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IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 3 , July 1996

ACCURATE MODELLING OF ROD DRTVEN TOWER FOOTING

M.E. Almeida

M.T.Correia de Bassos
Senior Member, IEEE

IST-Universidade Tecnica de Lisboa / Instituto da EnergmINTERG

1096 Lisboa Codex, Portugal

Abstract - For evaluating the lightning performance of

transmission lines by computer simulation, the accurate
modelling of tower footing is very important. In particular, the
decrease of the earth resistance observed for high values of the
current flowing from the tower to earth has to be considered.
In this paper, different modelling approaches allowing to take
into accouut the non-linear behaviour of the tower footing are
overviewed, and a uew model to describe the soil ionization
process is presented. The proposed model corresponds to
considering the ionized soil region as an equifield shell. In
order to represent the ionization phenomena, the values o f the
resistivity on the ionized region are decreased according to the
local current density, and the electric field is kept at a critical
value. Deionization of the soil is also taken into account.
Simulation results are presented, and compared to the
published results of experimental tests.

I. INTRODUCTION
On most electric energy systems, lightning is the main
cause of unscheduled supply interruptions. Computer
simulation is an important tool for evaluating the lightning
perforinance of transmission lines, and the adequate
modelling techniques for the different system's components
have to be established. In particular, it has been emphazised
by different authors that the predicted lightning
backflashover rates are very sensitive to the resistances
ascribed to the tower footings. In particular, the soil
resistivity is a dominant factor for the evaluation of
grounding system parameters.
If large current densities flow from the tower footing into
the soil, the critical field strength of the soil can be

exceeded, and its partial breakdown occurs. Then, the

conductor is surrounded by a corona-type discharge pattern.
The ionized area occupies a confined space in which the
conductivity becomes much greater than in the rest of the
soil. In this situation, the ground electrodes display a nonlinear transient behaviour and present a lower resistance to
ground.
It is considered that the decrease of the tower footing
resistance, under lightning conditions, has to be taken into
account in order to optimize the design of the tower earthing
[l], and in order to obtain inore accurate results when the
lightning performance of transmission lines is evaluated by
computer simulation [2][ 3 ] .
Different models have been developed to describe the soil
ionization process, and simulation results have been
compared to measured values. Basically, the different models
succeed in representing the decrease of the earth electrode
resistance by considering either the decrease of the earth
resistivity, or by assuming an increase of the earth electrode
effective size. Therefore, the different models can be
classified as following either a variable soil resistivity
approach, or a variable electrode geometry approach. The
most representative soil ionization models are summarized
in the present paper, and the corresponding values of the
electric field in the ionized region are investigated. The
viability of these values is discussed in the light of the
physics of the soil ionization, and an alternative model is
proposed following a variable soil resistivity approach
11. BACKGROUND
For including the soil ionization phenomena 111
modelling an earth electrode, two main approaches have
been followed

il The Variable Geometry Approach

This paper was presented at the 1995 ESMO Conference

held in Columbus, Ohio, October 29-November 3; 1995.

Different authors model a gwen electrode embedded in

an ionized soil as an electrode of increased dimensions
embedded in a non-ionized soil [4-71 Therefore, this
approach corresponds to considering the soil resistivity
unchanged, and a lower resistance to ground is obtained by

0885-8977/96/$05.00 0 1995 IEEE

1607
increasing the contact area with the earth electrode, the nonlinear behaviour being given by the dependence of the
equivalent electrode geometry on the current flowing into
soil. The so-called effective Qmensions of the earth electrode
are obtained, for each value of the current, by assuming that
the electric field may not exceed a given critical value E,,
which depends on the nature of the soil. The effective radius
of a rod driven electrode (fig. 1) plotted as a function of the
current is presented in fig. 2. Results correspond to injecting
a double-exponential current source 3.5 kA/5 pA6.5 p into
a single driven rod with 1 = 0.61 in, r, = 0.075 in, being the
non-ionized soil resistivity po= 50 !2m and the critical
electrical field E, = 1.1 kV/cm.
If a variable geometry approach is followed, the ionized
region being assimilated to the conductor, the electric field
in that region is therefore considered to be null, as if the
ionized region was short-circuited with the electrode. This
shows that earth electrode models following this approach,
although allowing to reproduce the decrease of the earth
electrode resistance obtained in experimental tests, are far
from being in accordance with the physics of the soil
ionization phenomena.

>
ro
*E

<

i;

::

rcm

electrode, as a consequence of soil ionization phenomena,

which are considered to occur as far as the soil critical
breakdown field E, is reached.
Liew and Darveniza [3] have proposed an analytical
model to represent the time-variation and the non-linear
characteristics of some basic forms of concentrated
grounding electrodes. In their model, the resistivity of the
ionized zone decays in an exponential manner, being the
rate of decay established in order to fit the experimental
results. The ionization process, although being triggered by
the electrical field, is considered in this model, independent
from the field intensity. Above a critical value of the current
density, the ionization process is governed by its own
dynamics, resulting on the decrease of the soil resistivity as a
function of time, and independent from the local electric
field.
The values of the electrical field in the ionized region
have been obtained according to Liew and Darveniza model
for the same conditions as above (fig. 3 ) . The variation law
of the soil resistivity, being independent from the electric
field, this cannot be controlled inside the ionization region.
In the results presented in fig. 3 , it can be noticed that the
electric field at the electrode surface shows values much
higher than the critical field.

-g

2.0

6 1.5

.:._-..-.-.::.

, I

.s
R

1.0

.j 0.5

4
Fig. 1 Single driven rod.

0.0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

Current [A]

0.30
0.25
3 0.20
2
d 0.15
0.10
+
0.05

,E

0.00

Fig. 3 Electric field at the electrode surface versus current

intensity, obtained with Liew and Daweniza model.

1000

2000

3000

4000

Current [A]

Fig. 2 Effective radius versus current intensity.

B. The Variable Resistivity Approach

In this approach, the decrease of the earth electrode
resistance for high values of the current is explained by the
decrease of the soil resistivity in the region surrounding the

111. THE EQUlFIELD MODEL

Following a variable resistivity approach, a new

ionization model was developed. It corresponds to assuming
that the critical value of the electric field is never exceeded,
and therefore considers that, when ionization occurs, the
area surrounding the electrode is an equifield region. This
can be noticed in figure 4 where the electric field at the
electrode surface is presented, for the same conditions as
above.
Using the methodology developed by Liew and
Darveniza, the region surrounding the earth electrode is
divided into small shells, with uniform thickness dr. These

1608

shells are defined by equipotential surfaces, using cylinderhemisphere concept, figure 1. As dr is small compared to the
conductor length, the earth current flowing out from the
shell surface can be assumed to flow radially.
The soil is homogeneous and isotropic and has a constant
resistivity po as long as the electric field around the electrode
remains below the soil critical breakdown field E,.
As the surge current I injected into the ground electrode
increases, the electric field E in the vicinity of the electrode
surface eventually exceeds the critical value and soil
breakdown occurs. The resistivity pk of a elemental shell k
inside the ionized region decays, following the equation:
E
pk = L A k
I
being& the equipotential surface area of the shell k.
Beyond ionization zone, the resistivity of the soil remains
at its nominal value po.
As the current decreases from its crest value, the region
where the electric field is below the critical value deionization zone - the resistivity of each shell recovers to
the nominal value, following the equation:

In this case a 3.5 kA/5 ps116.5 ps double-exponential

current was injected into a single driven rod with 1 = 0.61 m,
r, = 0.075 m. The electrode is buried in a sand and gravel
mix soil with the characteristics:
po

E,

50 L2m

1.1 kV/cm

71 =

4.5 ps

In figures 5-7 the simulation results are presented. These

results are in good agreement with the experimental test
refered above and published in [ 3 ] .

--

30

25
20

.2

15
10

2 5
I

0 1

1000

2000

3000

4000

Current [A]
~

Fig. 5 Impulse resistance as a fimction of the current, obtained with

the proposed new model.
where zI is the deionization time constant, Ek is the electric
field related to the shell k and pki is the resistivity of the shell
k at electric field intensity E,, during the decay period.
The total resistance of the electrode is obtained summing
the elemental resistances of the shells, from the surface of
the rod to the i n k i t y .

3
e
2
&

1.2
1.0

30

10

0.8

0.4

0.2

30

40

time [ps]

2
.2 0.6
.%

20

Fig. 6 Impulse resistance as a function of time, obtained with the

proposed new model.

0.0

1000

2000

3000

4000

Current [A]

80000

Fig. 4 Electric field at the electrode surface versus current

intensity, obtained with the proposed new model.

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS

0

To determine the accuracy and applicability of the

proposed soil ionization model, Liew and Darveniza
experimental tests are taken as reference values. To illustrate
the performance of this model the case presented in fig.3 of
their paper was chosen.

1000

2000

3000

4000

Current [A]
Fig. 7 Voltage/current curve, obtained with the proposed new
model.

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V. CONCLUSIONS

A new soil ionization model was developed using a

variable resistivity approach. The proposed model considers
that, when ionization occurs, the area surroundmg the
electrode is an equifield region. On the ionized regon the
resistivity decrease according to the local current density,
being the electric field kept at the critical value. The
dynamic soil deionization is also taken into account.
The accuracy of the model is fairly good, being the
computed results in accordance to the ones obtained
experimentally.
VI. REFERENCES
[ 11 EPRl, Transmission Line Grounding, EPRI EL-2699,
Vol.1, Project 1494-1, October 1982. Prepared by Safe
Engineering Services Ltd., Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
[2] A.C.Liew, M.Darveniza, Dynamic Model of Impulse
Characteristics of Concentrated Earths, Proc. IEE, Vol. 121,
N2, February 1974, pp. 123-135.
[31 M.Darveniza, M. A. Sargent, G .J.Limbourn, A. C.Liew,
R.0. Caldwell, J.R.Currie, B.CHolcombe, R.H.Stillman,
R.Frowd, Modelling for Lightning Performance
Calculations, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vo1.98, No 6, NovemberDecember 1979.
[4] R.Velazquez, D.Mukhedkar, Analytical Modelling of
Grounding Electrodes Transient Behaviour, IEEE Trans.
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.103, pp.1314-1322,
June 1984.
[ 5 ] C.Mazzetti, G.M.Veca, Impulse Behaviour of Ground
Electrodes, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vo1.102, pp.3148-3156, September 1983.
[6] S.V.Filho, C.M.Portela, Modelling of Earthing Systems
for Lightning Protection Applications, Including
Propagation Effects, Roc. ICLP-92, pp. 129- 132 Berlim,
Germany, September 1992.
[7] F.E.Menter, L.Grcev, EMTP-Based Model for
Grounding System Analysis, Paper 94 WM 135-4 PWRD
presented at IEEE Winter Meeting., 1994

M.E.Almeida was born in Mozambique,

in 1962, and received the Msc degree in

Electrical Engineering in 1990, from
IST-Technical University of Lisbon. She
is currently a Research Assistant, and
prepares a Ph D Thesis under the
supervision of Prof. Correia de Barros.

M. T. Correia de Barros was born in

Lisbon, Portugal, in 1951, and received
the Dipl. in Electrical Engineering in
1974 and the Doctors Degree in 1985,
both fiom IST - Technical University of
Lisbon. She is currently an Associate
Professor at the same University. Her
main research interests are the fields of
High Voltage
Engineering and
ElectromagneticTransients.