Professional Documents
Culture Documents
S0378-7788(16)30375-9
http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.05.014
ENB 6649
To appear in:
ENB
Received date:
Revised date:
Accepted date:
2-10-2015
13-4-2016
6-5-2016
Please cite this article as: Stefano Benni, Patrizia Tassinari, Filippo Bonora,
Alberto Barbaresi, Daniele Torreggiani, Efficacy of greenhouse natural ventilation:
environmental monitoring and CFD simulations of a study case, Energy and Buildings
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.05.014
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.
The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof
before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process
errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that
apply to the journal pertain.
a) patrizia.tassinari@unibo.it
b) filippo.bonora@unibo.it
c) alberto.barbaresi@unibo.it
d) daniele.torreggiani@unibo.it
Graphical Abstract
Highlights
Abstract
Indoor microclimate control is fundamental in greenhouse design, and vent
dimensions and positions play a crucial role in natural ventilation management.
This research considers an Italian greenhouse for horticultural production and
aims at identifying optimal vent configurations and opening management
procedures for indoor environment control, focusing on summer cooling.
Numerical modelling of airflows and temperature distributions was carried out
through finite element CFD software, with streamline upwind discretization
schemes for advection terms. Calibration of the numerical modelling was
performed by comparing data collected in controlled environmental condition
with simulations results. The automatic vent opening system of the greenhouse
is programmed to fully open all the windows of each span when indoor air
temperature overcomes a threshold value. Numerical simulations were
performed to assess the efficacy of this solution in comparison with alternative
strategies. Various configurations of roof vents were tested, with side wall vents
always open. The best performances were obtained with windward roof vent
closed, which entailed 64% of the maximum heat removal achievable through
natural ventilation. The other possible scenarios considered showed a
performance index of about 50%. The results suggest therefore to enhance the
vent control system by considering also wind direction as input.
1. Introduction
The distribution of environmental parameters in greenhouses should be
maintained as much uniform as possible for general purposes of crop production
[1]. In particular, most of the plants grown in greenhouses fit at an optimal
temperature between 17C and 27C, with extremes of 10C and 35C [2]. Up to
outdoor temperatures of 27C, internal temperature control can be achieved by
means of ventilation, while for higher external temperatures (30-35C for
extended periods) it is necessary to intervene by means of artificial cooling in
order to maintain microclimate functional to the physiology of cultivated plants.
Moreover, inlet of outdoor air is essential to replenish the CO2 consumed by
plants for the photosynthesis process. Indoor microclimate control is thus a
fundamental issue in greenhouse design and analysis [36], and natural
ventilation plays a crucial role in indoor climate control [7], as it directly affects
heat and mass transport between the outside environment and the greenhouse,
thus strongly influencing its inside climate [8]. Vent dimensions and positions are
key elements in natural ventilation design. The correlations between ventilation
rates and environmental parameters, including wind speed and direction, have
been assessed with various approaches [9]. A thermal model based on energy
balance was proposed by [10] to predict the natural ventilation rate of
greenhouses. Decay-rate tracer of N2O techniques were used by Kittas et al. [11]
to experimentally investigate the influence of vent type and screening on airflow
and temperature distribution within a mono-span greenhouse with round-arch
roof and vertical walls. It was found that in case of side openings only, indoor air
velocity showed a fast flow near the ground and low velocity near the roof, while
the combination of roof and side openings caused an increase in air velocity and
a decrease in indoor temperature, together with a greater microclimate
heterogeneity. Demrati et al. [12] computed global energy balance of a largescale greenhouse in hot climate, based on the values of inside and outside air
temperature and humidity, outside global solar radiation, and wind speed and
direction measured in significant time spans, thus determining ventilation fluxes.
Airspeed measurements through vents and inside the greenhouse were also
4
performed to compute airflow patterns. In this regard, Kittas et al. [13] collected
data through hot-wire anemometry to deepen previous analyses on natural
ventilation in relation to vent opening choices. In particular they focused on
greenhouses ventilated by both roof and side vents and provided experimental
results for the main greenhouse climate parameters (including air velocity and air
temperature) in the whole greenhouse volume, resulting in a database for
validating computational fluid dynamics (CFD) research approaches for
greenhouse ventilation. A discussion on the efficiency of different discretization
methods used as CFD solvers for the simulation of natural ventilation in
greenhouses was developed by Molina-Aiz et al. [14]. Ayuga [15] underlined that
ventilation is one of the major problems in greenhouse technology, and a good
balance between airflow and air speed can be designed by means of proper CFD
analyses. Teitel et al. [16] underlined the importance of analysing air movements
in greenhouses, caused by ventilation, and their effects on indoor microclimate
uniformity. In fact growers has been increasingly tending to exploit every area of
the greenhouse for high quality yields, due to the ever stronger competition
within the global market. Experiments - developed by assessing the decay rate of
a tracer gas (N2O), and by means of 3D sonic anemometer and dry and wet-bulb
thermocouples - showed that ventilation rate increases linearly with wind speed,
and gradients in temperature and air velocity occurred in the vertical and
horizontal directions. CFD simulations were extensively used to investigate the
effects of structure shape, and ventilator size and arrangement (with or without
insect-proof screens) on microclimate [17]. Teitel and Wenger [18] compared
experiments, CFD, and a model relating flow rate through openings to their
pressure drops, to determine the air exchange in a small naturally ventilated
monospan greenhouse. The three methods agreed well up to a wind speed of
about 4 m/s, while at higher wind speeds the ventilation rates were lower, with
consequently diminished air-exchange efficiency, due to imperfect mixing of the
supply air with the greenhouse air. The complexity and realism of both
experimental analyses and simulations has been continuously increased, as
recent studies account for all the relevant variables concerning the greenhouse
system [19]. The effects of vent configurations in terms of natural ventilation
5
Greenhouse description
The spans correspond to indoor areas separated by glass walls and connected
through internal doors. This study focuses on the south-eastern span (on the left
in Figure 1). This sector is provided with heated benches with aluminium
structure, lamps for supplementary photoperiodic lighting, a reverse osmosis
system for the treatment of irrigation water, and a high-precision mixer for the
formulation of fertilizer solutions. The areas is dedicated to experimental and
educational activities related to propagation, protection, nutrition, and
programming of phenological phases of potted and soilless ornamental plants.
Moreover this sector is used to experience directly microclimate management in
a protected environment and test the interactions between climate parameters
and plants growth. The equipment allows indoor environment of each sector to
be managed independently, by means of a computer which controls the heating
and cooling systems, vent opening, and shading curtains. As mentioned above,
this study focuses on natural ventilation in summer cooling, in conditions when
7
2.2.
Computational approach
(1)
where is the density, t is time and u, v, w are the velocity components along
the global coordinate axis respectively x, y, z.
In turbulence modelling, the software solves the time-averaged governing
equations, which are obtained by assuming that the dependent variables can be
represented as a superposition of a mean value and a fluctuating value about the
mean. Using the notation that capital letters represent the mean values and
lower case letters represent fluctuating values for the velocity components and
pressure, the Reynolds averaged momentum equation referred to a generic x
reference axis can be written as follows:
+
+
+
=
+ + +
[2( + ) ] +
[( + ) ( + )] + [( + ) ( +
)]
(2)
2
)
2
(3)
where is the rotational speed and r is the distance from the axis of rotation.
For incompressible and subsonic compressible flow, the Reynolds averaged
energy equation, written in terms of static temperature T, is:
+
+
+
=
[( + ) ] +
[( + ) ] + [( + ) ] +
(5)
2
2
2
) + 2( ) + 2(
) +
2
2
2
+( + ) + ( +
) +( +
)
(7)
2.2.2. Advection scheme and convergence criteria
For numerical stability, the advection terms are treated with upwind methods
along with the weighted integral method. The advection scheme adopted is the
Modified Petrov-Galerkin, a more stable variation of the Petrov-Galerkin one
10
[26]. It is suitable for all application types recommended with the latter, but
typically produces more globally conservative results. In particular it has shown
improvements as for accuracy of recirculating and secondary flows, natural
convection stability, compressible flow accuracy and stability, and energy
balance stability.
Transient and steady state analyses were performed for model calibration. For
the latter ones, convergence was assumed based on the union of the following
criteria:
the fluctuation of the dependent variable about the mean value shows a
standard deviation below the set level of 10-5.
shows the greenhouse and a portion of the surrounding domain). This domain
was proposed in order to allow the interaction between external and indoor
airflows to be naturally developed [27].
The greenhouse was modelled as an empty building, in order to obtain results
independent on the quantity or type of plants inside the structure, and on their
arrangement. The building envelope was modelled with finite elements with
physical properties corresponding to the real glass panels. The internal walls are
not airtight, therefore the presence of several small openings allowing air
passage among the various spans was modelled as an equivalent permeability of
the internal walls corresponding to 1% of the length, uniformly distributed. The
domain was subdivided into a number of surfaces necessary to identify the
portions characterized by different initial conditions, and to develop meshes with
detail levels suitable for the complexity of the phenomena to be modelled in the
different zones of the domain. The domain was discretized into a hybrid grid that
combine triangular and quadrilateral element types thus providing maximum
flexibility in matching mesh cells with the boundary surfaces. It is well known
that this generally leads to both accurate solutions and better convergence for
the numerical solution methods [28]. In particular, unstructured meshes were
adopted for the various domain portions to generate the numerical grids outside
and inside the greenhouse, with higher density in critical zones of the flow
subject to strong gradients. Grid quality was enhanced through the placement of
three layers of quadrilateral elements in resolving boundaries near solid walls
and desks. The total number of elements in most of the results that are
presented here was 24776, with average dimension of mesh sizes for the indoor
domain of 0.2 m. This value was considered appropriate also in scientific
literature with reference to the same investigation subject [8,22]. Mesh
independency was verified by performing several steady state analyses with
increasingly finer meshes simulating the indoor air. Eight meshes, from about
13000 elements up to more than 52000 were adopted and the results in terms of
air speed and pressure are reported in Figure 3. Transient analysis simulations
with a larger number of elements 110947 were also performed, to further
12
verify the independency of the numerical results from the grid features adopted,
thus verifying the mesh sensitivity, as indicated in literature [29].
2.3.
Measurement trials
Boundary and initial conditions of the model (Table 2) were defined on the basis
of the measured data. In particular, inlet air speed in the domain was defined
based on meteorological data recorded, while outdoor air temperature was set
on the basis of data measured through the external sensors. A symmetry
condition was applied at the top of the domain, while at the bottom boundary
ground temperature of the greenhouse was set at a value obtained from
temperature measured close to the floor during the trials. Differences between
the floor temperature and the air temperature in the position of the indoor
sensor were recorded and their average value was adopted to assess the ground
temperature for simulations under conditions when only data of indoor air
temperature were available. These estimates were adopted as boundary
conditions for numerical simulations.
Air properties have been defined constant on the basis of CFD preliminary
analyses carried out with transient approach referred to the conditions of Table
2, considering either fixed or variable material properties.
Measured and simulated data were compared for validation by computing the
RMSE, defined according to the usual expression:
)^2
=1(
RMSE=
(8)
14
good model; 2 RPD < 2.5 indicates a very good model; and RPD 2.5 means
the model is excellent.
The soundness of our model regarding the prediction on air speed was further
assessed according to scientific literature [31], by comparing the RMSE of our
calibration with that obtained from a statistical model adopted as a benchmark
for short-term predictions of air speed. The statistical model adopted is a multilinear regression one (MLR) developed by Mathur and Mathur [32], where the
following quantities are the independent variables:
-
yt1 p1 +yt2 p2
(9)
p1 +p2
where yt-1 and yt-2 are air speed respectively at time (t-1) and (t-2); pi are
weights. Lag was choses equal to 2 based on autocorrelation lower limit of
0.7. Autocorrelation values obtained were adopted as weights p1 and p2;
-
EMA(2,1)=y0;
EMA(2,t)=
*yt-1+(1-)*EMA(2,t
-1),
with
=2/(lag+1)=2/3;
-
Second and third moment of the series M2(t) and M3(t). The rth moment of y,
Mr is given by
=
( )
(10)
a0
a1*MA(2,t)+a2*OSC(t)
a3*ROC(t)
(11)
Numerical simulations
15
The study aims at investigating the effect of vents opening in terms of natural
ventilation, independently on the other factors potentially affecting indoor
climate, in particular solar radiation. Therefore the analyses were performed in
condition where solar radiance can be neglected, namely for hour angles of 80
or more. In this regard the study by [22] found that airflows and the temperature
distribution in a greenhouse are significantly altered by the consideration of
external incident radiation in the calculations when hour angles are between -60
and +60 (being noon 0).
The greenhouse system of automatic vent opening of the study case is
programmed to fully open all the windows of a span when indoor air
temperature overcomes a threshold value, usually set at 26C. Numerical
simulations were performed to assess the efficacy of this solution in comparison
with the other possible vents opening configurations. The conditions recorded on
8 August 2014 since 19.30 to 20.30 were considered as the study case for
simulating the alternative scenarios and assessing their performance in summer
cooling. Indoor temperature and meteorological conditions recorded are
reported in Table 3. Wind direction was from SE. The resulting boundary and
initial conditions are reported in Table 4.
3.1.
Calibration
Both steady state and transient CFD simulations of the greenhouse were
performed under the environmental conditions surveyed during the calibration
trials.
Steady state analyses were developed to simulate the conditions surveyed in the
calibration trial after 420 s since wind opening: from that moment, both air
speed and air temperature showed a steady behaviour for about 140 s (Figure 4).
Thus air speed results of the steady state simulation were compared with the
corresponding average data measured over that period of 140 s (28 data).
Average air speed measured was 0.37 m/s, and simulated one in the same point
in steady state conditions resulted 0.36 m/s. Therefore the model proved to
represent real data with excellent soundness.
Transient analyses results regarding air speed and temperature were then
compared to measured data (Figure 5a).
As measured data of air speed showed high-frequency oscillations with lowamplitude, data were processed according to Hilbert-Huang transformations: six
intrinsic mode functions were found for measured data and four for simulated
data. The intrinsic mode function with lowest amplitude of measured data was
omitted, thus obtaining the smoothed trend of Figure 5b: the corresponding
RMSE is 0.0559 m/s, which is very close to anemometer accuracy and therefore
indicates a good agreement between measured and simulated data.
A further quantification of the agreement between measured and simulated air
speed data was performed by developing an autoregressive model, as illustrated
17
in the methodology section. The model was calibrated based on the first 100
time steps and was applied for an interval corresponding to half the calibration
period. RMSE between measured data and the autoregressive model was 0.0967
m/s; RMSE between measured data and CFD simulated data was 0.0974 m/s.
Therefore the CFD model proved as sound as the statistical predictive model
based on the measured data.
Air temperature measured in the point of anemometric survey was compared
with corresponding CFD simulated results (Figure 6). Resulting RPD is 1.6091,
thus qualifying fair soundness of the model.
Temperature trends monitored inside the greenhouse were compared with ones
simulated through transient analyses. Data referred to the centre of the span
width at 0.85 m and 2.05 m height showed good agreement (Figure 7) between
surveyed and computed values: in fact RPD on the average trend is 1.721 (fair
model).
3.2.
Simulations
As mentioned above, once the model had been validated, it was applied to
analyse the effects of different vents opening configurations on temperature
reduction in hot climate conditions. The simulated temperatures for the scenario
AO were compared with temperature data recorded by the standard greenhouse
management system, with reference to the point where the thermometer of the
greenhouse facility is installed. The comparison provided a RMSE equal to 0.32C,
thus allowing a further confirmation of the reliability of the model.
18
Simulated temperature and air speed data were computed above the centre of
each workbench at heights of 1.00 m, 1.50 m, 2.00 m,2.50 m, thus obtaining a
grid with 4 rows and 3 columns. Such grid is representative of the microclimatic
condition of the indoor working and cultivation area. Mean temperature data
trends (over these twelve points) of the three opening configurations are
reported in Figure 8. These temperature trends resulted substantially similar
among rows and columns of the grid.
19
Temperature profiles along the span width at 1.50 m above the ground for the
three scenarios, at 15 min, 30 min, and 60 min are reported in Figure 11.
Average temperature reductions over the whole simulation period are 3.37C
with WC, 2.77C with LC, and 2.54C with AO. The performances of the three
scenarios were assessed on the basis of a linear scale where 0 indicates no
reduction of temperature over the simulation period, and 100% represents a
sudden reduction of indoor temperature to outdoor one since the first time step
(average reduction of 5.23C). Resulting performances are 64% for WC, 53% for
LC, and 48% for AO. Such percentages give an indication of the ratio of heat
removed from inside the greenhouse in the three scenarios (Figure 12). While
the effects of AO and LC scenarios are very close to each other, the performance
of WC solution entails a significantly greater cooling.
The trends of mean air speed are reported in Figure 13, and for each scenario
they are substantially similar among rows and columns of the grid.
Indoor air speed in the three scenarios resulted always far below the
acceptability limit for proper working conditions in greenhouses [2]. The scenario
WC entails higher rates of air speed for almost the whole duration of the
simulation, except for a couple of minutes when outside wind decreases to zero:
in this condition, indoor air speed becomes equal for the three scenarios.
Mean modules of the air speed components perpendicular to each inlet edge
was then computed along the edges themselves at every time step. Results are
20
Overall average airflows through the windows, referred to one meter of span
length (inlet section width is 0.70 m for all vents), are reported in Table 6.
It should be noted that airflow balance for each scenario is different from zero,
because of air exchanges with the other spans, considered through proper
definition of filtration rates in internal walls. Table 6 clearly shows that the
scenario LC hampers outbound airflows and entails overall air inlet (54.58
m3/h/m) less than half of AO (121.18 m3/h/m) and also smaller than WC. This
phenomenon appears to be the main reason of the negative performance of
such scenario in terms of temperature reduction.
4. Conclusions
The study analysed the effects of roof and side vents opening configuration on
temperature reduction in a study case of glass greenhouse in hot climatic
conditions. A finite element CFD model of the greenhouse was developed and
calibrated through experimental monitoring of indoor and outdoor climatic
parameters. Numerical simulations of indoor conditions under real outdoor
climatic parameters recorded in a selected time interval of over one hour were
performed. Various possible configurations of opening and closure of roof vents
were set, with a side wall vent always open. The analyses also accounted for the
outside air speed variable, including the case of absence of wind. The results
were assessed in terms of effectiveness in indoor cooling. Indoor temperature
distributions and trends were analysed, together with indoor air speed and
airflows. The best performances were obtained with windward vent closed,
which entailed 64% of the maximum heat removal achievable through natural
21
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank prof. Beatrice Pulvirenti PhD, Assistant Professor at
the Department of Industrial Engineering of the University of Bologna, for the
support provided in CFD modelling.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Dynamic
modeling
and
simulation
of
greenhouse
K.S. Kumar, K.N. Tiwari, M.K. Jha, Design and technology for greenhouse
cooling in tropical and subtropical regions: A review, Energy Build. 41
(2009) 12691275. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.08.003.
[6]
K.S. Kumar, M.K. Jha, K.N. Tiwari, A. Singh, Modeling and evaluation of
greenhouse for floriculture in subtropics, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 1075
1083. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.01.021.
[7]
F.D. Molina-Aiz, D.L. Valera, A.A. Pea, J.A. Gil, A. Lpez, A study of
natural ventilation in an Almera-type greenhouse with insect screens by
means of tri-sonic anemometry, Biosyst. Eng. 104 (2009) 224242.
doi:10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2009.06.013.
[8]
[9]
[10]
I.M. Al-Helal, S.A. Waheeb, A.A. Ibrahim, M.R. Shady, A.M. Abdel-Ghany,
Modified thermal model to predict the natural ventilation of greenhouses,
Energy Build. 99 (2015) 18. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.04.013.
[11]
[12]
Environment,
J.
Agric.
Eng.
Res.
80
(2001)
261271.
doi:10.1006/jaer.2001.0740.
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
M. Teitel, O. Liran, J. Tanny, M. Barak, Wind driven ventilation of a monospan greenhouse with a rose crop and continuous screened side vents and
its effect on flow patterns and microclimate, Biosyst. Eng. 101 (2008) 111
122. doi:10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2008.05.012.
[17]
[18]
side
openings,
Biosyst.
Eng.
119
(2014)
98107.
doi:10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2013.11.001.
[19]
I.-B. Lee, J.P.P. Bitog, S.-W. Hong, I.-H. Seo, K.-S. Kwon, T. Bartzanas, et al.,
The past, present and future of CFD for agro-environmental applications,
Comput.
Electron.
Agric.
93
(2013)
168183.
doi:10.1016/j.compag.2012.09.006.
[20]
[21]
http://www.climatedata.eu/climate.php?loc=itxx0006&lang=en, (2016).
24
[22]
[23]
[24]
R.J. Schnipke, J.G. Rice, FINITE ELEMENT METHOD FOR FREE AND FORCED
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER., Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 24 (1987)
117128.
[25]
S. Patankar, Numerical heat transfer and fluid flow, in: Ser. Coputational
Methods Mech. Therm. Sci., 1980: pp. 1197.
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
models,
Atmos.
Environ.
41
(2007)
83168329.
doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.052.
[30]
[31]
J. Jung, R.P. Broadwater, Current status and future advances for wind
speed and power forecasting, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 31 (2014) 762
777. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.12.054.
[32]
25
26
27
Figure 2. Central portion of the FEM mesh with temperature contour of initial
condition for model calibration.
28
120%
Mesh convergence
100%
80%
60%
v
p
40%
20%
nr. of elements
0%
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
Figure 3. Mesh convergence diagram in terms of air speed (v) computed near
inlet opening and pressure difference (p) between points at heights of 4 m and
1m in the middle of the greenhouse span.
29
Figure 4. Trends of air speed and temperature in the observation period selected
for steady state CFD calibration analyses.
30
a)
b)
Figure 5. a) Trends of air speed measured near the side wall vent and
corresponding data obtained though CFD transient simulation; b) comparison of
the same data processed through Hilbert-Huang transformation to remove the
high-frequency low-amplitude oscillations.
31
32
33
Figure 8. Mean temperature trends in the cultivation area for the three opening
configuration considered.
34
AO
LC
WC
T(C)
Figure 9 Temperature contour and air velocity vectors in transient analysis for
the three scenarios at 20 s.
35
AO
LC
WC
T(C)
Figure 10 Temperature contour and air velocity vectors in transient analysis for
the three scenarios at 2400 s.
36
Figure 11. Horizontal temperature profile at height of 1.50m for the three
scenario at time steps of 15 min, 30 min, 60 min.
37
Figure 12. Performances of the three scenarios, in terms of heat removal form
the greenhouse.
38
39
Figure 14. Air speed trends through vents in the various scenarios.
40
Conductivity Specific
(Wm-1K-1)
(J kg-1 K-1)
Air
1.20473
1.817
0.02563
1004
Glass
2700
0.78
840
Heat
41
Table 2. Boundary conditions and initial conditions of CFD analyses for calibration
(10 February 2015).
Boundary conditions
Initial conditions
Outdoor
Outdoor
speed
air Floor
temperature
Indoor temperature
temperature
Height (m)
Temperature
(C)
0.1 m/s
22C
9 C
< 0.4
18
0.4-0.8
20
0.8-1.4
23.5
1.4-1.8
22
1.8-2.6
23.7
2.6-3.6
28.7
> 3.6
30
42
Table 3. Indoor and outdoor climatic parameters recorded during the reference
period considered for CFD simulations.
Date, time
T (C)
(ms-1)
08/08/2014, 19.30
27.6
25.2
0.67
08/08/2014, 19.40
27.6
25.2
0.89
08/08/2014, 19.50
27.2
24.8
0.67
08/08/2014, 20.00
27.2
24.8
0.67
08/08/2014, 20.10
26.8
24.4
08/08/2014, 20.20
26.8
24.4
0.11
08/08/2014, 20.30
26.8
24.0
43
Initial conditions
Outdoor
Outdoor
air Floor
speed
temperature
Indoor temperature
temperature
time
Height (m)
Temperature
(s)
(m/s)
0.67
< 0.4
22
600
0.89
0.4-0.8
25.5
1200
0.67
0.8-1.4
27.6
1800
0.67
1.4-1.8
29.5
2400
1.8-2.6
30.5
3000
0.11
2.6-3.6
31.5
3600
> 3.6
32.5
(C)
22C
25.2C
44
Table 5. Combinations of vent opening and closure for the scenarios considered
in CFD simulations.
Scenario AO
Scenario WC
Scenario LC
Side vent
Open
Open
Open
Open
Closed
Open
Open
Open
Closed
Scenario AO
61.73
59.45
-77.50
Scenario WC
73.47
-50.62
Scenario LC
26.15
28.43
45