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4. Cervical vertebrae
a) Have transverse foramen through which blood vessels and nerve pass.
5. Thoracic vertebra
a) Have spinous processes that are long directed downwards.
b) Spinous and transverse processes serve as points of attachment of muscles and
ligaments.
6. Lumbar vertebra
a) Largest and strongest.
b) Have large centrums which bear the weight of the lower back.
7. Thorax:
a) thoracic cage (consists of ribs and the sternum)
b) encloses and protects the organs in the thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity.
The appendicular skeleton
1. Consists of:
a) Pectoral girdle clavicle and scapula
b) Humerus upper arm, longest bone
c) Ulna
d) Radius
e) Carpals - wrist
f) Metacarpals palm of the hand
g) Phalanges fingers and toefingers
g) Pelvic girdle consists of two hip bones which provide strong and stable support for
the vertebral column.
h) Femur thigh bone, longest, heaviest and strongest
i) Tibia
j) Fibula
k) Patella kneecap
l) Tarsals - ankle
m) Metatarsals foot
The structure of a joint
1. Joint a place where two or more bones meet.
2. Ligaments Hold bones together and allow them to move
3. Synovial joint:
a) Joint that contains a cavity filled with fluid that allow free movement.
b) 4 features joint capsule (joint enclosure, reinforced and strengthened with ligaments)
- lined with thin synovial membrane (inner surface of the capsule)
- secretes synovial fluid lubricant which reduces friction between the ends of
the bones)
- covered with cartilage
4. Cartilage cushions the joint, absorbs shock and reduces friction between the ends of the
bones.
5. Joints:-
1. A skeletal muscle such as the biceps consists of bundles of muscle fibres and large
supply of nerves and blood vessels.
2. A muscle fibre is a single, long cylindrical cell that contains many nuclei.
3. A muscle fibre is made up of bundles of smaller units called myofibrils.
4. Each myofibril is made up of actin and myosin (protein filaments).
5. The interaction of both these proteins causes muscle contractions.
6. Muscle contraction involves the nervous system and requires energy.
Consequences of impaired musculoskeletal system on support and locomotion
1. Muscle cramp
Definition: sudden contraction of one or more muscles which results in a sudden, intense
pain and inability to use the affected muscle.
Causes: - common among endurance athletes.
- inadequate stretching and muscle fatigue.
2. Muscular dystrophy
Definition: Caused by the progressive degeneration and weakness of the skeletal muscles
That control movement.
Causes: - mutated gene which is found on the X chromosome and mainly affects the
boys.
3. Osteoporosis
Definition: Common bone disorder, especially among elderly women. The bones become
thinner, more brittle and more porous.
Causes: - Loss of bone mass begins after the age of 30 and accelerates greatly around the
age 45.
- If dietary intake of phosphate and calcium are insufficient.
- Bone production and bone tissue will suffer resulting in brittle and fragile
bones.
Symptoms: - fractures of the vertebrae, wrist or hips
- loss of height and stooped posture
Prevention: - Adequate intake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D.
- Regular exercise
4. Arthritis
Definition: - Decreased production of synovial fluid in joints and cartilage between bones
become thinner (osteoarthritis), and ligaments shorten and lose some of their
elasticity.
- Suffer from a painful and stiff knee which restricts daily activities like
walking.
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1. A grasshopper uses three legs to support the body off the ground, while the other three
legs move together to make successive steps while walking.
2. The flexor and extensor (antagonistic) muscles are attached to the internal surface of
the exoskeleton.
3. Flexor muscles bend a joint.
4. Extensor muscles straighten it.
5. The rear legs of a grasshopper are long and muscular and is adapted for hopping.
6. Sitting position: When the flexor muscle contracts, the lower leg is pulled towards the
body. The hind leg is folded in a Z shape and ready for a jump.
7. Jump: When the extensor muscle contracts, the leg jerks backwards, propelling the
grasshopper forward and upward into the air.
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3. Myotomes W shaped muscle blocks that make up each side of the body of a fish and
carry out opposite action.
4. Alternating waves of contraction and relaxation pass down the myotomes on either side
of the body from the head to the tail.
5. These cause different parts of the body to be swept from side to side pushing water
backwards and sideways and the body forwards.
6. Tendency for a fish to become unstable in water during movement, leading to:a) yawing sideways movement
b) pitching vertical plane movement
c) rolling transverse plane movement
7. Movements are countered by fins.
8.Caudal fin provides thrust and controls the fishs direction.
Yawing
Rolling
Pitching
8. These movements are countered by:a) yawing resisted by the median (dorsal and ventral) fin
b) rolling resisted by median fin
c) Pitching resisted by paired pelvic fin and pectoral fin which acts as brakes and
rudders.
9. Bony fish have swim bladders to help them maintain buoyancy in the water.
10. The swim bladder is a sac inside the abdomen that contains gas.
11. Controlling the amount of gas in the swim bladder, a fish can change its buoyancy so
that it has the same relative density as the surrounding water.
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5. Type of vessels:
a) annular (ring shaped) vessel
b) spiral vessel
c) scalariform (ladder like) vessel
d) pitted vessel
6. Secondary growth of xylem results in the formation of wood which makes the plant
stronger and and provides support.
7. Other supporting structures:
a) Buttress root roots that come out from the lower part of the trunk and grow into the
ground, providing support for the tree.
b) Creepers, vines and lianas use other trees for support.
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