LabReport Style Guide

STYLE GUIDE
UNIT OPERATIONS/BIOPROCESS UNIT OPERATIONS:

ChBE 4200/4210
Summer 2016
Table of Contents
Background ...................................................................................................................... 2
Format, Font, and Word Limits ....................................................................................... 4
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 5
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 8
Theory............................................................................................................................ 11
Experimental Apparatus and Procedure ........................................................................ 14
Results and Discussion .................................................................................................. 17
Conclusions & Recommendations................................................................................. 21
References ..................................................................................................................... 24
Nomenclature................................................................................................................. 29
Appendices .................................................................................................................... 31
Lab Report Examples .................................................................................................... 32
Appendix A: Scientific Writing & Format Specs ......................................................... 47
Appendix B: In-Text Citations ..................................................................................... 53
Appendix C: Writing - Style & Grammar .................................................................... 54
Appendix D: Other Standard Writing Conventions ..................................................... 56
Appendix E: Tables and Figures ................................................................................... 64
Appendix F: Transitional Words and Phrases ............................................................... 69
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2016 School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology
Background
As a chemical engineer, communicating the process and results of your experimental
work is as important as the work itself. In fact, if you do not share your process and results with
the larger community (i.e., your co-workers, your boss, your professional peers), the work itself
ceases to have value. A written lab report is one way of documenting and disseminating the
details of your research (oral reports are, of course, another). However, just writing up an
experiment is not adequate; the quality of the writing matters, as does the style of the prose and
the format and design of the report.
Although format and design specifics can vary from organization to organization within
the field of chemical engineering, this manual guides you through the specifics of formatting,
structuring, writing, and editing your lab reports for this course. It also offers some handy tips
for improving the overall quality of your prose.
Audience & Lab Reports (generally)

In telling any story, what you tell, as well as how much context and detail you include,
depends on who the listener is. For example, if you ask a friend to meet you at Tech Tower
before a football game, you do not have to describe what Tech Tower looks like and where it is if
your friend is a Tech student, but if he or she isnt, you would need to include more detail and
direction. In writing your lab report, you need to consider such issues. Who would read a lab
report? Why? And how much do they already know about the subject?
In general, people would read a report such as the ones you will write because they may
find it necessary to undertake a similar study OR they may want to use your findings to help
make design or purchase decisions. Given this information, you can assume that your readers
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have a basic understanding of general chemical engineering principlesfor example, fluid,

mass, and heat transfer; thermodynamics; reactor design; process control; and so on. In short,
any individual with an average knowledge of chemical engineering concepts should be able to
read and understand your report without difficulty (Imagine a ChBE or other engineering
graduate or an MBA working in a ChBE industry). However, you should recall that even a
qualified chemical engineer may have forgotten the specifics of some area of this field. Thus,
you may need to remind them of some of the details or clarify the operation of specific units.
Rhetorical Context for ChBE 4200/4210 (your specific audience & purpose)
What is rhetorical context? It is simply the situation that surrounds your act of writing.
What are you writing? Why? For the purposes of this course, you are not a student when you
write your lab reports. Instead, you are to assume that you are an engineer working for a
company that has just purchased several experimental set-ups. Each set-up was designed to
measure the physical or chemical properties of a system or characterize a unit operation, reaction
process, or transport process. A manual of suggested experiments was provided. Your boss has
asked you to work in a team of three (or two) to evaluate the performance of each set-up by
conducting an experimental study in each over a range of specified conditions. You are then to
report back on the behavior of the system studied and analyze and characterize the phenomena as
directed by the lab manual. You should also convey the bottom line, or overall conclusion,
reached from your experiment(s), as well as one or two relevant recommendations.
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Format, Font, and Word Limits
FORMAT:
Two columns, justified,
1.5 line spacing,
Page numbers at bottom center
FONT:
Main text: 11 or 12 pt Times New Roman font
Table titles and figure captions: 10 pt Times New Roman
SECTIONS
WORD LIMIT
(No title pagejust put title page info at top of the first pagesee the first Lab Report Example
in the Style Guide for details.)
(No table of contents)
Abstract
275 words
Introduction
170 words
Theory
275 words
Apparatus and Procedure
150 words
Results & Discussion
550 words (no more than 4 tables or figures in R&D)
Conclusions & Recommendations 160 words
(combined)
References
At least THREE outside references (not including Safety Data
Sheets [SDS] or lab manual) are required. Two-column format
required.
Nomenclature
Appendix A: Title of Appendix
Appendix B: Title of Appendix
(other appendices as needed)
Nomenclature does not have to be in 2-column format

Appendices do not have to be in 2-column format
Note: Word limits do NOT include table titles or figure captions.
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Abstract
The Abstract is a focused summary of the report; it provides readers with a glimpse of the entire
report in a shortened form. In this, it is one of the most important parts. It helps a reader decide
whether to read, skim, or skip the document or to pass it along to others.
To accomplish these
goals, the abstract must answer these questions:

-
What was done, and why? ( should include one introductory sentence putting the
experiment and its field in perspective, thus motivating the study; a brief description
of apparatus; statement of objective(s); and a brief description of methods, including
range of conditions if appropriate)
What were the results, and what conclusions were drawn from them? (includes
significant results with some level of quantification, comparison to theory/model
expectations, error analysis, and key conclusions)
Abstracts are typically single-paragraph discussions, and they stand completely alone.
This means they would be understandable even if published by themselves, as they often are in
databases of abstracts. Given this constraint, the abstract never specifically refers to any figure
or item in the report, but contains its own independent quantification of the results.
The first part of the abstract provides motivation for the study and gives the experimental
objectives as well as a brief overview of the apparatus and procedure. It should also mention any
critically important issues, such as any difficulties that prevented meaningful interpretation of
some of the results. The abstract should begin with an orienting sentence (one that provides
some perspective on the significance or motivation behind the work). This sentence should be
informative: a good opener clearly explains significance and motivates the study. Generic
sentences such as Packed-bed absorption is important in chemical engineering should be
avoided. A more effective example would give a specific feature or benefit that explains WHY
packed-bed absorption is important in a particular field or process. See sample reports for
examples.
The second, and most important, part of the abstract discusses the results and conclusions
of the experiments. Appropriate levels of quantification vary depending on the experiment. For
example, if the goal of the lab was to determine one or two quantities, then these may be placed
in the abstract with their statistical confidence intervals. If several experiments are performed, a
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general description of the observed trends in the data or of how the results compared to a model
or theory should be included. However, even this general description can be quantitative.
For example, phrases like the data were similar to the model. should be avoided in place of
more quantitative phrases such as all data points were within 5% of the model predictions.
or the root mean square average of the difference between the data points and the same points
predicted by the model was 7.4%.. Finally, the abstract should end with one or two key
conclusions that indicate what was learned from the experiment and give the bottom line.
Generally, recommendations do not belong in the abstract.
** While this section provides a summary of the entire report, it cannot exceed 275 words.
Therefore, you must spend your words wisely and make sure each one counts. Be sure to
answer WHAT, WHY, HOW, and SO WHAT?. See abstracts in the Lab Report Examples or
in technical journals for examples.
Below is a good example of an abstract. (This example has 275 words.)
Abstract
A fin is a surface that extends from an object, creating additional surface area that
promotes heat transfer. One common application is in gas turbine engines, which often use pin
fin channels for internal cooling. In this experiment, three cylindrical pin fins were studied: two
aluminum fins of varying diameters and a stainless steel fin. The objective was to determine the
effects of fin geometry and composition on the heat transfer from the fin to its surroundings. A
mathematical model, based on Fouriers law and energy balances, was evaluated by determining
the heat-transfer coefficient (h) of the two aluminum fins as well as the thermal conductivity (k)
of the stainless steel fin. The objective was accomplished by taking temperature readings as a
function of distance from a heat source. The convective heat transfer coefficients of the in.
w
w
2
aluminum fin and the 1 in. aluminum fin were determined to be 13.43 m k and 9.410 m 2 k ,
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respectively, indicating h is inversely proportional to D. Using these h values, the k of the

w
stainless steel fin was calculated to be 16.79 mk , which differed by 11.2% from the k value
reported in the literature for stainless steel. The 1 in. diameter aluminum fin transferred four
times more heat to the surroundings than the in. diameter aluminum fin, indicating that greater
surface area increases heat transfer. Thermal conductivity of a material was also proportional to
the amount of heat transferred. Since the results generally agreed with expectations based on
theory, we concluded that Fouriers law and energy balances accurately describe fins. The
11.2% error in calculation of thermal conductivity can be attributed to the assumption of
indefinitely long fins.
Note: you should use SI units throughout the whole report.
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Introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to provide motivation for the study, to help orient
readers, to give them background informationall of this material should provide a natural leadin to the experimental objectives, which you should present directly towards the end of the Intro.
(Imagine introducing a speaker at a lecture: this is so-and-so; her work focuses on thus-and-such;
today, shes going to speak about this-and-that.)
In your lab reports, you will usually write an Introduction that consists of two
paragraphs:
Para. 1:
motivation for study; definition of operation; significance of operation in

larger applications (with at least one specific example); benefits and
drawbacks (or limitations)
Para. 2:
key physical and chemical characteristics; statement of objectives; very

brief statement of how objectives were achieved.
In the first paragraph of the Intro, you need to provide motivation for this experiment.
You can do this by giving background on the operation or mechanism being studied and
indicating why it is important to study. Define the operation and explain its significance in
industry: Which industries use it and why? How do they use it? What advantages does this
operation or mechanism have over others, and what disadvantages or limitations might it have?
Ideally, this paragraph should, in a sense, foreshadow the objective(s) of the experiment. (E.g.,
if your objective has to do with determining the effects of flooding on efficiency, your first
paragraph should briefly indicate how and why flooding is a central concern for this particular
operation, but not actually state your objective specifically at this point.) A specific and relevant
example from industry is helpful in the first paragraph. For example, "Because of its., the
centrifugal pump is often used for ..." Try to choose examples that involve chemical
engineering or other relevant industries. Be sure to cite any references you may have for this
information, including the lab manual. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism.
Although more space for background information is available in the introduction than in
the abstract, economy of prose is important in technical writing. Sentences that are too generic
or state the obvious should be avoided. For example, the opening sentence Fractional
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distillation is very important in separating chemical substances is generic because the term
Fractional distillation can be replaced by a variety of unit operations.
In the second paragraph, you need to:
o briefly describe the key physical and chemical characteristics of the
operation, focusing on those that are particularly relevant to your analysis;
o state your objective(s) clearly and thoroughly; and
o briefly indicate how you met those objectives.
If you used your first paragraph to lead subtly up to your objectives, this next paragraph should
come as no surprise to the reader. Make the wording of your objective as specific as
possibleand remember that a good objective must be measurable. (Hint: the objective
was to characterize/study/observe the performance of [xxx apparatus] is neither specific nor
measurable). Beware of copying the objective as stated in the lab manualin most cases this is
a general goal, and it is your job to whittle it down to a specific, measurable objective. You also
need to provide one or two sentences to very briefly describe the methods used to meet your
objective(s). You should NOT present any results in this section.
** Information in this section should be organized from general => specific, like an inverted
triangle. This section should be no more than 170 words long.
**The purpose of the Intro is to give perspective and background on why the objectives and the
study are important. In other words, it needs to motivate the study.
Below is a good example of an introduction.

Introduction (word count = 170)
In the chemical industry, distillation is often used to separate species with different
relative volatilities. However, when two liquid species have similar volatilities, distillation is not
feasible; instead, liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) can be used for separation. LLE relies on
differing solubilities for separation1 and is particularly useful to separate petroleum products that
have different structures but similar volatilities.2 One limitation of LLE is that the columns
require a large number of stages to achieve an effective separation.3
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The objective of this experiment was to investigate the effect of oscillation rate of a Karr
plate column on the separation of propionic acid from diesel fuel. Water was a suitable solvent to
use because the acid exited in the water stream, leaving the kerosene acid-free. To achieve the
objective, the column was run at four different oscillation rates. At each rate, the extract and
raffinate streams were titrated to determine acid concentration. These data were used to
determine the percentage of acid transferred to the water. Experimental results were then
compared to published correlations.
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Theory
The Theory section presents the models (usually one or more equation/s) used to analyze
your experimental data. The purpose of this section is to lay out an interpretive model; it tells
your reader what theories and equations are important to interpret data from the experiment
(specifically, what theories and equations are being used). When you write this section, be sure
to move logically from one equation to the nextuse transitional words and phrases.
Here are some key guidelines to follow in the theory section:
Because this section is devoted to theory, it is written in the PRESENT TENSE.
You should also avoid using the general we in this section, in the sense of
we need to examine, Here, we can see, and so forth.
As with the introduction and abstract, economy of prose dictates that obvious or
generic sentences should be avoided. Sentences like In order to understand
reactive distillation, one must first understand the theory behind reactive
distillation are generic and do not add value to the section.
Avoid repeating much of what is in the laboratory manual. Simply include

the important final equations, along with a clear yet concise explanation of the
main theory or model being used and any important assumptions or limitations.
Any additional equations that are needed should be detailed in an

appendixbe sure to reference (call out) this appendix in your main Theory
section.
If an equation only has a few terms, you can define them in the Theory section as well as
in the Nomenclature section. However, if your equation has more than three or four terms, you
might not have room to define them all in the Theory section. In this case, simply refer the reader
to the Nomenclature section for definition of all terms in the equations. Either way, you will
always need to have a Nomenclature section in each lab report.
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To achieve its purpose, the Theory section needs to
briefly clarify engineering concepts and show the development of the model
include all assumptions, previous work that supports the model, and any limitations if they
are known.
cite sources (including the lab manual) for all equations.
The Theory section should NOT be a carbon copy of the lab manual. Your goal is to
show an understanding of the theory or model, not just to copy a bunch of equations.
The word limit for the Theory section is 275 words.
As for each section in the lab, this section should begin with a sentence that lends perspective
to the Theory section relative to the lab report as a whole. This opening matter should be as
specific and informative as possible. Do NOT use generic statements such as In order to
understand this lab, it is necessary to understand the theory behind it.
Here is an example of a good opening passage for the Theory section:
Many processes that involve phase changes, such as evaporative cooling, are governed
by the balance between the heat loss due to evaporation and the convective heating caused by
the evaporative cooling. This experiment studies this balance in the evaporative cooling of water
on a copper cylinder. The energy balance for such a process is written as..
Final note: If you took any equations from the lab manual or any other source, be sure to
include an in-text citation and a corresponding entry in your References. Failure to do so may
constitute plagiarism.
THEORY (good exampleabout 268 words)
The steady-state temperature of the gauze-covered copper cylinder is governed by the
balance of evaporative cooling and convective heating. This energy balance is written as
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MC
x-x
dT
hATair -T k x A air H v
dt
1 x
(1)
The term on the left-hand side is the net energy accumulation of the system, and the left and right
terms on the right-hand side are the convective heating and evaporative cooling, respectively.
The specific terms in all equations are defined in the Nomenclature section.
Assuming that the heat capacity of gauze is equal to that of water, all parameters are
constant with temperature, the interfacial mole fraction of water is at its equilibrium value, and
the temperature variations in the rod are negligible, Equation 1 is integrated to obtain the transient
energy balance, Equation 2:
T T
ln air
Tair Ti
4h

t
Dc c Cc
(2)
The value of h determined from Equation 2 is then used to estimate the mass transfer coefficient
by invoking the ChiltonColburn analogy between heat and mass transfer.3
Once the heat and mass transfer coefficients are determined, the other constants in
Equation 2 are determined by direct measurement or obtained from the literature. Finding these
constants allows Equation 1 to be numerically integrated to obtain a model of the transient mass
and energy transfer. Raoults law and the Antoine equation for vapor pressure are used to
determine this equilibrium value of the water fraction at the interface.
Finally, the steady-state value from this model is obtained by setting the left-hand side of
Equation 1 to zero. This steady-state temperature should be comparable to the wet bulb
temperature, which can be determined from a psychometric chart for the conditions of
temperature and humidity in the surrounding air.
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Experimental Apparatus and Procedure

This section describes the apparatus you used to conduct the experiment and explains
how you used the equipment to do the experiment. This section can be broken down into two
main paragraphs: description of apparatus, and description of procedure and key safety issues.
Please note: The entire Apparatus and Procedure section should not exceed 150 words. You
should use SI units through the whole report.
Paragraph 1:
Description of the apparatus. Give a BRIEF, general description, no more than one short
paragraph in length.
Verb Tense for Apparatus Description:
Description of apparatus can be in either PRESENT or PAST tense, depending on

the context.
Example of apparatus description: (92 words)
In this experiment, we used a countercurrent Karr column with reciprocating sieve plates.
The column was 1 in. in diameter and 6 ft in length, and each end of the column had a 2-in.
diameter disengagement section. The water and diesel were pumped from storage tanks through
calibrated flowmeters. A needle valve was used to maintain a constant interface between the
organic and aqueous phases. The extract flowed from the bottom of the column while the
raffinate flowed from the top of the column. Figure 2A in Appendix A details the apparatus.
Note: You must include a clearly labeled schematic diagram of the apparatus (or the
relevant portion thereof) in this section, or in the appendix (but you need to call out the
appendix). You may use a photo of the lab equipment to supplement, but not replace, the
diagram! Be sure to include a citation for the picture or diagram, even if it is from the lab
manual.
Paragraph 2: References the procedure and describes key safety issues.
This paragraph should begin with some version of this sentence: The experimental
procedure was taken from the UO Lab Manual1 and followed without any deviations / followed
with the exception of several deviations. Be sure to reference the lab manual. If there were any
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significant deviations, those should be described next. You should also include any key variables
not specified in the lab manual, such as the experimental conditions used, flow rates, space time,
and so on. Finally, any relevant safety issues should be briefly discussed, and you should cite the
SDS for any chemicals you used in the experiment. You also must include a sentence
referencing standard safety protocolsee the example below. (NOTE: the SDS references do
not count towards the requirement for three outside references!)
Verb Tense for Procedure Description:
Procedure description should be mainly past tense, with the possibility of present
tense when discussing chemical hazards, etc.
Experimental Apparatus and Procedure (good example)

(Note: the main goal was to investigate a process of mass and convective heat transfer occurring
simultaneously)
The equipment for the simultaneous heat and mass transfer experiment consisted of a
stand outfitted with a clamp placed in front of a small wind tunnel. Other equipment included a
bare copper cylinder, a gauze-wrapped copper cylinder with a smaller diameter, a thermocouple,
a stopwatch, an ice water bath, and a room-temperature water bath. The copper cylinders had
small holes in the end where the probe of the thermocouple was placed. The experimental
apparatus is shown in Figure 1.
[Figure 1. Diagram of apparatus goes here, or in an appendix (must call out the appendix).
Remember to include citation at the end of the caption if taken from an outside source, including
the lab manual!]
To meet the experimental objective, we followed the procedure as outlined in the UO Lab
Manual1 but with several deviations:
(describe first deviation)
(describe second deviation)
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(etc., etc.)
This experiment presented no significant safety hazards, and no chemicals were used. Standard
safety protocol, including the use of safety glasses, closed-toe shoes, lab coats, and gloves, was
followed.
Note: For a lab in which chemicals are used, the safety paragraph should follow the basic
structure below:
The main safety concerns in this experiment were that sodium hydroxide is a strong base and is
corrosive, and ethyl acetate is flammable.2 For other potential chemical hazards, refer to the
safety data sheets (SDS) listed in the References section.3,4 Standard safety protocol, including
the use of safety glasses, closed-toe shoes, lab coats, and gloves, was followed.
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Results and Discussion

The purpose of this section is to convey what you found in doing the experiment and to
explain the significance of those findings. This section also compares the results you obtained
with those you expected (per theory or literature). It also explains errorit should discuss the
source of errors and should also quantify and characterize their impact on the experiment. To
reach these goals, this section needs to:
present and explain your results in a clear, well-organized, and concise manner
(use figures and tables to present information efficiently; make sure that you
provide all results that are requested in the lab manual, as well as any others that
you feel are appropriate and relevant); and
discuss and analyze the significance of those results, including how they relate
and compare to your theory/model, sources of error, and the effect those errors
had on the experimental results.
Organizing information in the Results and Discussion section can be tricky. Generally,
you begin by briefly summarizing your overall goal (or the first part of it) and briefly reviewing
the first step of the experiment. Then, you may wish to present a figure or table of the raw data
(or a typical subset) to convey information about scatter, the range over which data were taken,
magnitudes, and so on. However, please avoid large tables with tons of datathese are best
placed in the appendix, not here. Then, you break this information into its significant component
parts and focus on each part individually. Your discussion/analysis should occur at the same
time. The section may conclude with some discussion of error to clarify the big picture
(although it often makes more sense to discuss error as you go along). For example, if you find
that your results generally are not what you expectedor are not idealyou must discuss the
discrepancies. What could account for them? What caused you to suspect these sources? How
exactly did these discrepancies affect your results? Provide evidence to support your claims,
quantify the impact of various sources of error, and characterize the impact of any erroneous
assumptions.
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In working through each part of your data, each figure or table must be briefly introduced
before the reader sees it (e.g., Table II shows the relationship between time and temperature.).
After presenting the figure or table, it must then be explained--point out significant features or
trends; tell your readers what you want them to see in the figure or table (e.g., Figure 4 shows
that as time increased, temperature decreased.) and discuss the trends that are shown. If you fit
your curve to a specific subset of your data points, explain your reasoning. Also, indicate your
reasoning behind any corrected data.
You are limited to no more than FOUR tables and figures (total) in the Results &
Discussion section. We do want you to use tables and figures (usually, you should have at least
two in this section), but we dont want you to go overboard in such a short report. The trick is to
decide which tables and figures do the best job of illustrating the key points you wish to convey.
All other relevant tables and figures may be placed in an appendix and called out in the main
text.
Finally, you need to discuss the importance of your findingsboth generally AND in
relation to your theory or model (e.g., The reciprocal relationship between time and temperature
reveals . . .This relationship between time and temperature was expected based on. It shows .
. .). Be sure to discuss any specific error and the effect that such error might have had on the
particular part of the data on which you are focusing. Quantifying the impact of error on your
results is quite helpful to the reader as well.
Use significant figures in all of your results (to review the conventions of significant
figures, see Felder and Rousseau, 2000). You should know how precise your data are; the
significant figures must reflect the precision of the data. Also, in reporting the average of
repeated data, include the confidence interval, and where possible apply propagation of error
analysis. You should use SI units through the whole report.
Note: Before you can write the Results and Discussion section, you must complete the sample
calculations (include in an appendix). You will need to mention any data that were rejected in
the calculations and any data that may be erroneous. However, you do not want to inundate
readers with numbers and figures; rather, escort them carefully through the logic of the
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calculations. It is much easier to grade a report that presents sample calculations clearly,
thoroughly, and logically.
Here are examples of opening sentences for the Results and Discussion section:
To determine the effect of horsepower on the performance of the laboratory pump, the
first step was
The first experimental objective was to calculate the oxygen permeance and
oxygen/nitrogen selectivity of the membrane; to meet this objective,
Again, the general format of this section is as follows:

1-
To determine , we measured / calculated / etc.
2-
Figure 1 below illustrates the relationship between.
3-
[Insert Figure 1]
4-
As Figure 1 shows,
5-
These results suggest/indicate that
6-
The results were expected per theory/model, OR, the results were unexpected, and
heres what we think caused the discrepancy
You will follow this general format for each result you present.
Again, you should thoroughly analyze and explain your results, possible sources of error,
the degree of confidence, and the implication of your observations. Even if your results are poor,
if you can explain them well and account for discrepancies, you can still get a good grade.
Conversely, good results, particularly if presented poorly, do not guarantee a good grade.
Transitions
The skillful use of transitional words, phrases, and sentences will make the difference
between a report that is easy to follow and a report that is not. Thus, you should try to lead your
reader through the discussion of results with sentences like After determining that flow rate
increased with.., we next analyzed the relationship between. For example:
Once the heat transfer coefficient was calculated, the next step in creating a model for
the simultaneous heat and mass transfer cooling of a copper rod was to determine the masstransfer coefficient. This determination was accomplished by..
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Determining the mass transfer coefficient provided the data necessary to formulate a
model of the cooling process seen in Figure 3. To derive the model,
After deriving the model, we then compared the model with our experimental data.
Figure 5 shows this comparison.
** These transitions make reading through the analysis and discussion of the results much
easier. They are like road signs telling you where youve been, where you are, and where youre
going, and how the individual results are related to and build upon each other.
**See Appendix F: Transitional Words and Phrases for examples of transitions.
The length of the Results and Discussion section will vary per experiment (aim for around 450550 words). It should be the longest and richest section of the report.
In Results & Discussion, you should keep procedural and calculation details to a minimum as
much as possible. The main focus should be on your results and what they meanspending
more time on the most important results. You can also use appendices to explain how you
calculated certain valuesjust be sure to call out the appendix in the main body of the report.
Please see Lab Report Examples for good examples of Results & Discussion.
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Conclusions & Recommendations

The Conclusions & Recommendations section presents a final assessment of the
experiment and results. The purpose of this section is to give your reader a final, broader sense
of the experiment and its success or problems. Here, you are presenting bottom-line
conclusions that are supported by your results and analysis. Ultimately, how well did the
experiment perform? Did the results compare well with expected or ideal results? How reliable
were your data? In this section, keep your rhetorical context in mind. What would you want to
tell your boss about this particular experimental set-up? Is it a good one? Should it be returned?
Will it save the company time or money? Remember, the goal here is to state conclusions
based on your key results and to provide a broader context, NOT to simply repeat your
results! No brand new results should be presented in this section. In other words, dont save
results for this section, and dont bring ideas up out of the blue.
The final sentence of your Conclusions paragraph should address the big pictureit should
answer the question so what? about your results. Why would these results be relevant or
applicable to industry? This overall conclusion is something that could also appear in your
abstract, but would not be mentioned explicitly in any other section. It should, however, flow
naturally from the results that you obtained. You may also try to link this overall conclusion to
the motivation that you brought up in the Introduction, thus closing the circle.
You should also include two or three relevant recommendations in this section. These may offer
relevant, non-generic suggestions for improving the experimental set-up or procedure, as well as
suggesting what the next stage of experimentation might be. For example, statements like we
recommend XX repetitions of the entire experiment XX for greater statistical accuracy are too
generic and therefore not suitable as recommendations. On the other hand, it is appropriate to
identify specific aspects of the experiments where improvements would be particularly beneficial
(e.g., Use of a digital thermometer with more accurate temperature readings in the outlet
stream of the heat exchanger would enable more precise determination of the heat transfer
coefficient.).
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For example:
This experiment was successful in showing that efficiency of a laboratory centrifugal
pump was directly related to. We discovered that..The data demonstrated internal
consistency since.. Furthermore, the data were shown to be accurate based
onHowever, a calibration error caused..Overall, the experiment indicated that this pump
would / would not be useful in an industrial process with .requirements.
For the future, we recommend improving this experiment by..An additional
recommendation to reduce error is to.
** What did you find? What did you learn? What are the sources of error? Degree of
confidence? What are the implications of your observations? Whats your OVERALL
conclusion? Dont forget to provide evidence (quantitative, if possible) for your claims
** In this section, you should draw conclusions based on key results. What did you learn from
this experiment and, more specifically, these results regarding this process / mechanism?
*Aim for around 160 words for your Conclusions & Recommendations section.
Below is a good example of a Conclusions & Recommendations section.
Conclusions & Recommendations (about 160 words)

In this experiment, the effect of oscillation rate on the separation of propionic acid and
diesel through liquid-liquid extraction was successfully determined. The percent of propionic
acid removed increased with increasing plate oscillation rate, despite discrepancies in the mass
balance equations. Increases in the oscillation rates also correlated directly with the number of
equilibrium stages. Additionally, as the oscillation rate increased, the HETP and H0y values
decreased. However, experimental trends did not agree with published correlations because of
differences in operating conditions. Overall, results indicated that higher oscillation rates in an
industrial LLE process would increase mass transfer.
22
Recommendations for this lab include allowing longer trial durations to ensure steady
state operation is maintained, as well as performing the experiment at higher oscillation rates to
determine an optimal rate for mass transfer efficiency. Additionally, a device that could
mechanically count and report the oscillation rate of the column would greatly reduce the human
error involved in counting items moving at such a great velocity.
Brief note about recommendations: ** Be careful of whining or sounding too

student-y (remember your rhetorical situation). You should not complain about the TA, or about
directions in the lab manual or problems you had doing the experiment because of the directions,
or about the experiment taking too long. Instead, offer your colleagues recommendations for
doing the experiment more efficiently or safely so as to achieve more accurate or conclusive
results. You can also suggest other methods of experimentation or analysis for the future, as
long as you tell us why youre making the suggestion. As always, avoid generic and vague
statements.
23
References
Because good research is a key part of any report, it is required that you include at least THREE
outside references in your report (i.e., references other than the lab manual and SDS). The SDS
websites should be cited in the Procedure section and included as references in your References
section, but they do NOT count towards this requirement. These outside references may include
textbooks, journal articles, books, online scholarly articles, academic websites, and so on. Just
make sure that you cite them properly, both within the text and in the References section. Citing
Wikipedia or About.com (or other such encyclopedic, non-peer-reviewed sites) is NOT
permitted. However, Wikipedia can be an excellent starting point in finding more credible
sources.
In this class, we will follow the ACS Reference style as explained in detail in The ACS
Style Guide (3rd edition). In organizing the information in the References section, please use the
following templates to organize and punctuate the standard bibliographic information. If some
standard information is not available (e.g., an author), you should omit that category (see
examples under Article in an anthology, which has no author, and On-line Article or Web
Site, which has no author).
Note that each reference entry should end with a period.
Number your entries in the order in which they are first cited in the text.
The entire list of references should be in two-column format, and should have 1.5 line spacing
(see examples below).
For a book written or edited by one or more persons:
First authors last name, first and middle initials; second authors last name, first and middle
initials; etc. Title of Book, ed number.; Editor 1, Editor 2, Eds. (if an edited book); Publisher:
Place of Publication, Year; Page number(s) used.
EX.
Coulson, J.M.; Richardson, J.F. Chemical Engineering, 4th ed.; Elsevier: Oxford, 2005; p 34.
24
OR (for multiple pages):

Coulson, J.M.; Richardson, J.F. Chemical Engineering, 4th ed.; Elsevier: Oxford, 2005; pp 1; 7;
34.
OR (for a page range):
Coulson, J.M.; Richardson, J.F. Chemical Engineering, 4th ed.; Elsevier: Oxford, 2005; pp 34-40.
NOTE: if authored by more than one person, list names in the order in which the names appear
on the books title page. Names of authors and editors should be listed as last name, first and
middle initials (skip the middle initial if not provided). Authors names are separated by a semicolon. Editors names are separated by commas. Be sure to include each author or editor, even if
there are more than three.
For an article in an anthology/book (note that the UO lab manual is considered to be an

anthology):
Authors last name, first and middle initials. Title of Article. In Title of Book, edition number (if
there is one); Publishing company: Place of publication, Year; Volume number, page number(s).
EX.
Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactors. In Unit Operations Lab Manual; Georgia Tech: Atlanta, GA,
2016; p 4.
Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactors. In Unit Operations Lab Manual; Georgia Tech: Atlanta, GA,
2016; pp 4-6.
*Note that in the above examples, no author was listed for the article; therefore, this part of the
entry is omitted. Any time you cite the lab manual, you omit the authors name.
For an article in a journal:
First authors last name, first initial and middle initial; second authors last name, first and
middle initials; etc. Title of Article. Journal Title (or Abbreviation) Year, Volume (Issue number
or Month and date), Inclusive Pagination.
25
(The journal title should be italicized and may contain approved library abbreviations. When in
doubt, use the full journal title. The year should be in bold. The volume number should be in
italics.)
EX.
Taveira, P.; Cruz, P.; Mendes, A. A Maxwell-Stefan Experiment. Chem. Eng. Educ. 2000
34 (1), 90-93.
For a general web site:

(although your source may not offer all of the following, include as much as possible.)
initials; etc. Title of Article/Document. Title of Site. URL (accessed Month, Day, Year), other
identifying information, if any.
For title of site, use the title found on the Web site itself. Add the words Home Page for
clarification when needed.
EX.
Smith, J.S; Floating Point Unit Operations. MIPS Technologies, Inc.
http://techpubs.sgi.com/library/tpl/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi/ hdwr/bks/SGI_Developer/books/
R10K_UM/sgi_html/t5.Ver.2.0.book_313.html (accessed June 10, 2016).
For
a document retrieved from an agency or university web site:
initials; etc. Title of Document, Year. Title of Site. URL (accessed Month, Day, Year), other
identifying information, if any.
If an article is contained within a large and complex Web site, such as that for a university or
government agency, the host organization and the relevant program or department should be
identified BEFORE giving the URL and access date.
26
EX.
Technology integration and publishing, 2001. Columbia University for Learning Technologies.
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/tech-and-pub-past-projects/ (accessed June 10, 2016).
For PowerPoint slides or handouts from a class or presentation:
Presenters last name, first and middle initials. Title of Presentation. Presented in
Course/Conference Title, Place, Date.
EX.
Henderson, C. Statistical Modeling. Presented in ChBE 2120, Georgia Tech, May 25, 2014.
Jones, J.M. Developments in Transdermal Drug Delivery. Presented at the 10th International
Conference on Drug Delivery, Montreal, Canada, June 12, 2012.
For your own lecture notes from a course:
Instructors last name, first initial. Course title lecture. Place, Date.
EX:
Breedveld, V. ChBE 3200 lecture. Georgia Tech, May 15, 2013.
In-text Citations
For information on citing material within the text, please see Appendix B of the Style Guide.
27
Sample References section

Number your references in the order
in which they are first cited in the text.
Please use 1.5 line spacing.
1. Taveira, P.; Cruz, P.; Mendes, A. A
Maxwell-Stefan
Experiment.
Chem.
Eng. Educ. 2000 34 (1), 90-93.

2. Geankoplis, C.J.
4. Floating Point Unit Operations. MIPS

Technologies, Inc.
http://techpubs.sgi.com/library/tpl/cgi-
Transport Processes
bin/getdoc.cgi/hdwr/bks/SGI_Developer
and Unit Operations, 3rd ed.; PTR
/books/R10K_UM/sgi_html/t5.Ver.2.0.b
Prentice Hall: Princeton, NJ, 2003; pp
ook_313.html (accessed June 4, 2016).
27-30.
5. Felder, R.; Rousseau, R.W. Elementary

In
Principles of Chemical Processes, 3rd
Unit Operations Lab Manual; Georgia
ed.; John Wiley & Sons: New York,
Tech: Atlanta, GA, 2016; p 4.
2000; pp 4, 21.
3. Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactors.
28
Nomenclature
The Nomenclature section provides a key to the symbols and units used in the lab report.
Please note that SI units should be used here, as well as throughout the report.
Items should be listed in alphabetical order, putting all English symbols first, then Greek.
Note: EVERY report MUST have a Nomenclature section (even the Gummy Bear report!)
The Nomenclature section does not need to be written in 2-column format.
Sample Nomenclature
Symbol
Definition
Units
surface area
m2
Cpair
heat capacity of air
J/kg/K
Cpc
heat capacity of copper
J/kg/K
Cpw
heat capacity of water
J/kg/K
DAB
diffusivity of an air water system
m2/s
Eacc
energy accumulated in a system
Eg
energy generated in a system
Ein
energy entering a system
Eout
energy leaving a system
convective heat transfer coefficient
W/K/m2
Hfg
mole heat of vaporization of water
J/kg
Jix
molal flux relative to molal average velocity
Kair
thermal conductivity of air
W/K/m2
Kc
thermal conductivity of copper
W/K/m2
Kw
thermal conductivity of water
W/K/m2
Lc
Length of copper cylinder
molecular weight
g/mol
Npr
Prandtl number
Nsc
Schmidt number
Nw
molal flux of water relative to stationary coordinates
J/m2/s
29
atmospheric pressure
mmHg
pw
partial pressure of water
mmHg
Pw
vapor pressure of water
mmHg
temperature of cylinder at time t
TAir
air temperature
Tdb
dry bulb temperature
T1
initial temperature of copper
molal average velocity
volume
m2
mole fraction of water vapor at surface of gauze
xAir
mole fraction of water vapor in room air
yAir
mole fraction of air
density of copper
kg/m3
density of water
kg/m3
air
viscosity of air
kg/m/s
viscosity of water
kg/m/s
characteristic length
xw
concentration gradient
C
C
C
C
30
Appendices
The Appendices include the following:
Complete sample calculations with tables of intermediate results. Since only the final
calculations are included in the body of the report, the intermediate and sample
calculations must be detailed enough for the grader to check for errors. They must be
adequately introduced and explained by text so that the grader can easily understand them.
Equations should be referenced to the Theory section or literature. Physical and chemical
properties used in the calculations should be referenced to literature. Units should always be
included and conversions shown. The calculations may be neatly handwritten in ink.
You must cite every source from which equations/literature data were drawn.
Appendices do NOT need to be written in 2-column format.
NOTE: Even if spreadsheet calculations are attached, you must include
handwritten sample calculations to show how each column/row of the spreadsheet
was obtained. Be sure to define each column and row of the spreadsheet, as well
as the units.
Sample Calculation Rules:
a. Arrange them in a logical order.
b. Define all terms.
c. Show all units/unit balances and conversions.
d. Lead the reader through the work by putting a sentence or two preceding each
calculation explaining what is being done. Work that is easily understood is
more easily graded.
e. Use one set of conditions, wherever possible, to show the logical progression
of the calculations.
f. Any equation used from the Theory section of the lab manual must be cited.
g. Any data from the literature must be cited.
h. Any data table generated by computer calculations must be briefly explained.
i. Numerical values should have the correct number of significant digits (less
than 4) even for the spreadsheet calculations.
A photocopy or scan of your original data sheet(s), signed by either the TA or the lab
coordinator, is to be included as an appendix (called Raw Data) in your lab report. No
changes should be made to the original data sheet once the lab session is complete.
Any other pertinent information that does not belong in the body of the report (such as long
derivations or supplemental figures and tables) can be included as an appendix.
Each appendix should start on a NEW page.
31
Lab Report Examples

What follows are two examples you may use when developing your lab report. Note that these
are not perfect examples; their purpose is to provide general guidelines as to the proper
organization and style of a lab report.
32
CHBE 4200 Unit Operations

Dr. Yonathan Thio Ms. Jacqueline Snedeker
Lab 5: Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Group 1: Hillary Clinton, *John Kerry, and Donald Trump
Date Performed: June 7, 2016 Date Submitted: June 13, 2016
transfer plate (HETP) values were calculated
ABSTRACT
Liquid-liquid
extraction
(LLE)
is
as 321, 278, and 201 cm, for 144, 174, and
important in separations where distillation is
210 min-1, respectively.
unfeasible due to low volatility differences.
numbers were compared to HETP values
The objective of this experiment was to
from Bensalem and Tawfik correlations, a
investigate the performance of a Karr
significant amount of discrepancy was
reciprocating plate extraction column for
evident. This error can be attributed to the
separating propionic acid from diesel using
correlations being derived from systems
water as a solvent. This objective was
composed of different compounds than
achieved by performing mass balances and
those used in this experiment. Finally, the
exploring the effects of plate oscillation rate

on mass transfer efficiency. A
mass transfer coefficients were found to
0.02 M
increase with increasing oscillation rate.
solution of NaOH was used to titrate the
These results again showed improved mass
extract and raffinate at three different

frequencies (144, 174, and
When these
transfer efficiency with at higher oscillation
210 min-1) to
rates.
obtain the fraction of propionic acid in each
INTRODUCTION
stream. The percent of propionic acid
Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) is an
removed through the extract was calculated
important method for separating compounds
for each frequency as 71.9, 73.0, and 79.4%
of similar volatility and boiling points that is
for 144, 174, and 210 min-1, respectively.
commonly used in the production of
This increasing trend was due to higher
petroleum
oscillation rates that generated more surface
Additionally, no phase change occurs during
area for mass transfer. The number of
LLE, making it preferable when a mixtures
equilibrium stages (N) was then calculated
components are temperature sensitive.
using the Kremser equation as 0.569, 0.659,

and 0.908 for 144, 174, and
and
organic
solvents.
-1
210 min ,
characterize and investigate the performance
respectively, indicating higher oscillation
of a Karr reciprocating plate extraction
rates resulted in a better separation. Based
column for separating propionic acid from
on these N values, the height equivalent to a
diesel using water as a solvent. This
33
objective was achieved by performing mass

balances and exploring the effects of plate
oscillation rate on mass transfer efficiency.
Flow and composition samples were taken
from the raffinate and extract under the
varying oscillation rates. Each sample was
then titrated to yield the degree of separation
achieved, which allowed height equivalent
to a transfer plate (HETP) to be calculated.
These values along with height of an overall
raffinate transfer unit values allowed the
relative mass transfer efficiency to be
Figure 1. Extraction column analysis.2
calculated for each trial.
The mass transfer rate between the two

fluids is determined by the absorption factor,
THEORY
In this experiment, a dilute system with
A:
low solubility between the diesel fuel and
water exists; therefore, the operating and
L
y y
b* a*
mV yb ya
(2)
equilibrium lines are assumed to be linear.
This equation represents a ratio of the slope
This linearity allows for continuous contact
of the operating line to the slope of the
behavior.
equilibrium line. If these lines are linear,
For the operation, a variation of the
then the water flow rate, L; diesel flow rate,
Kremser equation that operates under the
V; and equilibrium factor, m, are all
assumption
considered constant.1
of
linear
operating
and
equilibrium lines can be used to calculate

the number of stages:
Due to the difference between propionic
yb yb*
ln
ya ya*
N
y ya
ln b*
yb ya*
acids solubility in water and diesel, the

continuous
contact
mass
transfer
is
expressed in terms of an overall mass
(1)
transfer coefficient, which is based on the

compositions in the raffinate phase and the
corresponding height of a transfer unit:
where N is the number of equilibrium
Z H 0 y N0 y
stages, and the compositions are shown in

Figure 1 below.
(3)
where Z is the height of the column, and

0 is the height of an equivalent raffinate
34
transfer unit.1 This height is described by
6 ft long Karr reciprocating plate extraction
the following equation:
column with a variable speed motor, two
H0y
where
V
K ya
feed pumps, and two calibrated flowmeters.

(4)
A diagram of the apparatus is shown in

Figure 2.
V
represents the height of a
K ya
transfer unit (HTU).1
Kya is the overall
mass transfer coefficient, and
N0 y
yb
A 1 1
y
A
ln a
A 1
A
(5)
Substituting Equation 4 into Equation 3

yields
V
N0 y
K ya
(6)
A correlation found by Bensalem can be
Figure 2. LLE apparatus schematic.1
used to calculate the height equivalent to a
A 250 mL graduated cylinder and burette
theoretical plate,
were used to collect and titrate samples. The
HETP 24.3Af
Uc Ud
where
amplitude
0.81
0.21
0.7
0.3
(7)
procedure
was
taken
from
the
Unit
the
Operations Lab Manual1 and performed with
reciprocating cycle, f is the reciprocating
the following deviation: Three oscillation
frequency, Uc and Ud
rates were tested rather than four.
is
the
of
are the superficial
velocities of continuous or dispersed phases,
Flow rate and composition data
and is the holdup of the dispersed phase in
were used to determine the HTU and mass
the column.1 A second correlation was
transfer coefficient for each operating
discovered by Tawfik, where HETP is
condition. Diesel is combustible, so care was
described as1
taken to prevent ignition. Additionally,
HETP Af
1.15
Ud
0.235
propionic acid and diesel are both irritants,
(8)
so direct contact with skin and eyes was

avoided.2
APPARATUS & PROCEDURE

The experimental apparatus used in this
Standard
safety
protocol,
including the use of safety goggles, closed-
procedure consisted of a 1 in. in diameter by
35
toe shoes, lab coats, and gloves, was
be due to unsteady-state operation of the
employed.
column. The percent propionic acid removed

increased with increased plate oscillation
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
rate. This trend was caused by higher
determine how oscillation rate affected the
oscillation rates creating more surface area
performance of a Karr reciprocating plate
for mass transfer to occur.

The number of equilibrium stages, N, for
extraction column by calculating the percent

the number of required
the separation was then determined for each
equilibrium plates, and the mass transfer
trial. Titration data were used to find xb, the
coefficients.
Three oscillation rates (144,
fraction of the propionic acid in the extract,
174, and 210 min-1) were observed, with
and ya, the fraction of the propionic acid in
composition and flow samples from the
the
extract and raffinate taken at each. The
calculations). Resulting operating lines were
samples were titrated with NaOH to
plotted along with equilibrium data as
determine the propionic acid content. The
shown in Figure 3 (Appendix B contains
diesel and water inlet flow rates were held
raw equilibrium data). Diesel typically
constant throughout the experiment, while
consists of 65% aliphatic and 35% aromatic
the raffinate and extract flow rates were
compounds3 with molecular weights ranging
measured using a stop watch for three trials
from 140 to 165 g/mol. In this lab, diesel
(Appendix A). Table I shows the propionic
was modeled in ASPEN as a mixture of 30
acid content in each stream.
wt% heptane, 35 wt% octane, and
acid removed,
raffinate
(see
Appendix
for
35 wt%
benzene.
Table I. Material Balance Closure and Percent
Propionic Acid Removed.
Freq
(min-1)
Feed
(g/min)
Extract
(g/min)
Raff
(g/min)
Percent
Removed
144
0.877
0.141
0.0546
71.9%
174
0.877
0.0162
0.00599
73.0%
210
0.877
0.0557
0.0144
79.4%
The material balances do not equate,

as the amount in should equal the amount
out. Inaccuracies in the flowmeters and
Figure 3. Experimental operating lines for
different oscillation rates and an equilibrium line
for a propionic acid-diesel system.
difficulties in titrations are likely sources of

this discrepancy. This inequality may also
36
By evaluating the equilibrium lines
The
HETP
decreases
with
at each xa and xb values, values for ya* and
oscillation
yb*
of
equilibrium number of stages increases
equilibrium plates (N) was calculated for
while the column height remains unchanged,
each trial using a version of Kremser
resulting in a smaller transfer unit height.
equation. The resulting N values were 0.569,
The trends for the Bensalem and Tawfik
0.660, and 0.908 for frequencies of 144,
correlations correspond with theory, yet
174, and 210 min-1, respectively (Appendix
there is a large degree of difference between
C contains calculations). The number of
all three methods. This discrepancy could
equilibrium
the
originate because the correlations were
increasing oscillation. This correlation arose
derived for systems that were different than
because higher oscillation rates result in a
the system used in this experiment.
were
obtained.
stages
The
number
increases
with
better separation.
frequency
increasing
because
the
The heights of an overall raffinate
The equilibrium number of stages
transfer unit, H0y, were then calculated and
for each trial was then used to obtain values
used to obtain mass transfer coefficients for
for the HETP, and these values were
each trial. N0y values were calculated and
compared
from
H0y and Kya values were related using
different correlations (Appendix D). The
Equation 4 (see Appendix E for these
HETP
calculations).
against
values
HETP
were
values
plotted
against
oscillation rate as shown in Figure 4.
Figure
shows
the
relationship between the mass transfer

coefficient and oscillation rate.
Figure 4. HETP values from continuous,

Bensalem, and Tawfik correlation methods.
Figure 5. Mass transfer coefficients plotted

against plate oscillation rate on a log-log scale.
37
As Figure 5 shows, there is a degree of

correlation
between the
mass
steady-state operation is maintained as well
transfer
as performing the experiment at more
coefficient and the plate oscillation rate, as
oscillation rates to increase the validity of
seen before in other parameters. These

results indicate that the mass transfer
observed trends. Additionally, a device that
coefficient for the separation increases with
could mechanically count and report the
increasing plate oscillation rate.
oscillation rate of the column would greatly

reduce the human error involved in counting
CONCLUSIONS &
RECOMMENDATIONS
items moving at such a great velocity.
In this experiment, the separation of
REFERENCES (Should have two more

refs)
1. Liquid-Liquid Extraction. In Unit
propionic acid and diesel through liquidliquid
extraction
was
successfully
Operations Lab Manual; Georgia

characterized. The percentage of propionic
Tech: Atlanta, GA, 2011; p 1-11.
acid removed was shown to increase with
2. Chemical Information - Safety
increasing plate oscillation rate, despite
Data Sheets
discrepancies in the mass balance equations.
SDS), <http://www.ehso.com/sds.p
Increases in the oscillation rates also
hp>, Environment Safety and
correlated directly with the number of
Health Online, 2010 (Observed
equilibrium stages. Additionally, as the
November 2011).
3. Ott, L., & Bruno, T. Variability of
oscillation rate increased, the HETP, N0y,
Biodiesel Fuel and Comparison to

and H0y values decreased. Taken together,
Petroleum-Derived Diesel Fuel:
these observations indicated that larger
Application of a Composition and
oscillation rates in industry could result in
Enthalpy Explicit Distillation Curve
better mass transfer.
Method. Energy & Fuels, 22 (4),

2008; p 2861-2868.
Recommendations for this lab include

allowing longer trial durations to ensure
38
Nomenclature
Symbol
Definition
Units
interfacial area
m2
amplitude
cm
reciprocating frequency
s-1
H0y
height of an overall raffinate transfer unit
HETP
height equivalent to a theoretical plate
cm
Ky
mass transfer unit
extract flow rate
m3/s
equilibrium factor
number of trays
Uc
superficial velocity of continuous phase
cm/s
Ud
superficial velocity of dispersed phase
cm/s
raffinate flow rate
m3/s
xi
concentration
kg/m3
ya
propionic acid concentration in feed
ya*
equilibrium propionic acid concentration in feed
yb
propionic acid concentration in raffinate
equilibrium propionic acid concentration in raffinate
yi
concentration
kg/m3
height of column
cm
holdup of the dispersed phase in the column
yb
39
Appendix A. Experimental Data and Calculations

Table A1. Feed Properties.
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
Standard
Deviation
M (g)
3.975
4.0098
3.989
V (mL)
(g/mL)
0.795
0.80196
0.7978
0.79825
0.00350
Sample Calculation for mol of NaOH
mol NaOH
mL of NaOH NaOH
1000
5.5mL 0.02
0.000110
1000
(A1)
Sample Calculation for propionic acid concentration
Acid
mol of acid
0.000110mol
mol
0.000011
mL of sample
10
mL
(A2)
Sample Calculation for propionic acid mass flow rate
mass of acid= Acid flow rate 0.000011
mol 1.165mL 74.1g
0.000949 g / s
mL
sec
mol
(A3)
Sample Calculation for volume of propionic acid
volume of acid = Acid volumemolecular weightdensity

0.000011
mol
74.1g 99 g
100mL
0.0823mL
mL
mol
mL
(A4)
Sample Calculation for volume of diesel
volume of diesel = total volume - volume of acid = 100mL - 0.0823mL = 99.9 mL

Sample Calculation for mass flow rate of diesel
volume of diesel
99.9 mL 0.798 g
density of feed =
time of sample
94sec
mL
(A6)
Sample Calculation for YA
YA
mass of acid
0.000949 g / s
=
0.00111
mass of diesel
0.849 g / s
40
(A7)
(A5)
Oscillation #1 144 oscillations/minute 0.7cm amplitude
Trial
1
2
3
Average
Standard
Deviation
Trial
1
2
3
Average
Standard
Deviation
Table A2. Raffinate flow properties for Oscillation #1.

Raffinate
Volume (mL)
Time (seconds)
Flow rate (mL/sec)
100
94
1.064
100
75
1.333
100
91
1.099
1.165
0.147
Table A3. Extract flow properties for Oscillation #1.

Extract
Volume (mL)
Time (seconds)
Flow rate (mL/sec)
100
73
1.370
100
70
1.429
100
70
1.429
1.409
0.0339
Titration Raffinate
Trial
1
2
3
Table A4. Titration raffinate properties for Oscillation #1.

Volume
Volume NaOH
mol NaOH
mol propionic
Raffinate (mL)
(mL)
acid
10
10
10
5.5
5.2
5.1
0.000110
0.000104
0.000102
0.000110
0.000104
0.000102
Propionic acid
concentration
(mol/mL)
0.000011
0.0000104
0.0000102
Table A5. Titration raffinate properties for Oscillation #1 continued.

mass Acid (g/s)
0.000949
0.000898
0.000881
Average
0.0546 g/min
Standard
Deviation
0.00216 g/min
Vacid (mL)
0.0823
0.0778
0.0763
Vdiesel (mL)
99.9
99.9
99.9
mass Diesel (g/s)

0.849
1.06
0.877
Average
55.8 g/min
Standard
Deviation
7.01 g/min
(More appendices followed in the original report)
41
YA
0.00112
0.000844
0.00101
Average
0.000989
Standard
Deviation
0.000138
ya*
0
0
0
Average
0
Standard
Deviation
0
CHBE 4210 Bioprocess Unit Operations

Dr. Yonathan Thio Ms. Jacqueline Snedeker
Lab 6: Novel Transdermal Drug Delivery
(NOTE: This is not the same as the Transdermal delivery lab that we are doing in 4210!)
Group 14: Larry Brown and *Moe Green
Dates Performed: July 6, 2016 Date Submitted: July 13, 2015
an estradiol patch and an estradiol pill.
ABSTRACT
(See Abstract section in Style Guide for an
example. 275 word limit.)
words. Limit is 170)

THEORY
(Here, you would lay out the key equations and
models used to analyze your data. 275 word
limit. See Theory section in Style Guide for an
example.)
INTRODUCTION
Drug delivery has two important criteria: drug
concentration in blood plasma and effective
period.
Oral medication usually fails to
achieve
steady
and
extended
(165
APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE
drug
Furthermore, it experiences first-
(Here, you would briefly describe your

apparatus and insert a diagram of the
apparatus. You would also briefly describe the
procedure, noting in particular any deviations
from the lab manual.)
Studies
were
conducted
on
40
pass effects in the liver, in which the drugs are
postmenopausal women. They were divided into
typically
before
four groups of ten: three groups receiving
reaching the blood plasma, reducing the drug
estradiol patches containing different amount of
concentration in the body. It requires periodic

administration ranging from several hours to a
couple of days due to rapid drug elimination in
the body.
degraded
concentration.
or
metabolized
estradiol (2.0, 4.0, and 8.0 mg), and one group
To overcome such limitations, we
receiving pills every 24 hours. We took blood
developed a novel transdermal drug delivery that
samples from the women every two hours for
administers drugs across the skin. In this case
three days (=72 hours), and the concentration of
study, we designed an estradiol patch and
serum
compared it to traditional oral medication. The
radioimmunoassay with respect to base-line
objective of the study was to determine the
studies performed on the women prior to
effectiveness of transdermal delivery of estradiol
estradiol administration.2 Key safety issues were
compared to other methods. Estradiol, a major
as follows: (list any key safety issues here, as
form of estrogen secreted by the human ovary, is
well as standard safety protocol.)
typically administered to treat menopause
(Word limit is 150 words.)
symptoms. To meet our objective, we compared

the drug concentration in blood plasma between
42
estradiol
was
measured
by
RESULTS & DISCUSSION (Note: this R&D

example is only 350 words. Yours will be closer
to 450-550 words because in most cases you
have multiple objectives.)
To determine the effectiveness of transdermal
When using the estradiol patch containing 4.0mg

of estradiol, the mean concentration of serum
estradiol increased by 67 pg per ml, while for
three estradiol pills each containing 2.0mg of
drug delivery, the collected data were graphed
estradiol, concentration increased by 59 pg per
with respect to the baseline estradiol level in
ml.
blood plasma, as shown in Figure 1. (note:
Therefore, transdermal drug delivery is
more cost-effective by requiring less estradiol.
Format of figure is incorrectsee Style Guide
We
for instructions on formatting figures/tables.)
also
observed
steadier
estradiol
concentration from the group receiving the

estradiol patch than from the group with oral
medication. Using the estradiol patch, a steady
concentration of estradiol in blood plasma was
achieved over 62 hours. In contrast, the oral
medication yielded a sharp decline of the drug
concentration and required daily administrations
to be therapeutically effective.
The steady concentration of estradiol was due
to the constant driving force in estradiol flux
into skin.
Figure 1. Comparison of drug concentrations of 2.0,

4.0, and 8.0 mg of estradiol patch and 2.0 mg oral
medication.
Once the stratum corneum (the
outermost skin layer) is saturated with drug, the
women
patch provides a steady influx of drug driven by
receiving the estradiol patch, the concentration
the concentration difference of drug between
of serum estradiol achieved steady state after 4
skin and drug reservoir in the patch.
The
result
shows
that
among
The mean
The results suggest that the estradiol patch can
concentrations of serum estradiol for the 2.0,
be a substitute for estradiol pill, and may even
4.0, and 8.0 mg patches increased by 32, 67, and
be a better method for estradiol delivery. The
81 pg per ml above baseline, respectively, at
estradiol patch achieved a steadier and longer
steady state.
By comparison, the group
drug concentration than the estradiol pill.
receiving estradiol pill had a mean serum
Furthermore, the estradiol patch avoided high
concentration of estradiol 59 pg per ml above
initial spikes shown in the estradiol pills, which
baseline.
possibly cause side effects.
hours (as shown in Figure 1).
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

Our study accomplished the objectives by
Transdermal drug delivery achieved a higher

concentration of estradiol in the blood plasma,
illustrating the advantages that transdermal drug
with less of the drug, than the oral medication.
43
delivery has over oral administration. First, it

REFERENCES
1. Shah, V. P. Topical Drug Bioavailability,
minimized degradation or metabolization of

drug, yielding higher concentration in blood
Bioequivalence, and Penetration; Springer:
plasma. Second, it provided sustained release of
Washington, DC, 1993; pp 71-88.
drugs for several days to a week. Furthermore,
2. Guy, R. H.; Hadgraft, J. Transdermal Drug
results showed that tight regulations on the
Delivery, Informa Health Care: Seattle, WA,
dosage can be accomplished due to ease of
2003; pp 1; 5; 72.
control.
3. Prausnitz, M. R.; Mitragotri, S.; Langer, R.,
Despite these advantages, transdermal drug
Current Status and Future Potential of
delivery can be only applied to drugs that meet
Transdermal Drug Delivery. Nature Reviews
certain criteria. Drugs must have low molecular
2004, 3, 115-124.
mass, less than 500 DA, high lipophilicity, and
4. Henzl, M. R.,; Loomba P. K. Transdermal
low required dose due to the low permeability of

the stratum corneum.
Delivery of Sex Steroids for Hormone
Overcoming this low
Replacement Therapy and Contraception: A
permeability is a major challenge in transdermal
Review of Principles and Practice. The
drug delivery.
Journal of Reproductive Medicine 2003, 7,
Recommendations to improve this lab
525-540.
include testing transdermal delivery of other
5. Physicians Desk Reference, 48th ed. Thomson
drugs such as caffeine and nicotine in order to
PDR: Montvale, NJ, 1994; p 822.
expand the application of this novel patch. We

also recommend expanding the clinical trials in
Note: Nomenclature and Appendices would
follow on the subsequent pages. Nomenclature
and Appendices do not need to be presented in
two-column format.
order to obtain more reliable data. (155 words)
44
Nomenclature
Symbol
Definition
Units
surface area
m2
Cpair
heat capacity of air
J/kg/K
Cpc
heat capacity of copper
J/kg/K
Cpw
heat capacity of water
J/kg/K
DAB
diffusivity of an air water system
m2/s
Eacc
energy accumulated in a system
Eg
energy generated in a system
Ein
energy entering a system
Eout
energy leaving a system
convective heat transfer coefficient
W/K/m2
Hfg
mole heat of vaporization of water
J/kg
Jix
molal flux relative to molal average velocity
Kair
thermal conductivity of air
W/K/m2
Kc
thermal conductivity of copper
W/K/m2
Kw
thermal conductivity of water
W/K/m2
Lc
Length of copper cylinder
molecular weight
g/mol
45
Appendix A: Concentration Data

Table I A. Blah blah blah blah.
Table II A. Blah blah blah blah.

SLOPE
INTERCEPT
R2
Appendix B: ANOVA calculations

Table I B. Blah blah blah
Source of Variation
SS
Between Groups
0.000205
Within Groups
0.000155
Total
df
MS
0.00036
ANOVA shows that results are significant (Fcalc>Fcrit) at a 90% confidence level.
46
P-value
F crit
Appendix A: Scientific Writing & Format Specs

The Grammar of Scientific Writing & Format Specifics of the ChBE Lab
Report
Every field has its own languagethat is, its own specific, standardized, conventional
ways of using language and formatting text. One could call this the grammar of a profession
or the discourse conventions of a community. This section outlines aspects of the grammar of
chemical engineering that are significant to lab report writing.
1. Verb Tense:
In your lab report, things that occurred in the past should be written about in the past tense.
Everything in the experiment occurred in the past. There are two exceptions:
a. Use the present tense when writing about current events (industrial applications, for
example).
This use of the present tense will occur mainly in the Introduction.
b. Use the present tense when writing about things that are eternally in the present, things
that are unaffected by time (equations, figures, tables, and theoretical ideas). Equation 9
always yields; Figure 3 always shows. To clarify: if you used the past tense in these
situations, you would be suggesting that something different holds true now: Equation 9
yielded Equation 10 (at one time), but now Equation 9 yields something else (because of
new research, theory, etc.).
This rule applies mainly in the Theory section, but it will also come into play in the
Results and Discussion section when you are explaining your graphs and tables.
(e.g., Figure 3 shows that when time increased, temperature decreased. NOTE: the verb
tied to the thing in the perpetual present is in the present tense (shows), but the verbs that
relate to the actual experiment are in the past tense (increased and decreased)).
2. Passive vs. Active Voice:
Although you should avoid passive voice as much as possible in all types of writing, there
are situations when passive constructions are appropriate in scientific writing.
NOTE: Passive voice, passive verbs, or passive constructions occur when there is no agent
in the sentencethat is, there is no one or thing doing the action (EX. A bomb was dropped
on Hiroshima. This is passive voice because the sentence doesnt indicate WHO or WHAT
dropped the bomb.) .
a. Passive voice is appropriate when it doesnt matter who performed the action (or you
purposefully want to obscure who did what).
Ex.
The pressure was measured at three different flow rates.
47
[someone in the laboratory did this, but it doesnt matter who].
b. Passive voice is appropriate when you want to avoid a string of sentences all
beginning with I or we.
Ex.
To begin, we determined the porosity and mean diameter of the sand used
in the packed bed. The porosity of the packed bed was calculated by both
weight and volume. To determine m by weight, a tared 359 ml graduated
cylinder was filled with approximately 700 g of sand two times. The mass
of sand was measured and then the graduated cylinder was filled with
water until the water level reached the top of the sand level.
[The author and his or her lab partners did all of these things, but
an agent-action style would focus too much on the author AND
would become too repetitive: We determined, we calculated, we
filled, we measured, etc.]
c. Passive voice is appropriate when you are telling the story of the object you studied
or the apparatus you designed.
Ex. The packed column used in the experiment was xxx by xxx high, transparent
Plexiglas column packed approximately 7 7/16 cm with sand. A U-tube
manometer was connected to the packed bed with one pressure reading
below the bed and another reading below the top weir. Tubes, connected
at the bottom of the bed, allowed for static pressure to be measured
separately from the pressure drop. The tube connected to the bottom of
the bed was raised to meet the top tube, thereby negating the head of water
in the column available for measurement by the manometer.
[this is the story of the fluidized bed apparatus]
3. Although you dont want to generate long strings of sentences beginning with we, you may
use the 1st person plural (we) in your lab reports but only in certain situations (youll only
use we, not I, since your lab is a group project).
a. You may use we to refer to work that you and your lab group did.
Ex.
We turned on the two cold water valves.

We recommend that the department purchase a new pump.
We found substantial agreement with the literature values.
DO NOT USE WE to refer to you and your reader or you and other unspecified members of the profession (ex. In the field of chemical engineering, we
use pumps in a variety of situations.)
You will find we is most appropriate in the Apparatus and Procedure section,
possibly Results & Discussion, and the Conclusions and Recommendations
48
section. If youre using we in the Theory section, youre probably using it

inappropriatelyin the general, vague way, rather than the specific way.
4. Formatting and punctuating equations in the Theory section can be a little tricky.
a. Each equation should appear on its own line, separate from the prose text.
For better readability, equations should be centered in the column.
EX.
Combining Equation 4 with Equation 5 yields
X+Y+Z=A
(6)
b. Each equation should be numbered. Numbers should be sequential and

flush with the right-hand margin.
EX.
X+Y+Z=A
(6)
c. Generally, treat the equation as if it were a regular noun and punctuate

accordingly. However, you should NOT include punctuation at the end of the
equation. According to the ACS Style Guide, Punctuation that would
normally be present at the end of an equation in text is absent but implicit at
the end of a displayed equation. Thus, even if the end of the equation is also
the end of the sentence, you should NOT put a period at the end of the
equation. Your reader will figure out that the sentence has ended just from the
context.
I. Your sentence is
X+Y+Z=A
(6)
[There is no punctuation between the verb and the equationbecause the equation
functions as the direct object of the verb. (Imagine substituting the words an elephant
for the equation, X+Y+Z=A. Would you put a comma or colon between yields and an
elephant? No. Therefore, there is no punctuation between yields and the equation.)]
49
ii. Your sentence is

X+Y+Z=A
(6)
where X is salt, Y is pepper, and Z is sugar.

[Again, there is no punctuation between the verb and the equation. However, the
sentence does not end after the equation in this instance but continues on with a
dependent clause. This dependent clause is part of the same sentence, so make sure that
the first word in the clause (here, its where) is lowercase.]
iii. Your sentence is
Combining Equation 4 with Equation 5 yields Equation 6:
X+Y+Z=A
(6)
[The stuff before the equation stands as a complete sentence. If the equation werent
there, you would simply put a period. However, since the sentence continues, you need a
colon after Equation 6.]
FYI: The colon, as a form of punctuation, is used
after an independent clause (a complete sentence) to
indicate a pause-stop before a word or list that
illustrates or explains something in the first clause.
iv. Your sentence is

Combining Equation 4 with Equation 5 yields Equation 6,
X+Y+Z=A
(6)
[In Example iv., the where clause after the equation is a continuation of the sentence
(because the where clause modifies Equation 6). Therefore, you need to put a comma
after Equation 6, instead of a colon.]
50
v. Your sentence is
Equation 5 can be simplified to yield Equation 6,
X+Y+Z=A
(6)

[This is a little trickier to understand. Think of it this way: What follows the comma
X+Y+Z=Ais an appositive, which means it is exactly the same as the term or phrase
that comes directly before itin this case, Equation 6. This is kind of like By using
ginkoba, the greatest memory supplement ever, it is possible to regain your ability to
remember things. The rule is that appositives are both preceded and followed by
commas, but as explained earlier, we do not punctuate at the end of equations that are set
off from the text.]
vi. Your sentence is:
This relationship is shown by the following equation:
X+Y+Z=A
(6)

[This is a variation on Example v. The difference is that the equation X+Y+Z=A is not
EXACTLY the same as what came before itthus, it is not an appositive. Instead, it is
the beginning of a new clause that needs to be connected to the preceding independent
clause by a colon.]
A note on equation editor:
Formulas and equations should look professional. Therefore, a good equation editor
should be used to make these equations readable instead of piecing together bits of text.
Microsoft WORD has its own equation editor under Insert Object, and third party
products such as MathType can be used with WORD or other word processors. Use of
a proper equation editor will produce results such as
14 x
lim 2.3
(3)
n0 n
as opposed to
alpha=the limit as n approaches zero of (14x/n 2.3).
(3)
Symbols, superscripts, subscripts and equations editors can also be used to make
mathematical terms used in the text look professional. For example, terms such as y3, 3.4
0.1, , and v should be used instead of y^3, 3.4+/-0.1, angstroms, and v-dot.
5. Figures and tables also have special formatting rules. Neither should be simply dropped
into the text (you must introduce them and then explain them), and both must be properly
oriented on the page.
51
For more specific rules for figures and tables, please see Appendix E.
6. In referring to specific equations, tables, or figures by number, the words Equation 1,
Table II, or Figure 3 should be initial capitalized, as they are now proper nouns
(So . . . Equation 1, NOT equation 1). Its also better to refer to figures as figures, not
graphs.
7. All measurements should include units; SI is preferable where possible. Although you
should abbreviate units, DO NOT USE PERIODS AFTER THE ABBREVIATION.
(Exception: Use in. to indicate inches (since in is an actual word, it can create
confusion if you dont include the period after it.)
You should typically leave a space between a number and its associated unit (e.g., The
column was 20 cm in length) with the exception of (the degree symbol) and % (the percent
symbol), where there should be no space between the number and the unit (e.g., We ran the
experiment at 30C and obtained 25% fructose conversion.)
8.
Formulas as well as figures and tables should use the appropriate scientific notation
rather than the exponential notation typical of computer output. For example, 2.6710-3
should always be used instead of 2.67E-3 (the symbol can be inserted by using the Insert
Symbol command in WORD, and the superscript is available by highlighting the text and
hitting CTRL-D and selecting Superscript). Computer notation may be appropriate for
large amounts of numbers in a spreadsheet located in an appendix, but not in the main report
text or any tables or figures contained therein.
9.
There is no standard citation style for the field of chemical engineering. Indeed, citation
styles vary from publication to publication. However, all publications do two things in
common: 1) they keep track of cited sources by referencing the source within the text; and 2)
they give full bibliographic information in a section entitled References. These two things
complement each other: the in-text citation is short so as to not clutter up the prose, while the
reference section fills out the in-text information so that the citation can be located if needed.
For the purposes of our course, we will be using the formats as presented in the Reference
section above and the In-Text Citations section below (both adapted from the ACS Style
Guide) to do these two things.
52
Appendix B: In-Text Citations

To keep track of cited sources within the text, use superscript numbers at the end of the
sentence (after the final punctuation) in which the reference is made. Occasionally, you
may place the in-text citation within the sentence (not at the end) if you feel that placing
the citation at the end of the sentence would be misleading.
EX. Readable writing expresses actions as verbs.1
Rules for citations:
Start with 1 and number consecutively throughout the paper, including references in
text and those in tables, figures, and other non-text components. These numbers
correspond with your numbered list of references (see section on References in Style
Guide). You may wish to use the EndNote Program for references and citations.
If a reference is repeated, do not give it a new number; instead, use the original
reference number.
Figures taken from an outside source or from the lab manual should be cited at the
end of the caption.
A complication: In the Theory section, superscript citations still appear at the end of the
sentence. However, we do not put the citation on the same line as an equation. It is
permissible to put the citation at the end of phrase or clause that directly precedes the
equation, or at the end of the clause that sometimes follows the equation.
Examples:
Combining Equation 4 with Equation 5 yields Equation 6:1
X+Y+Z=A
(6)
OR
X+Y+Z=A
where X=peanuts, Y=popcorn, and Z=pretzels.1
53
(6)
Appendix C: Writing - Style & Grammar

Better Sentences
You are doing many things when you are revising your prose: working on transitions so as to
reveal the relationships between things, re-organizing for more logical presentation of
information, and reworking sentences for clarity and effectiveness. This section offers some tips
for how to go about revising for the latter.
1. Keep down word length.
Utilize
Terminate
Substantiate
>>>Use
>>>End
>>>Prove
2. Keep down sentence length (15-20 words as a general rule, although occasional longer and
shorter sentences are nice to break up the monotony).
3. Keep down paragraph length. Each paragraph should have ONE main idea. Usually, once
a paragraph reaches half a column in length, it should be split (in a logical place) into two
paragraphs.
4. Eliminate needless words.
all of the labs
used for fuel purposes
uniformly homogenous
during the course of
>>>all labs
>>>used for fuel
>>>homogenous
>>>during
5. Simplify positive/negative constructions.

were not a success
or
did not succeed
>>> failed
did not pay attention to
>>> ignored
6. Watch out for the it/thisthat and there are syndrome. Activate verb and shorten
statements.
This is a subject that interests many
chemical engineers.
>>>This subject interests many

chemical engineers.
There are two factors contributing to

this observation.
>>>Two factors contribute to this

observation.
54
7. Eliminate affected language.

utilize
ascertain
contiguous
>>>use
>>>find out
>>>touching
8. Eliminate empty, wordy phrases.

due to the fact that
the fact that we did not succeed
during the course of
for the reason that
>>>because, since
>>>our failure
>>>during
>>>because
8. Express coordinate ideas in parallel form.

The overall heat-transfer coefficient can be
found two ways, theoretically or by experimental
runs of the system.
>>>The overall heat-transfer coefficient can

be found two ways, theoretically or
experimentally.
Or: by theoretical calculations or by
experimental runs of the system.
9. Express crucial action as verbs, not as nouns.
The data are proof of the thesis.
There was literature agreement.
Vaporization of liquid streams occurs
at the mixtures boiling point.
>>>The data prove the thesis.

>>>The data agreed with literature values.
>>>The liquid streams vaporize at the
mixtures boiling point.
10. Put the doer close to whats being done. (In other words, put subject close to verb.)
The twins, after stubbornly going to the
same high school despite the advice of
their parents and teachers, chose different
colleges.
>>>The twins chose different colleges,

after stubbornly going to the same high
school despite the advice of their parents
and teachers.
11. Put descriptions (or modifiers) close to what they describe.

The pasture contained several cows seen by >>>Reporters saw a pasture containing several cows
news reporters that were dead, diseased,
that were dead, diseased, or dying.
or dying.
55
Appendix D: Other Standard Writing Conventions

General correctness is important in any form of writing. You should own a grammar
handbook so that you can look up rules and figure out how to correct mistakes that are marked
on your graded reports (Diana Hackers A Writers Reference is a good one, as is Sally Barr
Ebests Writing from A to Z). Although you are ultimately responsible for catching and
correcting all errors, the list offers a place to begin your editing, as it represents a quick overview
of common problems.
1. Spelling
Use the spell-checker on your word processor. In addition, look up words in a dictionary
if you are unsure of their meaning or spelling. As a final step, proofread to make sure the
spell-checker didnt miss anything (it often doesplus, the spell-checker wont notice if
you write form rather than from).
2. Wrong Word Usage
Be aware of the differences between commonly confused words (e.g., it's = it is. its =
possessive; too/to; their/there; weather/ whether; verses/versus; then/than, led/lead, etc.).
3. Word Choice
Be careful to say what you mean, especially where homonyms (words that sound alike
but are spelled differently) are concerned. Don't confuse pairings like except/accept;
effect/affect, and so on. (Effect is usually a nounMy teacher had a great effect on
me.whereas Affect is usually a verbThe increase in water flow rate did not
affect the pressure drop.)
4. Fragments
All sentences must be complete sentences. That is, they must contain both a subject and
a verb. Be especially careful to avoid fragments beginning with words like although,
because, especially, when, where, and since. (You may, of course, start sentences with
these words, but you just have to be careful that youve written a complete sentence.)
Example of fragment: Although our results appeared to agree with theory.
Correct: Although our results appeared to agree with theory, they were not
statistically significant.
5. Noun-Pronoun and Noun-Verb Agreement
All singular nouns take singular pronouns. Plural nouns take plural pronouns. Likewise,
all singular nouns take singular verbs, and plural nouns take plural verbs. Remember to
use the appropriate verb for the sentence's subject (which isn't always the same as the
noun that immediately precedes a given verb).
Ex: The pilot as well as all of her passengers was rescued. (Pilot ... was, not
passengers were.)
*Remember that the word data is plural and requires a plural verb (i.e., the data
were..., not the data was...).
56
6. Clear References
Make sure all of your pronouns refer clearly to a noun that precedes them. Pronouns
should not refer vaguely to an entire sentence or to a clause. When possible, avoid
using This alonetry instead to say this result (or this behavior, trend, agreement,
etc.). When using it, be sure that the antecedent (the word that it points back to) is
clear.
Ex: Some people worry about wakefulness but actually need little sleep. This is
one reason they have so much trouble sleeping. [Here, This could refer to the worry
OR to the need for little sleep OR to psychological problems or something else that hasn't
even been mentioned.]
7. Comma Usage
Commas should be used in the following situations:
a. To separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
Ex: The water was stirred thoroughly, and the temperature of the water was
recorded. (Note that both clauses on either side of the and can stand alone as
complete sentencestherefore they are independent clauses, and you need a comma)
b. After an introductory word, phrase, or clause.
Ex: Once the speed was set and the pressure valves were opened, the flow rate
was adjusted.
c. When you are listing more than two items.
Ex. We calculated TDH, BHP, and efficiency. (Note the comma before the
andthis is called the serial comma or the Oxford comma and it is
required in most technical publications, including your lab reports!)
d. To set off non-restrictive elements (clauses or phrases).
A non-restrictive element is one that would not drastically alter the core meaning
of the sentence if the element were removed.
Ex. Our results showed a linear relationship between conversion and temperature,
indicating that the enzyme was more active at higher temperatures.
(The underlined portion is a non-restrictive participial phraseif removed, the
core meaning of the sentence would still be clear.)
Do not use commas to separate two compound elements, such as verbs, subjects,
complements, or predicates.
Ex: We stirred the water thoroughly and then recorded its temperature. [no
comma!] (Note that although the first clause is independent, the second onethen
recorded its temperature cannot stand alone as a sentencetherefore, no comma
required.)
57
8. Comma Splices
These are also known as run-on sentences or fused sentences. Here, you splice two
sentences together with nothing more than a comma. Comma splices are grammatically
incorrect.
Example of a comma splice: The first trial produced unreliable data, therefore, we ran
the experiment again.
To correct: turn one sentence into a dependent clause, join the sentences with a semicolon, or break them up into two or more sentences
Correct: The first trial produced unreliable data; therefore, we ran the experiment again.
9. Colloquial Speech
Avoid using slang, clichs, or very informal language in formal lab reports.
10. Colons and Semicolons
These are very different tools of punctuation, yet they are often used incorrectly.
Semicolons (;) join closely related independent clauses (two complete sentences) and
may also be used to separate lengthy items (one or more of which has internal commas)
in a series.
EX. 1. In the fixed bed experiment, pressure drop increased linearly with
superficial velocity; however, once the bed was fluidized, pressure drop
remained relatively constant.
EX. 2. The objectives were to determine productivity and reaction rate; model the
relationship between flow rate, temperature, and conversion; and analyze the
economic feasibility of the process.
Colons (:) introduce explanations or examples, or they may introduce a series, a list, or a
quotation. Colons are used only after an independent clause; however, what comes
AFTER the colon may or may not be an independent clause.
EX 1. Our poor data can be explained by an experimental error: we forgot to
check the pH levels of the broth.
EX 2. A chocolate cake has several key ingredients: flour, sugar, butter, eggs,
milk, and baking powder.
11. Possessives and Plurals
Be careful of the distinction between possessives and plurals. Plurals refer to more than
one of a thing; the possessive case (which requires an apostrophe) designates ownership.
Possessive: The girls eyes were brown.
Plural: The girls had brown eyes
Plural AND Possessive: The girls eyes were brown.
12. Abbreviations
With the exception of units, do not use abbreviations (use versus NOT vs.) in the
main text. You may, however, use abbreviations inside parenthetical statements or in
figure captions.
Ex: At the store, we bought fruit, for example, apples, oranges, bananas, and so
on.
58
But: At the store, we bought fruit (e.g., apples, oranges, bananas, etc.).
13. Numbers
o Numbers less than 10 should be spelled out; numbers 10 and greater should be written
as numerals (e.g., The experiment used 30 flasks. We then poured the contents of the
flasks into two tanks.)
o However, any number associated with a unit should be written as a numeral,
regardless of how large the number is (e.g., We ran the pump at 5 RPM.). Put a space
between the numeral and the unit, except with and %, where there is no space
between the numeral and the unit.
o Use all numerals in a series or range containing numbers 10 or greater (e.g., Either 5,
8, or 12 experiments were run.).
o When a sentence starts with a specific quantity, spell out the number as well as the
unit of measure (e.g., Fifteen milliliters of supernate was added to the vessel.) If
possible, however, rework the sentence to avoid.
14. A lot is two words.
15. Cannot is one word.
16. The word data is plural. So, The data show, The data indicate, These data are,
and so forth.
17. Do not use contractions (e.g., cant, wont, etc.) in lab reports.
18. Avoid gendered prose. Make pronouns plural when possible; when not, use he or she
or him or her, and so on.
19. Respectively
In general, you should try to avoid constructing sentences that require the word respectively
to be tacked on at the end. It is harder to read a sentence that says Water contents were 92,
128, and 280 g kg-1 for samples 5, 6, and 18, respectively than the more straightforward
version: Water contents were 92 g kg-1 for sample 5, 128 g kg-1 for sample 6, and 280 g
kg-1 for sample 18. Yes, the second version is a bit longer, but it is also a lot clearer and
easier to read. You might also consider presenting these data in a table instead.
Occasionally, its okay to use respectively when you are listing two or more values of a
similar type, for example, The overall heat-transfer coefficients for the plate-and-frame
exchanger at x, y, and z conditions were a, b, and c, respectively (note that there is always
a comma before respectively).
However, its NOT okay to use respectively when comparing apples and oranges. For
example, you would not say Marys hair color, height, and IQ are brown, 55, and 130,
respectively. Likewise, when you are trying to convey different types of values in your lab
59
report, dont use a structure that requires the use of respectively. It is clearer to say
Marys hair color is brown, her height is 55, and her IQ is 130.
20. Hyphenation (borrowed, with a few small changes, from A Short Guide to Technical
Writing written by the Faculty of the School of Chemical Engineering at the University of
Utah)
Because of the importance of the hyphen, especially in scientific and technical writing, the
discussion of this most misused of all marks of punctuation is necessary. The importance of this
small mark cannot be exaggerated. Its presence or absence can change a meaning completely.
Was the tank recovered or re-covered? Is it a light gas unit or a light-gas unit? Static liquid-seal
height or static-liquid seal height? The student must decide whether each adjective can modify
the noun independently or whether two or more, as a one-word compound modifier, are needed.
Consider "heat transfer data"; are they heat data or transfer data, or does it take both words as a
unit to express the idea accurately? If so, hyphenate. In the expression "double pipe heat
exchanger," is it a pipe exchanger or a double exchanger? Since neither makes sense, double
and pipe are operating as a compound modifier; therefore, use a hyphen.
As you can see, inability to understand the function of the hyphen and its correct
application is one of the factors which may defeat the very purpose of ones research. The failure
of our first $16 million Venus rocket was due to the omission of one little hyphen from the
computer data. It is therefore vital, for purposes of clarity and precision, that the writer
familiarize him/herself with the conventions of hyphenation. Although the rules are somewhat
fluid and in a constant state of flux, some well-established standards nevertheless exist, the
rudiments of which are detailed below. Should a more complete list be desired, consult the rules
on hyphenation in Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary or another reliable source.
1. First and foremost is the rule that, when two or more words modify another word as a unit,
the hyphen must be used to show the compound relationship. In the examples below, chosen
because they are among the most commonly used expressions in chemical engineering, observe
that, without the hyphen, the precise meanings of the modified nouns would be seriously in
doubt. The ordinary reader might not be able to detect the real meanings at all, and even the
technician might be puzzled. The writer owes the reader the courtesy of making his/her meaning
unmistakably clear, and a properly placed hyphen is one way of doing so.
acetic-acid water system
bubble-cap tray
bulk-air temperature
chemical-process equipment
constant-head tank
constant-pressure theory
continuous stirred-tank reactor
composition linear diagram
gas-bubble column
heat-exchange-product stream
heat-transfer-film coefficient
impact-velocity feed line
liquid-temperature air-enthalpy plot
logarithmic-mean temperature
constant-pressure enthalpy
proportional-plus-integral-mode
60
dissolved-oxygen concentration
dynamic-process-control analysis
enthalpy-difference driving force
exit-line pressure
fluid-column height
transport coefficient
fluid-friction factor
laminar-velocity profile
low-energy bond
inside-pipe cross-sectional area
liquid-gas interface
reciprocal-film heat-transfer equation

scintillation-counter spectrometer
sensible-heat transfer
steam-jacketed one-tube-pass heat
thermal-energy transfer
time-drying-rate plots
tray-type column
tube-flow viscometer
water-head pressure
Exception: the compound mass transfer is never hyphenated, even if it is functioning as a

compound modifier.
2. In a series of hyphenated words having a common base, use suspended hyphens:
a two- or three-year study
dextro- and levo-tartaric acid
low-, medium-, and high-density polyethylenes
T- and H-shaped rib design
3. Although there are exceptions, a compound modifier is not hyphenated when it stands
after the noun or in the predicate:
a built-in oscillator
an oscillator is built in
a T-shaped metal support
the support is T shaped
a day-old solution
a solution a day old
4. Do not hyphenate with -ly:
an imperfectly rounded Styrofoam ball
accurately held dimensions
5. If the preceding adjective is in the comparative or the superlative degree, no hyphen is
used:
a high-priced unit but a higher priced unit
6. Prefixes are usually written solid with the word modified, except when an awkward
doubling or trebling of letter occurs or when the word modified is a proper noun:
coexist hydroelectric millivolt
countercurrent infrared nontechnical
but
61
co-orbits non-Newtonian shell-like

inter-Allied photo-optical trans-Stilbene
intra-atomic pre-exposure
However, "coordinate" and "cooperate" need not be hyphenated.
6. Since a different meaning may be conveyed by writing a prefix solid with the word, a
hyphen may sometimes have to be used.
resort to other means
recover the effluent
recollect past errors
microin (correct)
reform the methods
unionized labor
re-sort the particles

re-cover the receptacle
but re-collect the filtrate
micro-in. (better)
re-form the molecules
un-ionized atoms
7. Words compounded with ex- (former), self-, and quasi- are hyphenated.
ex-chairman self-evident quasi-scientific
8. Various parts of speech are often compounded when no one word will accurately depict
the idea.
When used as the parts of speech designated below, they are hyphenated.
air-dry (v.)
heat-treat (v.)
stand-in (n. or adj.)
by-product (n.)
start-up (n.)
down-drag (n.)
mix-up (n.)
straight-line (adj.)
follow-up (n.)
power-driven (adj.) water-free (adj.)
foot-pound (n.)
right-hand (adj.)
well-founded (adj.)
half-hour (adj.)
short-circuit (v.)
well-known (adj.)
Example: The initial experiments require follow-up. But, we follow up our experiments with data
analysis.
9. Through frequent use, certain compounds lose the hyphen and are written solid. Others
drop the hyphen but are still written as two words. The dictionary is the criterion; but, if
the words are too new to appear there, common convention must be the guide.
acidproof
downdraft
nonnuclear
shakedown
airline
downstream overall
sheetmetal
airstream
downtime
oversized
shutdown
airtight
drawoff
overhead
standpipe
all right
fallout
output
blowdown (n.)
blowout (n.) flow rate
payoff (n.)
streamline
62
breakdown (n.) free fall

payout (n.)
throughput
buildup
halfway
percent
turbojet
bypass
heat exchanger phototype
twofold
byproduct
holdup
photosensitive upend
checkup (n.) input
pinpoint
upkeep
crosscut
intake
pipeline
upstroke
crossflow
layout (n.)
radioactive
voltmeter
cross section lineup (n.)
setscrew
wavelength
dew point
makeup
setup (n.)
widespread
downcomer mass transfer set point
worthwhile
10. For clearer and smoother reading, it is often advisable to avoid excessive or awkward
hyphenation by writing the expression in a different way. However, if the writer prefers the
long compound modifier before the noun, the hyphens must be used.
"A four-foot-deep seven-by-five-foot tank" is better written "a tank four feet deep and seven by
five feet wide."
"Corrosion-, heat-, and cold-resistant material" or "material resistant to corrosion heat, and cold."
63
Appendix E: Tables and Figures

The problem with figures and tables is that their exact format varies among technical
publications. However, the format presented here is consistent with most technical publications
in the science and engineering field and should be followed for all lab reports.
Remember that you are limited to no more than FOUR (4) tables and figures total in the Results
& Discussion section. You may use tables and figures in other sections, such as the Theory or
Apparatus & Procedure sections, as needed (but dont go overboard).
Tables
Specific rules for Tables:
They should be centered on the page or in the column and they are numbered using
Roman numerals.
The number and title should be centered above the table.
Use 10-point font for table titles, and capitalize the first letter of important words
(generally, words longer than 4 letters).
Table titles should be single-spaced.
Do not bold the entire table title. Its okay to bold the title number (e.g., Table I), but
bolding the entire title is not necessary and can be distracting
Define the units of each term.
Do not just cut and paste Excel excerpts into your report! You need to make an
actual table in Word and then copy/paste in each line of Excel data that you want.
o Be sure to convert Excel data to Times New Roman 11 or 12 font
o Dont use the Excel style of formatting (e.g., 5.54E-04) in the main body
of the report. Use scientific notation insteadso, 5.54*10-4 (Note: in
appendices, its okay to use the Excel style)
Any additional explanatory notes should be listed in the table or below the table, as illustrated
here.
64
Table I. Enhancement of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient (h)

from Various Pipe Coatings
h (free convection)
h (forced convection h (forced convection Coating Material
W/(m3 K)
laminar regime)
turbulent regime)
W/(m3 K)a
W/(m3 K)b
Copper plating
13.45
16.21
17.62
Polyester
11.55
16.97
19.75
Polymer brushes
23.87
29.37
31.08
a
Re=100
b
Re=3000
If several quantities that have the same units are repeated in rows or columns, it is clearer to list
the units in the label for that column or row. The alignment tools and table format tools in word
processors such as Microsoft Word can also be used to make the table clear.
Note that a table is for clearly organizing data. Hence, it rarely contains all of the details related
to the data. For example, Table I above does not describe any of the details of the experimental
measurement such as the temperature and geometry under which these measurements were
made. If they were all measured on the same conditions, this note can be included in the text of
the report. If all the conditions are different, these might be described in another column or in a
completely separate table.
Figures
The following are some formatting requirements for figures:
They should be centered on the page or in the column.
They should be numbered using Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.)

The caption and figure number go beneath the figure.
Do not bold the entire caption. It is acceptable to bold the figure number (e.g.,
Figure 1.) at the beginning of the caption, but bolding the entire caption is not
necessary and can be distracting. See the example on the next page.
Captions:
o
o
o
o
can be detailed if necessary and include more than one sentence.

should be single spaced.
should be in 10-point font.
should use sentence case (i.e., capitalize the first letter of the first word and
then treat the rest of the caption as a regular sentence, ending in a period).
o should be left-aligned underneath the left-hand edge of the figure and should
not extend past the right-hand edge of the figure.
65
No figure labels or title should appear above the figure.

The figure should NOT be surrounded by an outer border or frame.
Symbols and lines in a graph should be used appropriately. Discrete data points
should use symbols, whereas continuous functions that describe theories or models
should use lines. The only time it is permissible to use a line for data is if the
sampling rate of the data (usually this occurs with computer data acquisition) is very
rapid relative to the graph scale and the data points would blur together, as is often
the case with spectroscopy data.
In most journals, the legend for the figure appears in the caption below it, as seen in
Figure 1 below, because of resolution limitations in printing. However, if the legend
is clear, it may be placed in the graph, as seen in Figure 2. If the legend is simple
enough to include in the figure, it should be placed in the figure. It should never be
placed to the left or right of the figure as is the default for Microsoft Excel.
Label the x-axis and y-axis with units, etc.
KaleidaGraph, Excel, or MATLAB (all on the ChBE computer cluster) may be used
to prepare graphs. Figures may not be hand-drawn. Note that Microsoft Word has
easy-to-use drawing tools for apparatus diagrams.
An example figure prepared using Kaleidagraph appears on the next page.
66
Figure 1. Measured rate constant vs. Reynolds number (Re) relative to

Smiths earlier study and the proposed kinetic model (circles are our
data, open squares are Smiths data points, and dotted line is the kinetic
model). Error bars on the data from the current study are the 90%
confidence limits for the three data points taken at each value of Re.
** Please note that figure captions should provide sufficient description of the data points,
curves, and error bars. These descriptions may use more than one sentence.
Three graphing packages are supported by Georgia Tech and the School of Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering Computer Lab: Excel by Microsoft, KaleidaGraph by Synergy
Software, and MATLAB by Mathworks. Of these, the one that produces true publicationquality graphics is KaleidaGraph. The graphs appearing in Figures 1 and 2 were made with
KaleidaGraph. However, MATLAB and Excel can produce reasonable graphs for most of the
lab report requirements. Adding new sets of data and error bars is not quite as simple in Excel as
these activities are in MATLAB or KaleidaGraph. Once the graph is formatted correctly, it can
be saved or exported in various graphics formats (GIF, TIF, PICT or JPG) to be placed in a word
processor.
Additional annotations to the figures can be made in Microsoft Word once the graph is added to
the report document. Such annotations are particularly helpful in oral presentations. The same
detailed captions should not be included on figures and tables for oral presentation slides, as
much of this information will be communicated orally.
67
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
Our Study
Smith's Study
Model
1.5
1
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Re
Figure 2. Measured rate constant vs. Reynolds number (Re)
relative to Smiths earlier study and the proposed kinetic model.
Error bars on the data from the current study are the 90%
confidence limits for the three data points taken at each value of Re.
68
Appendix F: Transitional Words and Phrases

Cues that lead readers forward from information they've already read to new
information.
To move readers into additional information or further development of your ideas.

Old
Information
New
Information
Transition
ADDITION
Actually,
Further,
Additionally,
Furthermore,
Again,
Incidentally,
Indeed,
And
In fact,
Besides
Lastly,
Equally important,
Moreover,
Finally,
Not only this, but this as well
First, Second, Third, etc.
What's more,
To move readers into specific examples

Generalization
Transition
Examples
EXAMPLES
As an illustration,
Namely,
Especially,
Notably,
For example,
Particularly,
For instance,
Specifically,
Including
To demonstrate,
In particular,
To illustrate,
69
Cues that lead readers through a sequence
To move readers from one time-frame to another

One
time
Another
time
Transition
TIME
After a few hours,
Immediately following,
Afterwards,
Initially,
At the same time,
In the end,
Before
In the future,
In the meantime,
Currently,
Last, Lastly,
During
Later,
Eventually,
Meanwhile,
Finally,
Next, Soon after,
First, Second, Third, etc.
Previously,
Simultaneously,
Formerly,
Subsequently,
Immediately before,
Then,
To draw readers' attention to a particular location or place

One place
Transition
Another place
PLACE
Adjacent,
In the background,
Alongside,
In the distance,
At the side,
In the front,
Here/There
In the foreground
In the back,
Nearby,
70
Cues that draw readers' attention to cause and effect relationships
To emphasize a cause or reason

Transition
An effect
Cause/Reason
move in to
CAUSE/REASON
As
Because
Because of
For
Since
To stress a result or an effect

Transition
Cause/Reason
An effect
move in to
EFFECT/RESULT
As a result,
So that
Consequently,
Therefore
For this reason,
Thus,
To clarify the purpose of something

Transition
Something
Its purpose
move in to
PURPOSE
To
With this in mind
So that
To that end
71
Cues that make readers stop and compare what they've just read to what they're
about to read
Transition
Just read
About to read
equal or not equal
COMPARISON/CONTRAST
Although/Although xyz is true
Meanwhile,
And yet
Nevertheless,
At the same time,
Nonetheless,
But
Notwithstanding,
Conversely,
On the contrary,
For all that,
On the other hand,
In comparison,
Similarly,
In contrast,
Still,
In the same manner/way,
While xyz is true
However,
When in fact
Likewise,
Whereas
Cues that lead readers into statements that clarify or emphasize
To clarify a point that readers have just read

Transition
Point just read
Clarification
meaning
CLARIFICATION
In other words,
That is to say,
In this case,
Under certain circumstances,
Put another way
Up to a point
72
To emphasize a point that readers are about to read

Transition
Point just read
Emphatic point
!!!!
EMPHASIS
As a matter of fact,
In fact,
In any case,
In any event,
That is
Indeed,
Certainly,
73
Cues that lead readers into concessions, reservations, dismissals, or conditions
To concede a point that readers are likely to think of

Transition
Point just read
Concession
but maybe
CONCESSION
While it is true that
Admittedly,
Despite xxx,
It may seem that
In spite of xxx,
To clarify for readers the writer's reservations

Transition
Point just read
Reservation
even so
RESERVATION
Admittedly,
Indeed,
As a matter of fact,
Nevertheless,
Even so,
Notwithstanding,
Even though
Regardless
Despite this
Still
To dismiss a point that readers are likely to think of

Transition
Point may be true
Dismissal
BUT
DISMISSAL
Regardless, In any case/event,
At any rate,
In either case,
Either way,
Nevertheless,
74
To establish a condition or conditions affecting the subject

Transition
The subject is true
This condition is met

IF
CONDITION
Although
Although this is true,
but
Even though,
However,
In spite of
Nevertheless,
Since
Cues that lead readers into an abstract or conclusion
To repeat a point you've already made

Transition
Point stated
differently
A point
=
REPETITION
Again,
In brief,
As indicated above/earlier,
In short,
As we stated,
As noted earlier,
As mentioned,
On the whole,
75
To summarize what you've already said

Transition
Points made
Abstract
nutshell
ABSTRACT
All together,
On the whole,
As mentioned,
Overall,
As stated,
Since
Briefly,
So
By and large,
In short,
Finally,
Then,
Given these facts,
Therefore,
In brief,
To conclude,
In conclusion,
To summarize
To introduce readers to a conclusion or conclusions

Transition
Points made
Conclusion
the end is coming
CONCLUSION
Accordingly,
In short,
As a result,
Consequently, In conclusion,
Finally,
To conclude,
Hence,
Therefore,
In brief,
Thus,
76

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STYLE GUIDE

UNIT OPERATIONS/BIOPROCESS UNIT OPERATIONS:

Audience & Lab Reports (generally)

have a basic understanding of general chemical engineering principlesfor example, fluid,

Format, Font, and Word Limits

Nomenclature does not have to be in 2-column format

Note: Word limits do NOT include table titles or figure captions.

goals, the abstract must answer these questions:

Below is a good example of an abstract. (This example has 275 words.)

respectively, indicating h is inversely proportional to D. Using these h values, the k of the

Note: you should use SI units throughout the whole report.

motivation for study; definition of operation; significance of operation in

key physical and chemical characteristics; statement of objectives; very

Below is a good example of an introduction.

Because this section is devoted to theory, it is written in the PRESENT TENSE.

Avoid repeating much of what is in the laboratory manual. Simply include

Any additional equations that are needed should be detailed in an

To achieve its purpose, the Theory section needs to

Here is an example of a good opening passage for the Theory section:

Experimental Apparatus and Procedure

Description of apparatus can be in either PRESENT or PAST tense, depending on

Example of apparatus description: (92 words)

Experimental Apparatus and Procedure (good example)

(describe first deviation)

(describe second deviation)

Results and Discussion

Again, the general format of this section is as follows:

To determine , we measured / calculated / etc.

Figure 1 below illustrates the relationship between.

These results suggest/indicate that

Conclusions & Recommendations

Conclusions & Recommendations (about 160 words)

Brief note about recommendations: ** Be careful of whining or sounding too

For a book written or edited by one or more persons:

OR (for multiple pages):

For an article in an anthology/book (note that the UO lab manual is considered to be an

For a general web site:

a document retrieved from an agency or university web site:

For PowerPoint slides or handouts from a class or presentation:

For your own lecture notes from a course:

Sample References section

Eng. Educ. 2000 34 (1), 90-93.

4. Floating Point Unit Operations. MIPS

and Unit Operations, 3rd ed.; PTR

Prentice Hall: Princeton, NJ, 2003; pp

ook_313.html (accessed June 4, 2016).

5. Felder, R.; Rousseau, R.W. Elementary

Principles of Chemical Processes, 3rd

Unit Operations Lab Manual; Georgia

ed.; John Wiley & Sons: New York,

Tech: Atlanta, GA, 2016; p 4.

3. Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactors.

heat capacity of air

heat capacity of copper

heat capacity of water

diffusivity of an air water system

energy accumulated in a system

energy generated in a system

energy entering a system

energy leaving a system

convective heat transfer coefficient

mole heat of vaporization of water

molal flux relative to molal average velocity

thermal conductivity of air