example 1:
Using the degree of curve (chord definition)
R
=
50
50
=
= 3274.1 ft
D
145
sin sin
2
2
2342
=
=
T = R * tan 3274.17
* tan
686.99 ft
2
2
=
L
2R 2 *3274.17 * 23.7
=
= 1354.34 ft
360
360
PI station = 27+85.50 = 2785.50 ft

PC station = PI station back tangent distance = 2785.50 - 686.99 = 2098.51 ft = 20+98.51
PT station = PC station + curve length = 2098.51 + 1354.34 = 3452.85 ft = 34+52.85
Example 2:
Two tangents are to be connected by a circular curve with D = 4. The tangents intersect at
station (28+42.83) with = 5230. Find R, L, T, E, stations of PC and PT.
=
R
5729.6
= 1432.4 ft
4
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=
)( 52.5)
(1432.4
2*3.1415
1312.5 ft
360
52.5
=
=
T 1432.4*
tan
706.4 ft
2
52.5
=
=
E 706.4*
tan
164.7 ft
4
PC station = (28+42.83) (7+06.40) = (21+36.43)

PT station = (21+36.43)+(13+12.5) = (34+48.93)
Example 3:
The two tangents described below intersect 2000 ft beyond station 10+00, back tangent
N450000 W, forward tangent N 150000 E.
It is desired to design a 3000 ft radius
horizontal curve between the two tangents. Determine degree of curve (arc. def.), the tangent
distance, length of curve, station of PC, and station of PT.
N 1500'00"E
Not to scale
PT
N 4500'00"W
45
PI
R=3000 ft
PC
2000 ft
10+00
= 15o 0000 + 45o 0000 = 60o 0000

R = 3000 ft
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D=
100*180
= 1.91 ------R
Class TTE3810
5729.6
or D =
(arc. def)
60
T = R*tan = 3000*tan
= 1732.05 ft
2
2
L=
2R
2*3000*60
=
= 3141.59 ft
360
360
Station of PI = 1000 + 2000 = 3000 ft = 30+00

Station of PC = Station of PI - Tangent length
= 3000 - 1732.05 = 1267.95 ft = 12+67.95
Station of PT = Station of PC + Length of curve
= 1267.95 + 3141.59 = 4409.54 ft = 44+09.54
Example 4:
Given highway curve of 10
Station 50+00
PI
PC
= 200 34'
D = 100
PT
Required
a) Find T, station of PC and PT, length of curve, length of long chord, and middle ordinate M.
b) Calculate the chord length between stations 49+50 and 50+50.
c) With forward tangent moved out 2 ft and PC held, what is the length of the new curve? See
figure below.
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remains same at 200 34'
PC of curve
remains constant
new
PC
2'
old
a) for D = 10, R =
5729.6
= 572.96 ft
10
20.5667
T = 572.96 tan
= 103.95 ft
2
PC station = (50+00) 103.95 = 48+96.05

Length of curve = 572.96*20.5667*
= 205.67 ft
180
PT station = (48+96.05)+205.67 = 51+01.72

20.5667
C = 2*572.96 sin
= 204.57 ft
2
20.5667
M = 572.96 1- cos
= 9.20 ft
2
b) Chord length between 49+50 and 50+50, 100 ft arc

10
C = 2*572.96 sin = 99.87 ft
2
c)
= 20 34'
new
New PT
PC
old
PT
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Find Rnew ?
Toriginal = 103.95 ft
X=
2
= 5.69 ft
sin 20 34
Tnew = 103.95 + X = 103.95 + 5.69 = 109.64 ft

Roriginal = 572.96
R new =
109.64
= 604.31 ft
20.5667
tan

L new = 604.31*
*20.5667 = 216.92 ft
180
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2.2 Review of Curvilinear Motion and Derivation of Superelevation

Equation
Curvilinear Motion
V
Direction of velocity is tangent to the
at
path.
an
Vehicles acceleration Horizontal (tangential) at

Normal an
dv
=
, if v = constant => at 0
dt
v2
an =
R
at
Also, for a circular path R is fixed. Take a horizontal cross-section AA for a highway.
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R
A
F
W
Lateral effect
Side friction resists the tendency of vehicle to slide outward in the circular path. To minimize
this tendency, highway design provides for superelevation of the section of the roadway => the
cross-section is tilted by an angle .
R
F
W
Superelevation is used to counteract the effect of the outward acting centrifugal force. The outer
edge of the road should be raised with respect to the inner edge producing a traverse slope
throughout the whole length of the horizontal curve.
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W v2
g R
cos
y
x
W
sin
W v2
g R
W v2
g R
sin
cos
The components of the vehicles weight along the tilted pavement surface (X-axis) resist the
sliding tendency of the vehicle. Friction + Weight component resist this tendency of sliding
outward.
f = friction factor F= f. N
w v2
=
F f w cos +
sin
g R
(1)
w v2
from X-axis => F + w sin =
cos
g R
( 2)
From (1) and (2)

wf v 2
w v2
sin + w sin =
cos
wf cos +
g R
g R
divide by ( w cos )
v2
v2
f +
f tan + tan =
gR
gR
Let tan be = e, f.e 0
2
v 2 V (1.47 )
V2
V2
e+ f =
=
=
32.16 R
14.88R 15R
gR
2
V2
e+ f =
15R
Note: V is in mph, R is in ft.
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2.3 Superelevation (e)

Superelevation (e) is defined as the ratio of the height of the outer edge to the horizontal width of
the road.
W v2
g R
P.C.
y
h
=e
L
x
W
inner
"i"
sin
W v2
g R
h
L
cos
W v2
g R
sin
outer "0"
P.T.
cos
Analysis of the forces acting on the vehicle as it moves on a circular curve results the following
formula for calculating the minimum design radius :
e+f =
V2
15R
e+f =
(traditional U.S. units)
V2
127 R
(metric system)
Where
Where
e = superelevation rate
e = superelevation rate
f = friction factor
f = friction factor
V = design speed in mph
V = design speed in kph
R = minimum radius, ft
R = minimum radius, m
This equation shows that the effect of centrifugal force is resisted partly by superelevation(e) and
partly by friction between tires and road surface(f). From this equation, it can be seen that as the
summation of (e+f) increases, the required radius R decreases. So, there is a minimum allowable
R and a maximum allowable (e and f).
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emax :
Class TTE3810
According to AASHTO "Green Book", the maximum allowable design value for "e" is
0.12 ft/ft. Present practice suggests emax = 0.10 ft/ft. In locations where snow and ice
conditions occur, emax = 0.08.
fmax:
The maximum design values for "f" depend on design speed. Value of "f" ranges
between 0.17 and 0.10 for design speed range of 20 to 70 mph.
Rmin:
For a given design speed, Rmin and Dmax (max. safe degree of curvature) can be
calculated from the maximum rate of superelevation "e" and the side friction factor (f)
as follows:
R min . =
V2
15(e max . + f )
which is equivalent to:

85,900(e max + f )
D max . =
V2
where,
Rmin.= minimum safe radius "R" of the horizontal curve.
Dmax= maximum safe degree of the horizontal curve.
Question: Why do we set maximum limits on superelevation e?

Answer:
There are three reasons:
1) To prevent slow moving vehicles from sliding to the inside of the curve,
2) In urban areas, to keep parking lanes relatively level; and
3) To keep the difference in slope between the roadway and any streets or driveways that
intersect it within reasonable bounds.
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Example 5:
Calculate the maximum degree of curve and Rmin of a simple circular curve with an external
angle of 1000. The design speed is 50 mph, the corresponding value of fmax is 0.14 and emax
=0.10 ?
Calculate edesign for a curve that has a radius of 800 ? (given above fmax)
=
Rmin
V2
502
=
= 694.4 '
15 ( e + f ) 15 ( 0.1 + 0.14 )
Rmin 695'
=
D
85,900 ( 0.1 + 0.14 )

=
8.24640
2
50
or ,
5729.58
= 8.240
695
Note: External angle does not enter these calculations.
=
D
=
R 800 '
V2
V2
e=
f
15 R
15 R
502
edesign
=
0.14
= 0.07
15 ( 800 )
e + f=
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Example 6
Design
Speed
(km/hr)
120
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Example of Minimum Raduis Data for Limiting Values of e and f:

Rural Highways and High-Speed Urban Streets
Calculated
Rounded
Maximum
Maximum
Total
Radius
Radius
e
f
(e + f)
(m)
(m)
0.06
0.09
0.15
755.9
755
0.08
0.17
0.25
28.3
30
0.08
0.17
0.25
50.4
50
0.08
0.16
0.24
82.0
80
0.08
0.15
0.23
123.2
125
0.08
0.14
0.22
175.4
175
0.08
0.14
0.22
229.1
230
0.08
0.13
0.21
303.7
305
0.08
0.12
0.20
393.7
395
0.08
0.11
0.19
501.5
500
0.08
0.09
0.17
667.0
665
0.10
0.17
0.27
26.2
25
0.10
0.17
0.27
46.7
45
0.10
0.16
0.26
75.7
75
0.10
0.15
0.25
113.4
115
0.10
0.14
0.24
160.8
160
0.10
0.14
0.24
210.0
210
0.10
0.13
0.23
277.3
275
0.10
0.12
0.22
357.9
360
0.10
0.11
0.21
453.7
455
0.10
0.09
0.19
596.8
595
0.12
0.17
0.29
24.4
25
0.12
0.17
0.29
43.4
45
0.12
0.16
0.28
70.3
70
0.12
0.15
0.27
105.0
105
0.12
0.14
0.26
148.4
150
0.12
0.14
0.26
193.8
195
0.12
0.13
0.25
255.1
255
0.12
0.12
0.24
328.1
330
0.12
0.11
0.23
414.2
415
0.12
0.09
0.21
539.9
540
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1994.
Given the table above, calculate the superelevation rates for a roadway with a design speed of 90
km/hr that has a wide range of curve radii, that is, R has values of 585, 440, 350, 295, and 250 m.
(These values correspond to degrees of curve D of 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.) Use emax = 0.10. Compare
the results with those obtained in the following figure.
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By the above table, use a maximum side friction factor of 0.13.
V2
By the equation e + f =
, the following values of e are calculated.
127 R
R (m)
Computed value of e
585
440
350
295
250
-0.021
+0.015
+0.052
+0.086
+0.125
Recommended design e, from

figure below
0.070
0.083
0.094
0.099
Exceeds emax
Superelevation of Railway and Transit Guideway Curves
30
Radius of curve, R (m)

emax = 10.0%
30
V, km/h
50
40
70
50
100
60
150
200
70
80
90
100
110
120
300
500
700
1000
1500
2000
3000
5000
7000
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
Superelevation rate, e (%)

Design superelevation rates, emax = 0.10. (Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, copyright 1994, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, DC. Used by permission.)
Discussion:
For the sharpest curve (the 250-m curve), the combination of maximum superelevation rate and
the maximum side friction factor is insufficient to offset the centrifugal force. This curve is too
sharp for the given design speed and maximum superelevation rate and would be unsuitable for
the stated conditions.
At the other extreme, for the 585-m curve, a negative value of e was computed. Along this
curve, all of the centrifugal force could be offset without exceeding the recommended fmax value
of 0.13, even with zero superelevation. The AASHTO favors a distribution of superelevation
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that provides a logical relation between the side friction factor and applied superelevation rate
and recommends a positive amount of superelevation for the flattest curve.
The minimum radius of curve for a given design speed can be determined from the maximum
rate of superelevation and the side friction factor. The minimum comfortable radius R can be
calculated from the following:
R min =
V2
127 ( e max + f )
R min =
V2
15 ( e max + f )
(metric system)
The relationship between superelevation and minimum radius of a curve is shown in the previous
table for selected metric design speeds.
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Superelevation Design:
Types of X-Sections
Direction
of tilting
P
Crown runoff
w
Adverse Crown
Removed
Normal Crown (nc)
Cross Fall
P.C.
P.T.
efull
efull (design)
Superelevation runoff: Transition of the x-section from adverse crown removed on the tangent
to a fully superelevated pavement (edesign) on the curve.
Current Practice:
efull
P'
3
P.T.
P
2L
Crown
runoff
3
Y
-P
cL
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w: width of section being rotated (ft), c

L to edge
L: Length of superelevation runoff (ft)
e: Superelevation rate (ft/ft)
r: slope ratio of outer edge of pavement in relation to c
L
Superelevation profile
Transition of the x-section from the normal crown on the tangent to fully superelevated
pavements (e design) on the curve.
on tangent
crown
runoff
2
3
on curve
1
3
P.C. or P.T.
Elevation (ft)
Outer
edge
C
L
Level
Inner
edge
P'
P
P
Normal
Crown
Adverse Crown
Removed
e
e full
Cross
Fall
The Superelevation transition (runoff) for simple circular curves is located partly on the
tangent and partly on the curve. Standard practice assigns 2/3 of the length on tangent. This
rule will only apply to simple curves.
A crown runoff is also provided before the
superelevation runoff.
r is defined as the relative change of slope between the edges of the section being rotated and
the centerline.
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L=
Class TTE3810
w e
r
where :
w: width of section being rotated (ft)
L: length of superelevation runoff (ft)
e: superelevation rate (ft/ft)
r: slope ratio of outer edge of pavement in relation to centerline. Typical values of "r" are
1:200 (or 0.5%).
Example 7:
Draw a superelevation diagram (rotation around centerline) for a right-turn horizontal curve of a
2 lane 2 way rural highway. Given :
Lane width = 12.5 ft
Normal crown slope (p) = 2% PC station = 101+00
Superelevation (e) = 6 % , "r" = 0.5%

The length of the horizontal curve = 200 ft
(see following two figures for superelevation profiles)
- 24 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Example 7 Superelevation Profile

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
2.4 Transition Curves (Spirals)

Transition curves serve the purpose of providing a gradual change from the tangent section to the
circular curve and vice versa. A vehicle that enters a circular curve with transition travels
smoothly and naturally along a curve that gradually changes from straight line (infinite radius) to
a radius of some finite value, R, which is maintained throughout the length of the circular curve.
The most commonly used transition curve is the spiral. Spiral transitions normally are used only
on high-volume highways where the degree of curvature exceeds about 3.
Es
PI
TS
S.T.
CS
SC
T.
L.
ST
PC
Rc
P
LC
TS
PI - PT OF INTERSECTION
TS - TANGENT SPIRAL
SC - SPIRAL CURVE
s
CS - CURVE SPIRAL
ST - SPIRAL TANGENT
RC - RADIUS OF CIRCULAR CURVE
L.T.- LONG TANGENT
S.T. SHORT TANGENT
LS - LENGTH OF SPIRAL
L - LENGTH TO ANY PT ON SPIRAL FROM TS
LC - CHORD DISTANCE - TS TO SC
S - CENTRAL ANGLE OF SPIRAL, "SPIRAL ANGLE"
- CENTRAL ANGLE OF ARC L
- DEFL. ANGLE FOR ANY PT. ON SPIRAL
FORMULAS
V3
S C
S = 200
L D
= O3s
C = 2S
LC =
Equations of Spirals
Ls
2R c
or s
(radians) =
Ls D c
200
(degrees)
C = 2S
LC =
ES = ( R C +P ) exsec
TS = ( R C +P ) tan 2 + k
L = 1.6 RC , WHERE V = DESIGN SPEED

s
=
s
C - DEFL ANGLE FOR SC

- INTERSECTION ANGLE,
TOTAL CENTRAL ANGLE
C - CEN ANGLE OF CIRCULAR ARC
LC - LENGTH OF CIRCULAR ARC
DC - DEGREE OF CURVE OF
SHIFTED CIRCLE
ES - EXTERNAL DIST FROM PI
TO CIRCULAR CURVE
P - OFFSET DIST OF CIRCULAR
CURVE PRODUCED
K - DIST FROM TS TO PC OF
CIRC CURVE PRODUCED
100 ( 2S )
Dc
- 28 -
( )
L
LS
100( -2S )
D
+P

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Where :
LS = length of spiral, ft
S = spiral angle
Rc = Radius of circular curve
Dc = degree of circular curve
Lc = length of circular curve, ft
C = circular angle
= central angle of arc L
C =
= intersection angle, total central angle
deflection angle for SC
deflection angle for any point on the spiral
TS = tangent distance.
Length of transition curve

When spiral transitions are used, superelevation should be attained within the limits of the
transition, (i.e., T.S-S.C , C.S.- S.T.) segments. Note that the two third L rule does not apply
here as in the simple curve. The minimum length of the transition curve is given as
Ls =
1.6V 3
RC
Where
V : design speed in mph
Rc : radius in ft.
Ls : transition length in ft.
Example 8:
For a highway of design speed 44 mph, two tangents intersect at station (127+23.68) with
= 54. These tangents are to be connected by spiral curves in conjunction with a simple
circular curve of D = Dc = 4. (P = 0.29, K = 50.00)
Find spiral length, spiral central angle, circular curve central angle, circular curve length, tangent
distance, and stations for the entire curve.
- 29 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
PI (127+23.68)
= 54
ES
TS
LS
SC
CS
LS
LC
K
P
RC
LC
ST
TS
1.58V 3 1.58 ( 44 )
Ls =
= = 94 ft
5729.6
R
4
3
Round up to the nearest 50 feet Choose Ls = 100 ft. Question: Why do we round up?
s =
Ls D c
100*4
=
=2
200
200
c + 2s = = 54, c = 50
Lc =
100 c
100*50
=
= 1250 ft
Dc
4
Ts = (R+P) tan + K = 780 ft

2
Station of TS = (127+23.68) (7+80) = (119+43.68)

- 30 -

Phone 407-823-2988
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Station of SC = (119+43.68) + (1+00) = (120+43.68)

Station of CS = (120+43.68) + (12+50) = (132+93.68)
Station of ST = (132+93.68) + (1+00) = (133+93.68)
In the following page we show a superelevation highway figure that includes both simple
circular curve and transition curve.
- 31 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
- 32 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
3. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Vertical Curves
Vertical curves (mainly parabolic curves) are used to connect two intersecting gradients.
+G2
PVI
Crest Vertical Curves
- G1
E
VPT
VPC
+G1
- G2
L
2
- G2
+G1
L
Type II
Type I
+ G2
- G1
- G1
+ G2
L
2
- G2
+G1
Sag Vertical Curves

Type IV
Type III
G1, and G2, tangent grades
A, algebraic difference.
L, length of vertical curve
Properties of parabolic vertical curves

Vertical Curve
PVI or PI
x
y
VPC or BVC
+G1
VPT or EVC
L
2
L
2
Variables
A = G 2 G1
E=
AL
800
K=
Ax 2
x
=
y 4E
=

200L
L
- 33 -
L
A
G2

Phone 407-823-2988
where,
PVI
VPC
VPT
G1
G2
A
E
K
L
y
x
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Class TTE3810
vertical point of intersection

vertical point of curvature
vertical point of tangency
grade of initial tangent in percent
grade of final tangent in percent
The algebraic difference in grade in percent, (A is +ve if sag, A is -ve if crest)
The vertical distance between PVI or PI and the vertical curve.
Rate of vertical curvature
Length of vertical curve (in horizontal plan)
Offset of curve from initial grade line G1
horizontal distance to point on curve, measured from BVC
- 34 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Vertical Curve Derivations

d2y
To make life easier use
=
constant = r
dx 2
dy
d2y
= 2 .dx= r.dx= rx + constant
dx
dx
To have a smooth ride
dy
dx
g1 and
x 0
dy
=g1 + rx
dx
What is r ?
g2
x L
(1)
dy
dx
dy
dx
= g1 + rL = g 2 r =
x=L
g 2 g1
L
( 2)
Combine (1) and (2)

dy
g g1
= g1 + 2
x
dx
L
dy
= grade at any point x
dx
dy
rx 2
Elevation y = dx = ( g1 + rx ) dx =g1 x +
+ constant
dx
2
( = y0 = Elevation at BVC )
2
rx
( 3)
2
Units: Any consistent set of units ft, meters...etc
y ( x ) =y0 + g1 x +
g1 ,g 2 are dimensionless
r ? must have compatable units as x and y.
1
r units are reciprocal feet i.e. if x and y are in ft.

ft
Practicing engineers use % for grades

e.g., g=0.03 3% rise of 3 ft in one station ( or 100' )
r=0.6% per station instead of 0.00006/ft, therefore Eq. (3) becomes :
- 35 -

Phone 407-823-2988
y ( x) =
y0 +
Where
Class TTE3810
G1
(G 2 G1) 2
x+
x
100
200L
y0 is the BVC , and this equation can be stated as :
Elev. of Point P on the =

Curve Elev. of BVC +
G1
(G 2 G1) 2
x+
x
100
200L
( 4)
Equations of vertical curves

VPC or BVC
Sta. of BVC = Sta. PVI -
VPT or EVC
L
2
Sta. of EVC = Sta. PVI +
G1 L
Elev. of BVC = Elev. of PVI -

100 2
L
= Sta. VPC + L
2
Elev. of EVC = Elev. of PVI
G2 L

100 2
For any point "p" at a distance x from "BVC":

Sta. of P = Sta. of BVC + x
=
Elev.
of P Elev. of BVC +
G1
(G 2 G1) 2
x+
x
100
200L
A
Grade at P = G1 + x
L
For any two points:
y1 y2
E
=
=
2
2
x1 x2 L 2

2
High or Low Point on the Curve
The high (or low) point on the vertical curve is located at a distance XHP in case of crest curve
and XLP in case of sag curve. For simplicity we refer to this as X. The high (or low) point on the
vertical curve is located at a distance X.
X=
LG1
G1 -G 2
Where : L is the length of vertical curve in ft., X in ft.
- 36 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Crest
PI
High point
BVC
EVC
L/2
x
Sag
x
Low point
L/2
BVC
EVC
PI
x=
LG1
G1 G2
If L is in stations x is in stations
If L is in ft x is in ft
Hints on Vertical Curves

The distance from the P.I to the middle of the parabolic curve:
AL
800
where A = G2 - G1 , difference in grade in percent ( e.g., 0.03=3% )
E =
Note that A is +ve if "sag"

A is -ve if "crest"
+ve for "sag"
E and L are in ft. and E is
-ve for "crest"
E is the distance that connects the midpoint of the curve [ above or below the P.I ] to the P.I
- 37 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
E
E
Crest (E is above the curve
and below PI)
Sag (E is below the

curve and above PI)
Offsets (Two Types)

1) Offset: is between curve and the gradient passing through the BVC. This is given by:
2
x
y ' = 4E
L
E, x, and L are all in ft and y' is in ft.
AL x G2 G1 2
=
x
or,
offset y ' 4=

800 L
200 L
x and L are in ft.
2
Offset y'
PI
BVC
EVC
2
x
If x, L are in stations and E is in ft. Use same equation y ' =
4E
L
If x, L are in stations and y ' is calculated as:
G2 G1 2
y'
x ( y' will be in stations not ft )
=
2L
2) Offset: distance between curve and both gradients that pass through BVC and EVC.
- 38 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
y'
PI
BVC
L/2
L/2
EVC
x 2
4 E , x L 2
L
y '( x) =
2
A
x
L
L
4 E L - 100 x - 2 , x 2
Example 9:
A 600 ft. sag vertical curve has a -4% grade meeting a +4% grade. How long must a new vertical
curve be in order to retain the same grade rates and to raise the elevation at the center of the
curve by 2 ft.
E=
AL (G2-G1)L (4-(-4)) ( 600 ) ( 8 )( 600 )

=
=
=
= 6
800
800
800
800
new E = 6+2 = 8
8=
(8) L
800
Lnew = 800 ft
- 39 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Example 10:
An ascending 5% grade and a descending 3% grade are joined by an 800 ft VC. Elevation at Sta
24+00 on the 5% grade is 1776.39 ft and elevation at Sta 36+00 on the 3% grade is 1780.39 ft.
Find the station of the BVC.

PVI
- 3%
5%
BVC
400'
400'
d1
d2
Sta 24+00
Elev 1776.39
Sta 36+00
Elev 1780.39
d1 + d2 = 3600 - 2400
d1 + d2 = 1200
(1)
1776.39 + 0.05(d1) - 0.03(d2) = 1780.39

0.05(d1) - 0.03(d2) = 4
(2)
substitute (1) into (2)
0.05(1200 d2) - 0.03(d2) = 4

60 - 0.08 d2 = 4
EVC
d2 = 700 ft
d1 = 500 ft
Sta of P.I. = 2400 + d1 = 2400 + 500 = 2900 ft = 29+00

Sta of BVC = 2900 - 400 = 2500 ft = 25+00
- 40 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Example 11:
Two tangent highway alignments intersect in plan view as shown in the sketch below. Each
alignment consists of a vertical curve in the vicinity of the intersection point. The two vertical
curves data are given in the table below. Find the vertical clearance between the highway
alignments at point 'P'.
Alig
nm
ent
#
nt
e
m
ign
l
A
Data
Point 'P'
Sta 80+25 on Alignment #1
Sta 130+50 on Alignment #2
#2
Alignment #1
Alignment #2
PVI Station
84+00
130+00
PVI Elevation (ft)
175.00
145.00
Length of Vertical Curve
1200 ft
800 ft
Tangent grades G1
+2 %
-1 %
G2
-3 %
+2 %
- 41 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810

Alignment #1
BVC
Sta 78+00
+ 2%
y'
PVI
Sta 84+00
Elev 175.00
- 3%
Sta 80+25
EVC
Sta 90+00
Cross Section
of Alignment #2
E=
AL (G2-G1)L (-3-2) (1200 ) ( -5 )(1200 )

=
=
=
=-7.5'
800
800
800
800
y'
7.5
=
2
2
(8025 7800)
1200
2
y' at Sta. 80+25 = -1.055'
Elev of BVC = 175 (0.02) (600) = 175 -12 = 163.00'
Elev of 80+25 on tangent = 163 + (0.02)(8025-7800) =167.5'
Elev of 80+25 on curve = 167.5 - 1.055 = 166.445'
Alignment #2
Cross Section
of Alignment #1
Sta 130+50
- 1%
BVC
Sta 126+00
y'
PVI
Sta 130+00
Elev 145.00
- 42 -
+ 2%
EVC
Sta 134+00

Phone 407-823-2988
E=
Class TTE3810
AL
(G2-G1)L
(2-(-1)(800)
(3)(800)
=
=
=
= 3
800
800
800
800
y'
3
=
2
2
(13400 13050)
800
2
y at Sta. 130+50 = 2.297
Elev of 130+50 on tangent = 145 + (0.02) (13050-13000) = 146
Elev of 130+50 on curve = 146 +2.297 = 148.297
Clearance is the difference between Elevation as in Alignment#1 and elevation as in
Alignment#2 . Clearance = 166.445 - 148.297 = 18.148
Example 12:
The grade line is being developed for a six-lane freeway with a design speed of 70 mph. A rising
2.0% grade meets a falling grade of 1.5% at station 100+00. The elevation of the P.I. of the two
grades is 98.00 ft.
a. Using vertical curve length of 1400 ft, compute the middle ordinate of the vertical curve.
b. For each station ,(i.e., 93+00, 94+00, etc), calculate VC elevation.

PVI
Sta 100+00
Elev 98.00
E=
Sta 106+0C
Sta 104+0C
Sta 103+0C
Sta 101+0C
Sta 102+0C
L = 1400'
Sta 105+0C
-1.5%
E
Sta 99+00
Sta 100+0C
Sta 98+00
Sta 97+00
Sta 96+00
Sta 94+00
+2%
Sta 95+00
BVC
Sta 93+00
EVC
Sta 107+00
AL
(G2-G1)L
(-1.5-2)(1400)
(-3.5)(1400)
=
=
=
= -6.125
800
800
800
800
- 43 -

Phone 407-823-2988
()
L
2
offset
(x)
Station
BVC 93+00
94+00
95+00
96+00
97+00
98+00
99+00
P.I. 100+00
101+00
102+00
103+00
104+00
105+00
106+00
EVC 107+00
Offset =
Class TTE3810
x2E
( )
1400
2
6.125 x 2
(700)
Tangent Elevation
84.00
86.00
88.00
90.00
92.00
94.00
96.00
98.00
96.50
95.00
93.50
92.00
90.50
89.00
87.50
0.0000125 x 2
VC Offset
0.000
- 0.125
- 0.500
- 1.125
- 2.000
- 3.125
- 4.500
- 6.125
- 4.500
- 3.125
- 2.000
- 1.125
- 0.500
- 0.125
- 0.000
VC Elevation
84.00
85.875
87.500
88.875
90.000
90.875
91.500
91.875
92.000
91.875
91.500
90.875
90.000
88.875
87.500
Example 13:
A 600 ft VC connects a +4% grade to a -2% grade at station 25+60.55 and elevation 648.64 ft.
Calculate the location and elevation of BVC, the high point, EVC, and the curve elevation at
stations 24+00 and 27+00 ?
BVC
Sta 22+60.55
+ 4%
PVI
Sta 25+60.55
Elev 648.64
- 2%
High Point
EVC
Sta 28+60.55
XHP
300'
300'
L
600
= 2560.55
= 2260.55 = (22+60.55)
2
2
G1 L
4 600
Elev. of BVC = Elev. of PVI -
= 648.64 -
= 648.64 - 12 = 636.64'
100 2
100 2
Sta. of BVC = Sta. of PVI -
- 44 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
AL (G2-G1)L (-2-4)(600) (-6)(600)

=
=
=
=-4.5'
800
800
800
800
Elevation for Station 24+00
( G2-G1) x 2
G1
Elev. of Sta. 24 + 00 = Elev. of BVC +
x+
100
200L
where x = Sta. 24+00 - Sta. BVC = 2400 - 2260.55 = 139.45
( 2 4)
4
2
Elev. Sta. 24 + 00= 636.64 +
139.45=
641.25'
(139.45) +
100
(200)(600)
or
2
G1
x
x + 4E
Elev. of Sta.=
24 + 00 Elev. of BVC +
100
L
E=
4
139.45
Elev. of Sta. 24 + =
00 636.64 +
(139.45) + 4( 4.5)
= 641.25
100
600
600 * 4 600 * 4
LG1
The High Point : X HP =
=
=
= 400'
6
G1 G 2 4 ( 2)
Point
x (ft)
Tangent Elevation (ft)

(This is the tangent that
passes through BVC)
VC Offset*
(ft)
x
y = 4E
L
VC Elevation (ft)
BVC
22+60.55
0
636.64
0.00
636.64
24+00.00
139.45
642.22
- 0.97
641.25
HP
26+60.55
400
652.64
- 8.00
644.64
27+00.00
439.45
654.22
- 9.66
644.56
EVC 28+60.55
600
660.64
- 18.00
642.64
* Note that the VC Offset was calculated with respect to gradient G1 only in this table.
An alternative method is to calculate the VC Offset with respect to gradients +G1 and G2, so
we can get the following table instead:
Point
x (ft)
x* (ft)
Tangent
VC Offset (ft) VC Elevation (ft)
2
Elevation (ft)
x
y = 4E
(This tangent is
either +G1 or
G2)
BVC
22+60.55
0
0
636.64
0.00
636.64
24+00.00
139.45 139.45
642.22
- 0.97
641.25
HP
26+60.55
400
200
646.64
- 2.00*
644.64
27+00.00
439.45 160.55
645.85
- 1.29*
644.56
EVC 28+60.55
600
0
642.64
0.00*
642.64
*It is important to note that x* is measured from right to left (i.e., from EVC to left). The term
x* is used instead of x in the VC Offset formula above only when x is larger than L/2, that is
300 ft in this example. Hence, in this example, x*= 600-x for x larger than L/2 and x*= x when x
is smaller than L/2.
- 45 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
4. SIGHT DISTANCE
4.1 Types of Sight Distance
Sight distance is defined as the distance at which objects become visible to the driver. The
design concept of Sight Distance is that drivers traveling at design speed should be able to stop
their vehicles (Stopping Sight Distance SSD) or overtake slower vehicles safely (Passing Sight
Distance PSD).
Minimum SSD
The minimum distance sufficient to enable a driver traveling at design speed to stop his/her
vehicle before striking an unexpected object on the highway.
Minimum SSD = 1.47 V t +
V2
30(f g )
Where,
SSD is in ft.
V = Design speed, mph

t = perception and reaction time. ( ~ 2.5 seconds)
f = friction factor, depends on tire, surface and speed
g = grade as decimal not as percent (e.g., 6%, g = 0.06). +ve for upgrade and -ve for
downgrade.
- 46 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
SSD is provided in tables for different pavement conditions

(AASHTO 2001, Tables III-1 and III-2).
Table 16.2. Coefficients of Skidding Friction
Exhibit 3-1 and Exhibit 3-7 of AASHTO 2001
Reference: See page 16-5 of the Civil Engineering

Reference Manual, 6th Edition, by Michael Lindeburg
AASHTO 2001, pages 112 and 124.
BC:
bituminous concrete, dry
SA:
sand asphalt, dry
RA:
rock asphalt, dry
CC:
portland cement concrete, dry
Minimum Sight Distances
wet pavements
wet
distances
speed
Calculated
sight
distance
mph
ft
Design
stopping
sight
distance
ft
20
111.9
115
28
710
30
196.7
200
36
1090
design
wet: all wet pavements

condition
passing sight
stopping sight distance
Assumed
passing
speed,
mph
Distance
2-lane
highway,
ft
BC
SA
RA
CC
11 mph
.74
.75
.78
.76
20
.76
.75
.76
.73
.40
40
300.6
305
44
1470
30
.79
.79
.74
.78
.36
50
423.8
425
51
1835
40
.75
.75
.74
.76
.33
60
566.0
570
57
2135
50
.31
70
727.6
730
64
2480
60
.30
70
.29
new tires
tp is also known as the PIEV time. This name is an acronym for the various
elements of reaction time, including perception, identification, emotion, and
volition
2
badly worn tires

11 mph
20
.61
.66
.73
.68
.60
.57
.65
.50
.40
30
.57
.48
.59
.47
.36
40
.48
.39
.50
.33
.33
50
.31
60
.30
70
.29
For the purpose of determining minimum stopping sight distances, tp is taken

as 2.5 seconds. For determining passing sight distances, tp is taken as 3.5 to 4.5
seconds
3
It is assumed that the drivers eyes are 3.5 feet above the surface of the
roadway. The object being viewed (e.g., an oncoming car) is assumed to be at a
height of 3.5 feet.
Minimum PSD
The minimum distance sufficient to enable a driver traveling at design speed to pass (overtake)
slower vehicles. Passing sight distance is calculated only in case of two lanes of traffic moving
in opposite directions.
- 47 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
4.2 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

For S < L
R=
S=
M
S*D
1 cos
200
Sight Distance (S)

Highway
Inside Lane
M
200
RM
cos 1 (
) , this is also the same equation in figure
R
D
Line of
Where;
L = Length of horizontal curve, ft.
M = distance from centerline of inside lane to edge of obstruction, ft
S = stopping distance along the center of the inside lane, ft

R = radius of centerline curvature of inside lane, ft
D = degree of curvature
Figure III-24(A), p. 220, AASHTO 1994.
6000
(S
t Distance )
Sigh ay
w
High Lane
e
Insid
4000
sight
Line of
2000
V=
V=
12
0k
11
0k
=6
V
70
km
85
hS
80
4.5
=8
.0
km
/h S
km
=1
Min. R when
a = 10%
68.
S=
7m
13
9.4
as
km
ure
lon
=4
Min. R when
a = 10%
da
/h
gC
=
.8
62
hS
m/
0k
.L.
Ins
ide
La
ne
4.4
=4
m
V=
60
11
m
50
(M
e
=2
.6
.4
05
90
/h
/h
=2
m/
0.
8
100
80
=2
46
200
hS
0k
V=
hS
m/
400
10
V=
600
hS
m/
V=
Radius, R, Centerline of Inside Lane (m)
0k
1000
800
Sight
obstruction
m/
m/
0k
30
hS
40
=2
9.6
28.65 S
M = R 1- cos
where
S=Stopping Sight
Distance
M=Middle Ordinate
R=Radius
20
Min. R when
a = 10%
10
10
12
14
16
18
Middle Ordinate, M
Centerline of Inside Lane to Sight Obstruction (M) in meters
- 48 -
C
L
C
L
Sight
Sight
Obstruction

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Derivation of Horizontal Sight Distance Formula
S
M = R R * cos( ) = R[1 cos( )]
2
2
o
o =
180
S = R o
180 * S 57.30 * S
=
*R
R
get M = R[1 cos(
28.65S
)]
R
Example 14:
The corner of a building is situated next to a horizontal curve with a radius of 132 ft on a rural
highway. The inside lane is 10 ft wide and the inside edge of the road is 6 ft from the corner of a
building.
Determine what speed limit should be imposed on this section of the highway.
Assume shoulder width = 4 feet, t =2.5 sec, f = 0.40 (wet conditions), g = 0 (level grade).

10
R = 132 = 127 ft
2
M = 6 + 4 + 5 = 15 ft
127 1 127 15
S=
cos
= 125 ft
28.65
127
Note:
S is calculated using the same equation shown inside AASHTO Figure III-24(A) on page
26.
V2
S = 125 ft = 1.47 V t +
30(f g )
V2
125 = 1.47 V (2.5) +
30(0.4)
solve for V = 22.5 mph
speed limit should be 22.5 mph (~ 20 mph)
- 49 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Example 15:
A 100 ft right-of-way (R/W) highway with 1250 ft proposed minimum centerline curvature is
being located through the Redwoods. A particularly fine tree stands 80.1 ft from the P-line and
321.3 ft from the PI of tangents which intersect at 135o.
1. What is the largest radius curve joining the tangents such that the tree will not encroach on
the right-of-way (R/W)?
2. What is the available stopping-sight distance if the roadway section consists of a 16 ft
median and two 12 ft lanes each way?
See figure below.
P-line
- 50 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
1. O.PC.PI (big triangle)

tan 22.5 =
X + 321.3
R
X = 0.41421 R - 321.3
=> (1)
2. O.C.T (small triangle)

OT2 = CT2 + OC2
(R-50)2 = X2 + (R-80.1)2
R2 - 100R + 2500 = X2 + R2 -160.2 R +6416.01
60.2 R - 3916.01 = X2 => (2)
substitute (1) into (2)
60.2 R - 3916.01 = (0.41421 R - 321.3) 2

R = 1480.4 ft
--Note: This is not the R that we use in sight distance equation!
- 51 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
3. Cross section at the tree location
M = 50 - (8+12+6) = 24 ft
28.65 S
=
M R 1 cos
R to be used in sight distance formula = 1480.4 - (8+12+6) = 1480.4 - 26 = 1454.4 ft

Note that this is the R that we need to use in the sight distance equation.
28.65 S
=
24 1454.4 1 cos
1454.4
S = 529.16 ft
S ~ 161.3 meters
AASHTO Exhibit 3-1 or Table III-3, or Figure III-24(A) on page 48 (after conversion to
proper units). Enter figure with M and R in metric units and with interpolation
See where the red arrows meet on this figure.
S= 161.3 m Speed = 90 kph ~ 56.25 mph.
- 52 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
4.3 Sight Distance on Vertical Curves

Design of Vertical Curves Based on Sight Distance
1.
CREST:
h2
h1
h2
h1
L
S>L
L
S<L
2. SAG:
L
S>L
L
S<L
Design of Vertical Curves
Crest
S<L
L=
A S2
200 h 1 + h 2
S>L
L = 2S
Where
Sag
L=
200 h 1 + h 2
)2
200(H + S tan)
L = 2S-
200(H + S tan )
A
S = Sight distance, feet (SSD or PSD)

L = Length of vertical curve, feet
S = Sight distance, feet SSD

L = Length of vertical curve, feet
A = G 2 G 1 , in percent
A = G 2 G 1 , in percent
h 1 = height of driver's eye, in feet
H = headlight height.
= beam angle.
(used for both SSD and PSD)
h 2 = For SSD, height of object in feet

For PSD, height of oncoming vehicle
Default
Values
A S2
h 1 = 3.5 ft
h 2 = 2 ft (SSD) or 3.5 ft (PSD)
- 53 -
H = 2 ft.
= 1

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Minimum length is that which meets all required criteria.

Table III-3 Stopping Sight Distance on Wet Pavements
(AASHTO 2001, Exhibit 3-1, p. 112) See Appendix A for Metric Units.
Stopping Sight Distance
Design
Brake Reaction
Braking
Rounded for
Calculated
Design
Speed
Distance
Distance
(mph)
(ft)
on Levela
(ft)
(ft)
15
55.1
21.6
76.7
80
20
73.5
38.4
111.9
115
25
91.9
60.0
151.9
155
30
110.3
86.4
196.7
200
35
128.6
117.6
246.2
250
40
147.0
153.6
300.6
305
45
165.4
194.4
359.8
360
50
183.8
240.0
423.8
425
55
202.1
290.3
492.4
495
60
220.5
345.5
566.0
570
65
238.9
405.5
644.4
645
70
257.3
470.3
727.6
730
75
275.6
539.9
815.5
820
80
294.0
614.3
908.3
910
Note: Brake reaction distance predicted on a time of 2.5 s; deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 [11.2 ft/s2] used to
determine calculated sight distance.
Table III-4 Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance and for Crest Vertical Curves
(AASHTO 2001, Exhibit 3-76, p. 274)-- See Appendix A for Metric Units
a
Rate of Vertical Curvature, K
[length (ft) per percent of A]
Design
Stopping Sight
Rounded
speed
Distance
(mph)
(ft)
Calculated
for Design
15
80
3.0
3
20
115
6.1
7
25
155
11.1
12
30
200
18.5
19
35
250
29.0
29
40
305
43.1
44
45
360
60.1
61
50
425
83.7
84
55
495
113.5
114
60
570
150.6
151
65
645
192.8
193
70
730
246.9
247
75
820
311.6
312
80
910
383.7
384
a
Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersecting grades (A).
K=
L
A
Source : A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets, copyright 2001 by the American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
- 54 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Design
speed
(mph)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
a
Class TTE3810
Table III-5 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves

(AASHTO 2001, Exhibit 3-79, p. 280) --See Appendix A for Metric Units
a
Stopping Sight
Rounded
Distance
(ft)
Calculated
for Design
80
9.4
10
115
16.5
17
155
25.5
26
200
36.4
36
250
49.0
49
305
63.4
63
360
78.1
78
425
95.7
96
495
114.9
115
570
135.7
136
645
156.5
157
730
180.3
180
820
205.6
206
910
231.0
231
K=
Source : A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets, copyright 2001 by the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
Table III-6 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance
(AASHTO 2001, Exhibit 3-77, p. 276) --See Appendix A for Metric Units
a
Passing Sight
Rate of Vertical Curvature, K,
Design Speed
Distance
Rounded for Design
(mph)
(ft)
20
710
180
25
900
289
30
1090
424
35
1280
585
40
1470
772
45
1625
943
50
1835
1203
55
1985
1407
60
2135
1628
65
2285
1865
70
2480
2197
75
2580
2377
80
2680
2565
a
K=
L
A
Source : A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets, copyright 2001 by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
- 55 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Example 16
A car is travelling at 40 mph up a hill with a +1.25% grade. The descending grade is 2.75%.
What is the required length of curve for proper stopping sight distance?

The design speed (assumed travel speed) = 40 mph
See either Table III-3 or III-4 for SSD
Use table of crest vertical curves
SSD = 305 ft
K= 44 ft/percent of A
|A| = |-2.75-1.25| = 4%
Lmin = K|A| = (44) (4) = 176 ft
Check formula :
S = 305 > L = 176
2
200 3.5 + 2
L computed = 2(305)
(305 > 70) Initial Assumption is O.K.
=
70'
4
Recommended value for Lmin is 176 ft.
Note:
Sight distance tables in AASHTO meet additional criteria in addition to SSD and PSD minimum
length requirement. These tables meet the comfort and drainage criteria, so the length rounded
from these tables can be longer than what the equation calculations show. Unless you are asked
to use the equations for sight distance on vertical curves, it is recommended to use these tables
instead of the equations.
- 56 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
APPENDIX AMETRIC TABLES FOR SIGHT DISTANCE ON VERTICAL CURVES
- 57 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Metric Tables in AASHTO Manual

Table 1: Stopping Sight Distance on Wet Pavements
Design
Speed
Assumed
Brake Reaction
Speed for
Coefficient of
Breaking Distance
Friction, f
on Level (m)
Stopping Sight
Distance for
Condition
Time
Distance
(km/hr)
(s)
(m)
30
30-30
2.5
20.8-20.8
0.40
8.8-8.8
29.6-29.6
40
40-40
2.5
27.8-27.8
0.38
16.6-16.6
44.4-44.4
50
47-50
2.5
32.6-34.7
0.35
24.8-28.1
57.4-62.8
60
55-60
2.5
38.2-41.7
0.33
36.1-42.9
74.3-84.6
70
63-70
2.5
43.7-48.6
0.31
50.4-62.2
94.1-110.8
80
70-80
2.5
48.6-55.5
0.30
64.2-83.9
112.8-139.4
90
77-90
2.5
53.5-62.5
0.30
77.7-106.2
131.2-168.7
100
85-100
2.5
59.0-69.4
0.29
98.0-135.6
157.0-205.0
110
91-110
2.5
63.2-76.4
0.28
116.3-170.0
179.5-246.4
120
98-120
2.5
68.0-83.3
0.28
134.9-202.3
202.9-285.6
(km/hr)
Design (m)
Table 2: Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves
Design
Speed
(km/hr)
Assumed
Speed for
Coefficient of
Condition
Friction, f
(km/hr)
Stopping Sight
[length (m) per percent of A]
Distance for
Design (m)
Computed
Rounded for
Design
30
30-30
0.40
29.6-29.6
2.17-2.17
3-3
40
40-40
0.38
44.4-44.4
4.88-4.88
5-5
50
47-50
0.35
57.4-62.8
8.16-9.76
9-10
60
55-60
0.33
74.3-84.6
13.66-17.72
14-18
70
63-70
0.31
94.1-110.8
21.92-30.39
22-31
80
70-80
0.30
112.8-139.4
31.49-48.10
32-49
90
77-90
0.30
131.2-168.7
42.61-70.44
43-71
100
85-100
0.29
157.0-205.0
61.01-104.02
62-105
110
91-110
0.28
179.5-246.4
79.75-150.28
80-151
120
98-120
0.28
202.9-285.6
101.90-201.90
102-202
- 58 -

Phone 407-823-2988
Class TTE3810
Table 3: Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves
Design
Speed
(km/hr)
Assumed
Speed for
Coefficient of
Condition
Friction, f
(km/hr)
Stopping
Sight Distance for

Design (m)
Computed
Rounded for
Design
30
30-30
0.40
29.6-29.6
3.88-3.88
4-4
40
40-40
0.38
44.4-44.4
7.11-7.11
8-8
50
47-50
0.35
57.4-62.8
10.20-11.54
11-12
60
55-60
0.33
74.3-84.6
14.45-17.12
15-18
70
63-70
0.31
94.1-110.8
19.62-24.08
20-25
80
70-80
0.30
112.8-139.4
24.62-31.86
25-32
90
77-90
0.30
131.2-168.7
29.62-39.95
30-40
100
85-100
0.29
157.0-205.0
36.71-50.06
37-51
110
91-110
0.28
179.5-246.4
42.95-61.68
43-62
120
98-120
0.28
202.9-285.6
49.47-72.72
50-73
Table 4: Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance
Minimum Passing
Design Speed
Sight Distance
(km/hr)
for Design
(m)
Rate of Vertical Curvature, K,a

Rounded for Design
30
217
50
40
285
90
50
345
130
60
407
180
70
482
250
80
541
310
90
605
390
100
670
480
110
728
570
120
792
670
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TTE3810 CLASS

HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN (PART-I-)

Dr. Haitham Al-Deek, P.E.

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I

II- Elements of Highway Geometric Design

Review of Curvilinear Motion and Derivation of

Transition Curves (Spirals)

4.1 Types of Sight Distance

4.2 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

4.3 Sight Distance on Vertical Curves

Appendix A: Metric Tables for Sight Distance on Vertical Curves

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I

II. ELEMENTS OF HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I

2.3. Transition Curves (Spirals)

The relationship of traffic to highway design

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

Directional Distribution (D)

Percentage of Trucks (T)

Selection of the Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

The maximum peak hourly traffic volume during the year? Or

The average hourly traffic volume during the year ?

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I

EXHIBIT 8-8. RANKED HOURLY VOLUMES

Hourly Volume as percent of AADT

Recreational Access Route MN 169

400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Source: HCM2000 and AASHTO 2001

Number of hours in one year with hourly volume

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I

FDOT (1995) uses different values. See below:

Normally, the peak/off-peak volume switches

Highway type (rural vs. urban, interstate, local)

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Traffic characteristics (volume and composition).

Vehicle characteristics (trucks, passenger cars).

Topography (level, rolling, mountainous).

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I

2.1 Simple Curve

Properties of a simple circular curve

PT = Point of tangency (End of curve)

D = Degree of curvature (1)

= Central angle (Intersection angle)

L = Length of curve (PC to PT)

l = Length of arc (PC to P)

= Central angle for arc length l

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I

CIRCULAR CURVE EQUATIONS

Interstate, level or rolling terrain

The forward tangent is in the direction of increasing station numbers.

The back tangent is in the direction of decreasing station numbers.

Professor H. Al-Deek, Ph.D., P.E.

Highway Geometric Design, Part-I