MSc. Project Report - A. Hanan - 13084052

School of Engineering and Technology
MSc. Project
MSc Project Report
Optimization of the Performance of Heat

Exchanger Used in Power Plant Applications
By: Ahmad Hanan

Supervisor: Dr. Sami H. Nasser
September 2014
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Optimization of The Performance of Heat Exchanger Used in Power Plant Applications
MSc. Project
DECLARATION STATEMENT
I certify that the work submitted is my own and that any material derived or quoted from
the published or unpublished work of other persons has been duly acknowledged (ref. UPR
AS/C/6.1, Appendix I, Section 2 Section on cheating and plagiarism)
Student Full Name: Ahmad Hanan
Student Registration Number: 13084052
Signed:
Date: 08/09/2014
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ABSTRACT
The study explores the heat exchangers and their usage in power plants. The
purpose of this research is to investigate various types of power plants, heat
exchangers and usage of heat exchangers in power plants. Subsequently, selection
of a heat exchanger for design optimization which is widely used in power plants
was made. Star CCM+ was used for simulating the heat exchanger in order to
analyse heat transfer in different models made under design optimization. Heat
exchanger was optimized by altering geometrical components and design
parameters. In the end results were compared amongst each other and supported
from the facts obtained from literature review.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author has taken keen efforts in this project. However, it would not have been
possible without the blessings of Almighty Allah who gives the wisdom and strength
to act upon it. The author would like to express the gratitude towards his parents for
their moral support and encouragement which helped a lot in this project.
Author is highly indebted to the honourable project supervisor, Dr. Sami H. Nasser
who has given his full efforts in guiding the author in achieving the goal as well as
giving him encouragement to maintain the progress in track. Author would also like
to appreciate Dr. Nasser for providing necessary information regarding initiating the
project. His crucial role in progress of the project cannot be denied. Author also likes
to acknowledge the facilities provided by the institution, it would have been an
arduous job to conduct the research without the facilities available at University of
Hertfordshire.
Last but not the least author would also like to mention the names and extend
sincere thanks to the individuals who helped in various stages of the project. Talha
Usman, Ziv Bachar, Afrasiab Nadeem, Sarfraz Sheikh and specially Syed Mujtaba
Hussaini who has taken an immense interest in the research and helped the author
with his abilities.
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Table of Contents
DECLARATION STATEMENT .................................................................................. i
ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ iii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. viii
GLOSSARY .............................................................................................................ix
NOMENCLATURE................................................................................................... x
1.
2.
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.1.
BACKGROUND ......................................................................................... 1
1.2.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES .......................................................................... 1
1.3.
METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................... 2
LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 4

2.1.
TYPES OF POWER PLANTS.................................................................... 4
2.1.1.
THERMAL POWER PLANT................................................................ 6
2.1.2.
RENEWABLE ENERGY ................................................................... 10
2.2.
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS........................................................... 13
2.3.
USAGE OF HEAT EXCHANGERS IN POWER PLANT APPLICATION .. 19
2.4.
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER ............................................................... 20
2.5.
SELECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGER .................................................... 23
2.6.
HEAT EXCHANGER TO BE OPTIMIZED ................................................ 24
2.6.1. COMPONENTS .................................................................................... 25

2.6.2. DESIGN DELIBERATIONS................................................................... 26
2.6.3. PROBLEMS IN STHE ........................................................................... 29
2.7.
3.
STAR CCM+ ............................................................................................ 29
DESIGN, MODELING AND SIMULATION ...................................................... 30

3.1.
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD) MODEL ......................................... 30
3.2.
DESIGN DATA AND ANALYTICAL CALCULATIONS ............................. 31
3.2.1. SHELL SIDE CALCULATIONS ............................................................. 31

3.2.2. TUBE SIDE CALCULATIONS ............................................................... 33
3.2.3. HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS .................................................... 34
3.3.
4.
MESHING ................................................................................................ 36
RESULTS ....................................................................................................... 38
4.1.
MODEL 1: DEFAULT DESIGN ................................................................ 38
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4.2. VELOCITY .................................................................................................. 40

4.2.1. MODEL: 2 ............................................................................................. 40
4.2.2. MODEL: 3 ............................................................................................. 41
4.3. MATERIALS ................................................................................................ 43
4.3.1. MODEL: 4 ............................................................................................. 43
4.3.2. MODEL: 5 ............................................................................................. 45
4.4. MODEL 6: SUMMER ................................................................................... 46
4.5. MODEL 7: BAFFLES ................................................................................... 48
4.6. MODEL 8: TUBES LAYOUT ....................................................................... 50
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 52
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS............................................................ 56
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................... 61
APPENDIX A ......................................................................................................... 62
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Power Cycle ............................................................................................. 4
Figure 2: Classification of Power Plants ................................................................... 5
Figure 3 (a): Schematic diagram of Rankine Cycle ................................................. 6
Figure 3 (b): T-s diagram of Rankine Cycle ............................................................. 6
Figure 4(a): Schematic diagram of Joule-Brayton Cycle ......................................... 7
Figure 4(b): T-S diagram of Joule-Brayton Cycle .................................................... 7
Figure 5: Pressurized water Reactor (PWR) ........................................................... 7
Figure 6: Geothermal Power Plant .......................................................................... 8
Figure 7: Impulse and Reaction Turbine ................................................................. 9
Figure 8(a): Schematic diagram of Combine cycle ................................................ 10
Figure 9: Hydroelectric power plant ....................................................................... 11
Figure 10: Horizontal and Vertical Axis wind Turbine ............................................ 12
Figure 11: Solar dish, parabolic solar trough and solar power tower ..................... 12
Figure 12: Classification of Heat exchanger ........................................................... 14
Figure 13: Plate heat exchanger ........................................................................... 15
Figure 14: Spiral heat exchanger .......................................................................... 16
Figure 15: Plate-fin heat exchanger ...................................................................... 16
Figure 16: schematic diagram of a gas turbine power plant having a recuperator .. 17
Figure 17: Steam generator .................................................................................. 17
Figure 18: Regenerator ......................................................................................... 18
Figure 19: HRSG .................................................................................................. 18
Figure 20: Conduction ........................................................................................... 21
Figure 21: Velocity and temperature profile ........................................................... 22
Figure 22: Shell and tube heat exchanger ............................................................. 24
Figure 23: Shell Nozzles ....................................................................................... 25
Figure 24: Baffles .................................................................................................. 26
Figure 25: Type of flow ......................................................................................... 26
Figure 26: Tube layout .......................................................................................... 26
Figure 27: Tube arrangement ................................................................................ 27
Figure 28: Baffle Spacing ...................................................................................... 27
Figure 29: Tube pitch ............................................................................................. 28
Figure 30: Types of Baffles .................................................................................... 28
Figure 31: CAD model ........................................................................................... 30
Figure 32: Meshed model ...................................................................................... 37
Figure 33: Default Designed Model ........................................................................ 38
Figure 34: Temperature Distribution for Model 1 .................................................... 38
Figure 35: Themperature Distribution for Model 3 .................................................. 42
Figure 36: Velocity Distribution for Model 3 ............................................................ 42
Figure 37: Heat Transfer plot for Model 3 .............................................................. 43
Figure 39: Velocity Distribution for Model 4.44
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Figure 43: Heat transfer plot for Model 5 ................................................................ 46
Figure 46: Modified Geometery for Model 7 ........................................................... 49
Figure 49: Heat Transfer Plot for Model 7 .............................................................. 50
Figure 50: Figure 50: Modified Geometry for Model 8 (Hidden Outer Shell) ........... 50
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Commonly used heat exchangers in various power plants ....................... 20
Table 2: Working fluid properties ........................................................................... 36
Table 3: Calculated Properties for Model 2 ............................................................ 40
Table 4: Calculated Properties for Model 3 ............................................................ 42
Table 5: Material Properties for Model 4 ................................................................ 43
Table 6: Material Properties for Model 5 ................................................................ 45
Table 7: Tubular fluid properties for Model 6 .......................................................... 47
Table 8: Results of Model 1-8 ................................................................................ 52
Table 9: Heat Transfer Model 1-8 .......................................................................... 52
Table 10: Outlet temperate Model 1-8.................................................................... 53
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GLOSSARY
PWR :
Pressurized Water Reactor
BWR :
Boiling Water Reactor
HVAC :
Heaving Ventilation and Air Conditioning
HRSG :
Heat Recovery Steam Generator
HP
High Pressure
LP
Low Pressure
STHE :
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
TEMA :
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
CAD
Computer Aided Design
UK
United Kingdom
LMTD :
Log Mean Temperature Difference
UNS
Unified Numbering System
Al
Aluminium
Cu
Copper
T-s
Temperature-Entropy
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NOMENCLATURE
.
Rate of Heat Transfer
Thermal Conductivity
Temperature
Wall Thickness
As
Surface Area
Pressure
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
Emissivity
Stephen-Boltzmann Constant
Degree Celsius
Degree Kelvin
Diameter
Velocity
Density
Dynamic Viscosity
Re
Reynolds Number
Pr
Prandtl Number
Nu
Nusselt Number
Turbulence Intensity
Turbulence Kinetic Energy
Turbulence Dissipation Rate
Cp
Specific Heat
Thermal Resistance
Overall Heat transfer Coefficient
C
K
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1. INTRODUCTION
Heat Exchangers are the devices used for the exchange of heat from two fluids that
are at different temperatures, usually preventing them from mixing with each other.
The media which keeps them from mixing is a metallic wall of highly conductive
material which helps in an effective heat transfer between the fluids. There is an
observation that sometimes in a few cases, the fluids mixes with each other e.g.
open feedwater heater. The fluids can be at a same phase i.e. either liquid or gas
or they can be at different phases like heat exchange between a liquid and a gas
[1]. Heat transfer in heat exchangers involves conduction through the separating
walls and convection in each fluid. Heat exchangers are widely used in various
industrial and domestic applications such as, car radiator, refrigerator, air
conditioning, space heating, power plants, chemical plants, oil refineries, and
natural gas processing. The usage of heat exchangers in power plants will be
discussed in detail in this report
1.1.
BACKGROUND
Heat exchangers have a vast usage in various types of power plants. It serves as a
necessary component of every power plant. The type of heat exchanger varies in
different types of power plants as discussed below. It is also seen that more than
one heat exchanger is used in a single power plant at different stages of the cycle.
And it is also noted that a power plant can accommodate different types of heat
exchangers. So in conclusion the choice of heat exchanger in a power plant varies
from design to design. Although the heat exchangers serves in various power plants
are designed according to the requirement, but still there is always a window for
improvement. Since heat exchangers are one of the major components upon which
the efficiency and net power output of the plant is dependent, it would be very useful
if the design of the heat exchanger is improved, whilst maintaining the basic
operation and function of the heat exchanger. The design can be modified or
improved by changing certain parameters. Alteration in different components,
increase or decrease in a number of certain parts or changing their arrangements
has a vast effect on the efficiency of a heat exchanger, thus affecting the power
plants efficiency.
1.2.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Aim: Optimization of the performance of heat exchanger used in power plants

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Objectives:
The objectives of this thesis are listed below
Study the types of heat exchangers and their significance in various power plants
Select a particular heat exchanger to be further analysed and optimized
To understand the parameters considered for the design of heat exchanger and
observe the results caused by the modifications made
Analyse the relevant case studies for the optimization of the performance of heat
exchanger and understand the strategies and their results
Construct a solid model of heat exchanger by assembling various components
Flow and thermal analysis using computational packages such as Star CCM+ and
Phoenics.
Select the best result to be used in a typical scenario.
1.3.
METHODOLOGY
As the title of the project is Optimization of the performance of heat exchanger

used in power plant applications, the research begins with literature review that
includes the working of power plants and the purpose of heat exchangers used in it,
authors research of various power plants and heat exchangers used in them. The
basics principles of heat transfer and the operation of heat exchanger was also
studied in order to consider the design parameters of heat exchanger to be
optimized
The next milestone is selection of a particular heat exchanger that used vastly in
power plants as compared to the others. Literature review will be continued in order
to study the design parameters that affect the heat transfer between the working
fluids and overall performance of that heat exchanger
In order to observe the effects of the variations, it is deemed appropriate to be

guided by the literature review in selection of the domain size, allowing simulations
and testing to be carried out within the timescales of the project. There will be an
investigation through experimenting controlled variances of the parameters such as
materials and fluid inlet conditions.
For investigating the flow pattern and the heat transfer in the heat exchanger, a
model will be modelled and simulated using software packages such as STARCCM+ according to the design. This will allow the researcher to analyse the results
obtained from the simulation showing an effective heat transfer. The results will be
documented in this report.
In the last step the effect of heat transfer through the heat exchanger with the
variation of design parameters, such as the number of baffles, tube arrangement,
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flow rate, materials and temperature differences will be investigated and discussed
briefly the effects caused by the variations
The report is divided in different sections as follows
Section 1 Introduction
Section 2 Literature Review
Section 3 Design, Modelling and Simulation
Section 4 Results
Section 5 Discussion
Section 6 Conclusion and Recommendations
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.
TYPES OF POWER PLANTS
A power plant is a facility used for generation of electric power. Mostly power plant
is composed of power source, generator and transformer. Generator is the rotating
part which is driven by mechanical power and it converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Further the generated electrical energy is transferred to the
transformer for regulation of the voltage. In the end the electricity flows towards grid
station for transmission of electricity to consumers as shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: Power Cycle
Power Plants can be classified by the types of power sources. There are two main
categories Thermal and Renewable Energy as shown in figure 2.
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Coal
Fossil Fuel
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Oil
Bio Mass
Dry Steam
Geothermal
Flash Steam
Fuel
Thermal
Binary Steam
Gas Turbine
Impulse
Steam Turbine
Reaction
Prime Mover
Combined Cycle
Spark Ignition
(Otto)
Power Plant
Classification
Reciprocating
Engine
Hydroelectric
Compression
Ignition (Diesel)
Horizontal Axis
Wind
Vertical Axis
Solar
Renewable
Energy
Marine Current
Geothermal
Osmotic
Marine
Ocean Thermal
Biomass
Tidal
Wave
Figure 2: Classification of Power Plants
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2.1.1. THERMAL POWER PLANT

In thermal Power Plants, mostly Steam is generated by different methods which
drive the turbine. According to the second law of thermodynamics there is always a
heat loss; it means not all the thermal energy is transformed into mechanical
energy. Sometimes turbine is driven by combustion of fuel in calculated pressure
conditions, and the expansion of gasses produced by combustion causes the
driving of the moving parts. [2]
Thermal power plants can be classified by the type of prime mover installed and the
type of fuel used.
BY FUEL
FOSSIL FUEL
A fossil fuel power plant uses fossil fuel such as natural gas, coal or oil to produce
electricity. Chemical energy is been stored in fossil fuel and when they burn in the
presence of oxygen, the chemical energy is transformed into thermal energy which
drives the turbine (mechanical energy) with accordance to the principles of second
law of thermodynamics and finally electrical energy is obtained[3]. Fossil Fuel
power plants either operate on Rankine cycle, Joule-Brayton cycle or combined
cycle.
If the power plant is working on Rankine cycle, the heat source is combustion of
coal, natural gas or gasoline which heats up the water in boiler in order to generate
steam which in turn drives the turbine. Turbine exhaust cools down in condenser
and pumped again to the boiler [4]. Schematic and T-s diagrams of Rankine cycle
are shown in fig 3.
Figure 3(a): Schematic diagram of Rankine

Cycle [5]
Figure 3 (b): T-s diagram of Rankine Cycle [5]
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In Joule-Brayton cycle, the working fluid is air, air is drawn from the intake and
compressed in the compressor, then the compressed air is injected into the
combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel, and a spark is introduced to ignite
the fuel-air mixture. The turbine is situated right after the combustion chamber.
When the hot gasses enters the turbine, they make turbine blades move, hence the
turbine starts rotating. Power can be obtained from the rotary motion [6]. Schematic
and T-s diagrams of Gas turbine and JouleBrayton cycle are shown in fig 4
Figure 4 (a): Schematic diagram of Joule-Brayton Cycle

Figure 4(b): T-S diagram of Joule-Brayton Cycle [5]
[5]
NUCLEAR
Nuclear power plant is a type of thermal power plant and as in the conventional
thermal power plants water is heated to generate steam which drives the turbine in
order to obtain power, nuclear power plants differ from fossil fuel power plants, as
the heat is provided from the controlled chain reaction inside the nuclear reactor.
The reactor uses uranium or some other highly radioactive material rods as fuel and
heat is generated by nuclear fission. Water is pumped through the reactor in
separate channels to remove the heat away. As shown in figure 5. This type of
arrangement is known as PWR (Pressurized water reactor). There is another
arrangement, in which water directly flows in reactor vessel and vaporizes due to
the heat generated in result of nuclear reaction. This type of arrangement is known
as BWR (Boiling water reactor). [7]
Figure 5: Pressurized water Reactor (PWR) [7]
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As the nuclear reaction is chained and it is highly dangerous, it must be controlled.

The reaction is controlled by boron control rods; they absorb neutrons and hence
slow down the reaction up to a desirable limit. [8]
BIOMASS
Bio-mass comprises of organic living or recently lived organisms. Usually they are
garbage, plants, agriculture and animals waste. Power experts take keen interest in
obtaining energy from biomass as it is carbon dioxide neutral and hence a
renewable energy source [10]. There are two common methods for making
biomass into use. Chemical process, i.e. obtain methane gas from biomass and use
it as fuel in fossil fuel power plants or processing plants such as Jatropha to get
bio-diesel and operate the thermal power plant with biodiesel [9]. The second and
most commonly practiced method is by direct combustion of bio gas in order to keep
heating up the water following a steam turbine [10]
GEOTHERMAL
Geothermal energy is one of the renewable energy sources. Earths inner core is at
a high temperature while the surface acts as an insulator. Thermal energy
generated by the hot masses can be utilized by circulation of a fluid. The common
method of utilizing the geothermal energy is to drill deep holes into the surface
(same as drilling of oil) until a suitable thermal spot is found. After finding a
significant geothermal spot the thermal energy can be utilized by three methods
depending on the quality of the hot masses. [11]
Dry Steam: Dry steam power plants directly use underground generated steam by
earths heat to drive the turbine [11]. As shown in figure 6
Flash Steam: Flash steam power plants use hot fluids (above 180 oC) to vaporize
water in the flash tank in order to generate steam which drives the turbine [11]. As
shown in figure 6
Binary cycle: In Binary cycle power plants, hot fluids (below 180 oC) are used to
vaporize the water through a heat exchanger. The steam generated in the heat
exchanger is used to drive the turbine and hence generator, while the extracted fluid
from geothermal source is returned back to the aground after the heat is utilized
[11].As shown in figure 6
Figure 6: Geothermal Power Plant [12]
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BY PRIME MOVER
STEAM TURBINE
Steam Turbine is the one used in power plants operating on Rankine cycle. It is the
most commonly used turbine around the world for power generation [13]. Steam
turbines are usually classified on the basis of blade and stage design. There are two
common types, Impulse and Reaction turbine.
Impulse Turbine: An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that ejaculate steam in the
form of high velocity jets towards a shaft having rotor blades on its edges. Kinetic
energy of the jets causes the rotation of shaft. Due to expansion at nozzle outlet,
steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity, and the shaft blades accumulate
a large portion of jets velocity. Pressure drop occurs at the nozzle outlet and the
pressure drops again when jet strikes the stationary blades. As shown in figure 7.
There are three types of impulse turbines commonly used, Pelton turbine, and
Turgo Turbine and Crossflow turbine [13]
Reaction Turbine: A reaction turbine has rotor blades arranged in the form of
nozzles on the main rotating shaft, there is a stator in the shaft which directs the
steam into the rotor (nozzles). Reaction turbine develops torque by the reaction of
ejaculating fluids. Increase in velocity takes place when the steam leaves the stator
and fills the circumference of the rotor, after a significant increase in the velocity; it
decreases in the rotor itself. Pressure drop occurs at both the stages, i.e. when the
steam leaves the stator and in rotor as well. As shown in figure 7. There are three
types of impulse turbines commonly used, Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine and
Propeller turbine. [13]
Figure 7: Impulse and Reaction Turbine [14]
COMBINED CYCLE
Thermal efficiencies of Joule-Brayton and Rankine cycles are usually low, this is
because of the rejected heat quantity is a considerable fraction of the fuel energy
consumed. Efficiency of the gas turbine or a steam turbine power plant can be
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enhanced by combining the Joule-Brayton and Rankine cycle, in such a way that
the heat rejected from the gas turbine is used to heat up the vapour content present
in the steam turbine cycle. This arrangement is known as combined cycle. In this
arrangement both turbines supplies power to the system and utilization of the
rejected heat increases the overall plant efficiency [15]. Schematic and T-s
diagrams of combined cycle are shown in fig 8
Figure 8(a): Schematic diagram of Combine cycle [5]
Figure 8(b): T-s diagram of Combine cycle [5]
RECIPROCATING ENGINE
Internal combustion engines can also be used to generate electric power. They are
usually of a small scale and are often used as a backup power source. Internal
combustion engines drive the shaft and a generator can be placed on the end of the
rotating shaft in order to obtain electrical energy. Commonly used internal
combustion engines in power generation are Diesel, Otto and Stirling engines. [16]
2.1.2. RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is defined as energy that comes from naturally replenishes able
resources. By the evolution of technology the dependability on natural resources is
increasing significantly. As the fossil is eventually running out, utilization of
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renewable energy resources in power generation is increasing day by day. There

are certain types of renewable energy power plants described below.
HYDROELECTRIC
Hydroelectricity means the power generated by hydropower. It is the most widely
used form of renewable energy. There are several methods to generate
hydroelectricity; the most common is by water storage dams. The hydroelectricity
extracted from water depends on the flow rate of water and the height difference
between the height of source and water outflow, known as head. Greater the height
difference and flow rate, greater will be the power produced. [17]
Water for hydroelectric generation is usually stored in a reservoir known as dam.
Water travelled from dam to the power house through special ducts called penstock.
Water carries potential energy due to its gradient and kinetic energy due to its flow,
when strikes the turbine transform into mechanical energy which is then converted
into electrical energy via generators. As shown in figure 9.
Figure 9: Hydroelectric power plant
WIND
Wind energy can be converted into useful electrical energy by using wing turbines in
the areas with healthy wind potential. Wind turbines can be constructed in-shore or
off-shore usually in the grid called wind farms. Cross winds make the blades rotate;
there is a gear box and generator connected with a shaft, which eventually starts
working with the movement of fan blades. [18] There are two types of wind turbines,
Horizontal axis and vertical axis as shown in figure 10.
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Figure 10: Horizontal and Vertical Axis wind Turbine [18]
SOLAR
There are numerous ways to make infinite solar energy into use; the device used for
this purpose is called solar cells. Solar cells are made up of highly photovoltaic
material, they emit electron when sun light shines upon them. So the electrons
starts flowing and inverters convert direct current into alternating current for
domestic and industrial purposes. In small scale an individual plate of solar cells is
used to absorb solar radiations and conversion of electricity. While in larger scale
various techniques are used for converging radiations to a common point
(concentrating) solar radiations and hence get more power. For this purpose,
parabolic trough, dish or solar power tower is used (as shown in figure 11).
Sometimes a solar power is utilized for heating and vaporizing the water in tubes
which further drives the steam turbine, this system is called solar thermal power
plant [19][20]
Figure 11: Solar dish, parabolic solar trough and solar power tower [19][20]
MARINE
Marine energy refers to the ocean energy carried by its tides, waves, temperature
difference and salt concentration. This is not a very popular method of power
generation, still various types exists.
Ocean Thermal Energy: In ocean thermal energy conversion, temperature
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difference between cold deep and relatively warmer surface temperature is sued to
run a heat engine and hence obtain electrical power. [21]
Tidal: Tidal power is the form of hydropower in which tidal energy is utilized for the
generation of electric power.[22]
Osmotic: Osmotic power is also known as salinity gradient power. It is the method
of obtaining energy from the difference in salt concentration between seawater and
river water. [23]
2.2.
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers can be classified on flow arrangement, construction, process

function, heat transfer mechanism, transfer process and flow configuration. As
shown in figure 12. Based on these factors various types of heat exchangers have
been developed, some of them are discussed below. [24]
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Single-Pass
Flow Arrangement
Multi-Pass
Tubular
Construction
Plate Type
Regenerative
Condenser
Boiler
Process Function
Cooler
Classification of
Heat Exchanger
Heater
Single Phase
Convection
Heat Transfer
Mechanism
Two Phase
convection
Combined (Convection
and radiation)
Direct Contact
Transfer Process
Indirect Contact
Figure 12: Classification of Heat exchanger
Parallel Flow
Flow Configuration
Counter Flow
Cross Flow
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PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER

The plate and frame heat exchanger consists of corrugated metal plates having
holes in them for the passage of fluids between which heat transfer will take place.
The plates are fixed together with a gasket in the corners; the gasket also directs
the hot and cold fluid into separate channels. Cold fluid enters from a hole and sub
sequential plates make a passage for the cold fluid to pass to the rear end. The
same happens with the hot fluid. Both fluids make exit from separate outlets. As
shown in figure 13. The heat is transferred through the plates which have both cold
and hot passages providing a large area for heat transfer. The corrugation of plates
provides support to the adjacent plate and the arrangement also makes channels
for both fluids respectively. [25]
Figure 13: Plate heat exchanger [25]
SPIRAL
In spiral heat exchangers there are two spiral channels, in which fluids at different
temperatures flow in separate channels. Flow arrangement is usually counter flow.
Either of the fluid enters from the centre and flows towards outer edge in spiral
pattern. Alternatively, the other fluid enters the heat exchanger from the outer edge
and flows towards the outlet which is at the centre, right behind or next to the inlet of
the first fluid. As shown in figure 14. Sometimes it is taken into account that the fluid
arrangement in spiral heat exchangers is parallel, i.e. both fluids enter from the
centre through separate inlets and travel to the outer edge or vice versa. [26]
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Figure 14: Spiral heat exchanger [27]
AIR COIL
Air coil heat exchangers are also known as plate-fin heat exchanger. They have a
vast usage in HVAC (Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning) systems and
domestic air conditioners. They have similitude with plate and frame heat
exchangers. It consists of tubes penetrating through the parallel arranged fins. As
shown in figure 15. A refrigerant flows through the tubes which reduces the
temperature of air flowing between the fins (cross flow). [28]
Figure 15: Plate-fin heat exchanger [29]
RECUPERATOR
Recuperator is a type of heat-recovery heat exchanger. It is also a special purpose
heat exchanger that cannot be used elsewhere. Recuperators positioned between
the inlet of combustion chamber and exhaust of a thermal system. They are usually
used in gas turbine power plants. The recuperator transfers some of the waste heat
from turbine exhaust towards compressor outlet where it heats the compressed air
(preheating) before it enters the combustion chamber and thus less fuel is needed
to heat up the gasses up to the turbine inlet temperature [30]. Figure16 shows the
schematic diagram of a gas turbine power plant having a recuperator.
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Figure 16: schematic diagram of a gas turbine power plant having a recuperator [31]
The preheat efficiency or the temperature of the preheated fluid depends on the
temperature of exhaust fluid. Usage of recuperator generally saves 20% on fuel
consumption.
STEAM GENERATOR
Steam generator is a type of heat

exchanger used in nuclear power
plant. In nuclear power plant heat is
generated in a result of nuclear
reaction so it is not recommended to
generate steam by making direct
contact of water with radioactive
masses. For this purpose, another
heat carrying fluid is made in to use,
this additional fluid circulates in a
separate pathway, receives heat from
the reactor and transmit it in the
steam generator through numerous
small tubes. In steam generator, the
cooler fluid is water which turns into
steam under influence of heat
carrying fluid. Steam generator is
based on shell and tube heat
exchanger design [7]. figure17.
Figure 17: Steam generator [32]
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REGENERATOR
Like recuperator, regenerator is a special
purpose heat-recovery heat exchanger. They
also positioned between the inlet of
combustion chamber and exhaust of a
thermal system. They are used in gas turbine
power plants with the same purpose as
recuperators have. They differ from
recuperators on the basis of their working and
operation. In recuperator hot and cold
streams passes simultaneously through
separate channels while in regenerator, heat
from the hot body is stored in an intermediate
medium before it is transferred to cold fluid in
order to recover some wasted energy. [33]
Figure 18: Regenerator [33]
HRSG
Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG) is a type of heat exchanger used in
combined cycle power plants. HRSG serves as the interface link between air and
steam cycle. It utilizes heat from a hot gas stream coming from the exhaust of gas
turbine and produces steam that can be used in cogeneration or can be used in
driving the steam turbine. Main components of HRSG are Evaporator, superheater
and economizer. For providing better heat recovery in the HRSG operation is
carried out in high and low pressure levels. HRSG increases the power output of the
system by 30-40%. [34]
Figure 19: HRSG [34]
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2.3.
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USAGE OF HEAT EXCHANGERS IN POWER PLANT

APPLICATION
Heat exchangers have vast usage in various types of power plants. They serve as a
necessary component of every power plant. The type of heat exchanger varies in
different types of power plants as discussed below. It is also seen that more than
one heat exchanger is used in a single power plant at different stages of the cycle.
And it is also noted that a power plant can accommodate different types of heat
exchangers. So in conclusion the choice of heat exchanger in a power plant varies
from design to design.
There are some typical heat exchangers used in power plants discussed below
In some power generation industries (usually in combined cycle power plants) there
is a steam producing heat exchanger called Heat Recovery Steam Generators
(HRSG) which utilizes heat from a hot gas stream and produces steam that can be
used in cogeneration or can be used in driving the steam turbine in combined cycle
[34]
Feedwater heaters are used in steam power plants; they are shell and tube heat
exchangers. A fraction of steam is bleed after driving the high pressure turbine thus
heating the feedwater. [35]
There is a special type of heat exchanger called Recuperator which is used in gas
turbine power plants. The recuperator transfers some of the waste heat from turbine
exhaust towards compressor outlet where it heats the compressed air (preheating)
before it enters the combustion chamber and thus less fuel is needed to heat up the
gasses up to the turbine inlet temperature. [31]
Sometimes geothermal power plants also need heat exchangers where the
geothermal steam is contaminated with excessive suspended solid particles or
corrosives. [36]
In Nuclear power plants there is a pressurized water reactor (PWR) in which water
under high pressure is heated due to nuclear reactions and the heated water flows
into a heat exchanger called steam generator where it transfers the thermal energy
to water in order to convert water into steam which further drives the turbine. Steam
generators are based on the shell and tube heat exchanger. [7]
For better efficiency and safer operation of gas turbines, a small plate or cross flow
heat exchanger can be used for steady cooling of rotor blades, bearings and lube
oils [37]
Surface Condensers are a vital part of a steam or thermal power plant. It is basically
a shell and tube heat exchanger. The exhaust steam from turbine enters the shell of
the heat exchanger where it is cooled to condensate (water), due to the cold water
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flowing in the tubes. It is necessary to condensate the exhaust steam because the
pump works on liquid which drives the water to the boiler for further operation [38]
Some gas turbine power plants operating on modified Joule-Brayton cycle uses
Regenerator. Regenerator is a special type of Heat exchanger in which heat from
the hot body is stored in an intermediate medium before it is transferred to cold fluid
in order to recover some wasted energy. [33]
Table 1 shows some of the commonly used heat exchangers in various power
plants
Table 1: Commonly used heat exchangers in various power plants
Power Plant
Combine cycle
Power Plant
Steam turbine
Power Plant
Steam turbine
Power Plant
Steam turbine
Power Plant
Gas Turbine
Power Plant
Gas Turbine
Power Plant
Nuclear Power
Plant
Geothermal
Power Plant
Various
2.4.
Heat
Exchanger
Type of Heat
Exchanger
Primarily Function
HRSG
HRSG
Condenser
Shell and tube heat

exchanger
Shell and tube heat
exchanger
Economize, Super
heat and
evaporation
Condensing the
vapour
heating the bleed
steam
Direct contact/Open
heat exchanger
heating the bleed

steam
Recuperator
Close
Feedwater
heater
Open
Feedwater
heater
Recuperator
Geothermal
heat
exchanger
various
Preheating the
compressed air
heat storage and
recovery
Vaporizing the
water
Vaporizing the
water
Plate, cross flow or

Spiral heat
exchanger
Cooling rotor
blades, bearings,
lube oil
Regenerator
Regenerator
PWR, BWR
Shell and tube heat

exchanger
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is a form of energy and according to the law of conservation of energy it

cannot be created or destroyed. But it is interconvert-able and can be transmitted
from one body to another. The driving force which undergoes the heat transfer is
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temperature difference. Heat always transfers from high temperature region to low
temperature region, and heat transfer stops when the two regions reach the same
temperature. [39]
Heat can be transferred by three modes as discussed below. There is only one
basic requirement for all of them, which is the existence of temperature difference.
CONDUCTION
Conduction is a mode of heat transfer as a result of interaction of high energy
particles with adjacent less energetic particles. Conduction is valid in solids, liquids
and gasses. Since the molecules of solids are more compact than liquids and
gasses, so heat transfer through conduction in solids is greater than conduction in
liquids and gasses experiences. In solids conduction is due to the movement of free
electrons and vibration of molecules in the lattice. While in liquids and gasses, it is
due to diffusion and collision of the molecules during their random motion. [39]
Figure 20: Conduction
The rate of heat transfer through conduction is directly proportional to the

temperature difference across the medium and the wall or area normal to the
direction of heat transfer, but it is inversely proportional to the thickness of the wall
or layer through which heat is being transferred (fig 20). k serves as a constant of
proportionality known as thermal conductivity, which is the ability of the material to
conduct heat. [39]
.
Q = kAs T/x
(equation 1)
In the above equation Q is rate of heat transfer, while k is thermal conductivity,

As is surface area and T is temperature difference and x is wall thickness.
The term T/x is known as temperature gradient and the equation is called
Fouriers law of heat conduction. [39]
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CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat energy between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion. Convection also occurs when an immiscible liquid or
gas passes over another fluid. An illustration of convection is in fig 21, in which air is
flowing over a hot block, velocity is zero at the surface of block (no slip condition)
while the temperature is maximum at the layer adjacent to the hot surface, this heat
is than carried away by convection. [39]
Figure 21: Velocity and temperature profile [39]
Phase change heat transfer processes including boiling and condensation, are also
considered as convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process
such as liquid droplets falling during conduction and vapour rising during boiling.
Despite all the complexities involved in convection, the rate of heat transfer through
convection is simply proportional to the temperature difference T and surface
area As through which conduction takes place where h serves as a convective
heat transfer coefficient. Rate of heat transfer through convection can be expressed
by Newtons law of cooling. [39] Equation 2
.
Q = hAs T
(equation 2)
RADIATION
Every existing body in the universe having matter radiates energy in the form of
different waves, all bodies having temperature above absolute zero emits some
thermal radiations. By definition, radiation is the thermal energy emitted by the
matter in the form of electromagnetic waves. Radiation differs from conduction and
convection as heat transfer by radiation doesnt require the presence of any
intermediate medium, in fact the process is even faster if there is no medium at all
(vacuum). [39]
All solids, liquids and gasses emits radiation to different degrees, it is a volumetric
phenomenon, but sometimes it is considered as a surface characteristic, because in
most of the solids and some liquids, the radiation emitted by the interior region can
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never reach the surface and hence absorbed in between the surface and the core.
[39]
Rate of heat transfer through radiation can be expressed by the StephenBoltzmann law. Equation 3
.
Q = AsT4
(equation 3)
Where is emissivity, its a surface characteristic and its value lies in the range of
0 1. Basically it is the measure of how close a body approximates black body,
which is a perfect emitter having emissivity = 1. is Stephen-Boltzmann constant,
having constant value = 5.67E-8 W/m2.K. As and T represents the area and
temperature of the surface emitting radiation. [39]
2.5.
SELECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGER
One of the most important decisions taken by a designer is selection of appropriate

heat exchanger for a particular system or application. There are no general rules for
selection of heat exchanger; however there are certain factors which are related to
the specific application, which must be taken into account by the designer while
selecting the type of heat exchanger. [40]
a. Thermal and Hydraulic requirements: This is the most important of all the
factors, as it deals with the amount of heat to be exchanged, inlet and outlet
temperatures, pressure drop and other flow characteristics. [40]
b. Compatibility with fluids and operating conditions: The materials must be
compatible with fluids in resistance of corrosion. The fouling factor must be
carefully assessed and the selected exchanger must be able to operate for
the required period of time. The heat exchanger must be able to withstand
generated stresses due to fluid pressure and temperature differences
(thermal stresses) [40]
c. Maintenance: The characteristics of fluids and components should be
carefully assessed in order to meet the requirement s for cleaning and
periodic replacement of various units. In the design a room for possible
future modification should be left.[40]
d. Availability: There are some components which can be delivered rapidly by
the manufacturers, however some components of the heat exchanger has to
be fabricate specially on the requirement. These factors have to be taken in
consideration. [40]
e. Economic factors: If several heat exchangers can meet the requirement,
then the selection is based on economic aspects; being economic but
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achieving the expected effectiveness and efficiency is one of the basic

requirements for any set-up. In this case, however, simple changes can
create huge differences, thus deliberate attention is needed in this step. Cost
of heat exchanger includes material cost, durability, and operating cost
including any coolant used. [40]
2.6.
HEAT EXCHANGER TO BE OPTIMIZED
Traditionally in many industries, the choice of heat exchanger is shell and tube heat
exchanger, for which there are well established designs and operation standards
and long operational history which can be helpful in maintenance and operation.
[40] Also STHE is the most widely used heat exchanger in power plants (Refer to
literature review), which is the main topic of this research, so the researcher decided
to select STHE for further heat transfer analysis and optimization.
As discussed above there are several types of heat exchangers used in power
plants but because of the versatility of usage and diversity of applications in various
power plants author selected Shell and tube heat exchanger for further analysis and
optimization. Besides usage and applications, there are other major advantages of
STHE.
Figure 22: Shell and tube heat exchanger [42]
Shell and tube heat exchangers flexibility of design allows high pressures and
temperatures. As it name implies it comprises of a large shell, large number of tubes
(up to hundred) and baffles for guiding the flow. A fluid flows through the tubes and
the other one through the shell at different temperatures. Shell and tube heat
exchangers have a widespread of usage, they are used in power plants, boilers,
steam engine locomotives, oil refineries and more, but still they cannot be used in
aircrafts and automotives because of their large size and weight. [40] Some of the
main components and design consideration are described below.
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2.6.1. COMPONENTS
Tubes: Tubes are one of the major components of shell and tube heat exchanger
which facilitates the heat transfer between the fluid flowing through the tubes and
the one flowing across the shell. Tube walls are main cause of heat transfer so the
tube material should be of good thermal conductivity and diameter and wall
thickness should be enough to tolerate thermal stresses due to pressure. [40]
Shell and Nozzles: Shell has a circular cross section and it serves as a container
and passage for one of the fluids. Generally it is made by any of the pipe
manufacturing technique, it can be made by rolling a metallic sheet into the shape of
the cylinder and then the joints are weld. Or it can be made by hot rolling and cold
drawing of a metallic billet so it doesnt have a joint which is beneficial for bearing
high stresses. Inlet and outlet nozzles are mounted on the shell. The inlet nozzle
usually has an impingement plate to divert the incoming flow in the direction of
tubes and avoid the direct impact of high velocity flow on the tubes and other
components as it can result in vibration and corrosion. [41]
Figure 23: Shell Nozzles [43]
Baffles: The primarily function of the baffles is to guide the flow in shell chamber
across the tubes while making the flow turbulent and thus provide high heat transfer
rate. Besides that, the baffles help to support the tubes and maintain uniform
spacing between them during operation and thus minimize the vibrations due to
eddies. The diameter of baffle should be less than the inner diameter of the shell.
The baffles should be precisely machined to avoid leakage from the outer edges or
from the holes for supporting tubes because leakage can increase vibrations and
reduce thermal efficiency. [42]
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Figure 24: Baffles [44]
2.6.2. DESIGN DELIBERATIONS
Type of flow: The flow in shell and tube heat exchangers can be classified as either
parallel flow or cross flow. In parallel flow, both fluids enter from the same end in
shell and tubes, travel in the same direction and leave from the other end. While in
counter flow the hot and cold fluid enters from the opposite ends and move in the
opposite directions. [39]
Figure 25: Type of flow [45]
Tube layout: Tube layout is the geometrical pattern of arrangement of tubes. It

affects the flow properties inside the shell and so does the heat transfer coefficient.
For example, in the comparison of triangular and square pitch, the heat transfer
coefficient for triangular layout is as higher than that of square pitch. [46]
Figure 26: Tube layout [46]
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Tubes arrangement: Tubes arrangements can be classified as single pass and

multi-pass. It can be single pass shell and single tube pass or multi shell and multi
tube pass, or single shell and multi-tube pass. Most heat exchangers are one, two
or four tube pass design. [46]
Figure 27: Tube arrangement
Baffles spacing: It is the distance between two adjacent baffles. Increasing the
number of baffles also increases the turbulence; on the negative side it hinders the
shell flow. If the baffle spacing is large, it will result in vibrations due to large
unsupported tube span and less heat will be transferred. For avoiding both
possibilities of problems, optimum baffle spacing would be used. According to
TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers association) the distance between the
adjacent baffles should be 1/5 of shell diameter. [44]
Figure 28: Baffle Spacing [47]
Material: Material properties of the heat exchanger should be considered while

designing, as the exchange of heat widely depends on the thermal conductivity of
the material used. Besides this, the material should be corrosion-resistant and have
high mechanical strength which makes it long lasting [44]
Tube Pitch: The distance between the centres of adjacent tubes is called tube
pitch. It is an important aspect and calculated carefully because the shell fluid
passes in between the tubes, tube pitch should not be too small to hinder the flow
on the other hand using large pitch restrict the user to accumulate large number of
tubes. Usually it is 1.25 times the diameter of tube. [46]
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Figure 29: Tube pitch
Type of Baffles: Usually baffles are either segmented, helical, double segmented
or disc and doughnut type. It has been noted that flow properties change
significantly with the usage of different types of baffle. Fig 30 (a) shows conventional
segmented baffle which have a cut on either side which allows the shell flow. The
main problem with this type of baffle is that it creates dead regions at the base;
dead regions are those regions where the shell fluid cannot reach. Pressure drop is
another common problem in STHE. For overcoming these problems, different types
of baffles have been introduced such as double segmented and disc and doughnut
type. Fig 30 (b) (d). But the ultimate solution was helical baffles. Helical baffles
allows smooth flow in spiral pattern fig 30 (c), studies shows that helical baffles
gives 1.8 times more overall heat transfer than segmental baffles. Despite all the
benefits there are some limitations. Spiral surface machining is difficult, installation
requires special expertise because helix angle must remain same for all the baffles
and maximum spacing should be provided at shells inlet and outlet. Risk of leakage
is more than that in segmental baffles. Those were some of the reasons because of
which segmented baffles are still most popular. [44]
Figure 30: Types of Baffles
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Along the above mentioned design considerations there are many other parameters
which should be kept in mind while designing a heat exchanger. The most important
of them are surface area, temperature and pressure difference, pressure drop, type
of fluid used, flow rate, tube diameter, fluid viscosity, fouling tendency etc. [40]
2.6.3. PROBLEMS IN STHE

FOULING
The performance of heat exchangers usually decline with the passage of time as a
result of accumulation of sediments on the heat exchanging surfaces. The layer
causes additional resistance to heat transfer and serves as insulator hence cause
the rate of heat exchange to decrease. Heat exchanger is designed on the base of
calculations which depicts the need of the operation. Calculations were based on
exchange of heat between two fluids around the metallic walls of tubes. If anything
else (fouling) came in between the thermal circuit, the amount of heat exchange
would be decreased from which was expected initially. The main cause of fouling is
excessive heat, low velocity fluids, and contaminated water causing algae. [39]
LEAKAGE
If the baffles are not tightly placed in the shell, leakage through baffle occurs.
Leakage is undesirable because it changes the flow pattern, disturb pressure
distribution and decreases overall heat transfer rate [48]
TUBE BURST
Although STHE is well known for safe operation, but there are incidents reporting
tube failure. There are several reasons investigated behind those failures. Such as
improper selection of material, design or manufacturing fault, blockage due to
fouling, stresses caused by high temperature and pressure, thermal fatigue, but the
main cause behind this failure is presence of excess of chloride ions in the coolant.
[49]
2.7.
STAR CCM+
Star CCM+ is the software package used for tackle problems involving multi-physics
and complex geometries. It helps to model geometry along with entirely automating
the simulation workflow and performing iterative design studies. It is used for
designing, simulating and analysing of products and complex systems in a wide
range of applications. [50]
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3. DESIGN, MODELING AND SIMULATION

3.1.
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD) MODEL
For the heat transfer analysis of Shell and tube heat exchanger, keeping in mind the
limitations and considerations of software package (STAR CCM+) a scaled model of
real life example of steam condenser is taken, because a full scale model would
require computing time which is beyond the scope of this project. Model geometry
is based on a STHE from Walchandnagar industries ltd (APPENDIX A).
The geometry of the model used for conducting simulations was kept to an optimum
size for various reasons but primarily due to restrictions in available computing
memory provided by the software package which effects the meshing operation and
simulations.
The model is made up of Aluminium, having density 2702 kg/m3, specific heat 903
J/Kg-K and Thermal conductivity 215 W/m-K. Shell and tubes of is 1.364 m were
made. Shell diameter is 304.8mm while tubes have diameter of 11mm. Tubes were
arranged in square arrangement and they are 121 in number. There is a distance of
16mm between the centres of two adjacent tubes, so there must be a gap of 5mm
for the shell liquid to flow in between the tubes. There are total 6 baffles having
thickness and baffle spacing of 4mm and 200mm. Nozzles on both ends on shell
have been made for inlet and outlet of steam having diameter of 73mm. Figure 31
shows the CAD model.
Figure 31: CAD model
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3.2.
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DESIGN DATA AND ANALYTICAL CALCULATIONS
As design optimization is based on a real life scenario, in which a STHE is working

in a steam turbine power plant. After driving the turbine wet or saturated steam
enters the shell and condensed till it leaves the chamber, as a condensate (water).
For cooling purposes chilled water from nearby river is pumped into the tubes of
exchanger. The inlet temperature of steam is assumed to be 380 0K (107 0C) while
temperature of water flowing in tubes is 278 0K (5 0C), which is an average water
temperature of rivers in UK during winter season [51]. Geometry and material
properties have been described in CAD section
Initial velocity of steam is 10ms-1 at the inlet of shell while cooling water enters in the
tubes having velocity of 1.5ms-1. Shell side gauge pressure is estimated to 0.275265
bar while water enters the tubes at atmospheric pressure. Based on the
temperature, Pressure and velocity assumptions and dimensions of heat exchanger,
following calculation has been made.
Shell inlet/outlet diameter = dn = 73mm
Shell diameter = ds = 304.8mm
Tube diameter = dt = 11mm
Shell inlet velocity = vs = 10ms-1
Tube inlet velocity = vt = 1.5ms-1
3.2.1. SHELL SIDE CALCULATIONS

Reynolds number
Re
vs d n
= 0.74825 kg/m3
vs = 10ms-1
dn = 73mm
= 1.25037E-5 kg/m.s
Re = 0.74825 x 10 x 0.073 / 1.25037E-5
Re = 43685
Reynolds number is greater than 4000, so flow is turbulent
I = 0.16Re-1/8
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I = 0.16(43685)-1/8
I = 0.0420835
K = (vsI)2
K = (10 x 0.0420835)2
K = 0.63125 J/kg
= c0.75 x K1.5 / l
c = 0.09
l = 0.07 dn
l = 0.07 x 0.073
l = 5.11E-3
= (0.09)0.75 x (0.6312525)1.5 / 5.11E-3
= 16.12745 m2/s3
Prandtl Number
Pr = Cp/k
Cp = 0.05413 J/kg.K
k = 0.025875 W/m.K
Pr = 0.05413 x 1.25037E-5 / 0.025875
Pr = 0.99527
Nusselt number
Reynolds number is greater than 10000 so Nusselt number can be calculated by
Dittus-Boelter equation.
Nu = 0.023 x Re0.8 xPr0.3
Nu = 0.023 x (43685)0.8 x (0.99527)0.3
Nu = 118.40662
Heat transfer coefficient
hs = Nu x k / dn
hs = 118.40662 x 0.025875 / 0.073
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hs = 42.1722 W/m2.K
3.2.2. TUBE SIDE CALCULATIONS

Reynolds number
Re
vt d t
= 999.96693kg/m3
vt = 1.5ms-1
dt = 11mm
= 1.51813E-3kg/m.s
Re = 999.96693 x 10.5 x 0.011 / 1.51813E-3
Re = 10868
Reynolds number is greater than 4000, so flow is turbulent
I = 0.16Re-1/8
I = 0.16(10868)-1/8
I = 0.050073
K = (vtI)2
K = (1.5 x 0.050073)2
K = 8.46206E-3J/kg
= c0.75 x K1.5 / l
c = 0.09
l = 0.07 dn
l = 0.07 x 0.011
l = 7.7E-4
= (0.09)0.75 x (8.46206E-3)1.5 / 7.7E-4
= 0.166114m2/s3
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Prandtl Number
Pr = Cp/k
Cp = 4.20495J/kg.K
k = 0.57057W/m.K
Pr = 4.20495 x 1.51813E-3 / 0.57057
Pr = 11.18822
Nusselt number
Reynolds number is greater than 10000 so Nusselt number can be calculated by
Dittus-Boelter equation.
Nu = 0.023 x Re0.8 xPr0.3
Nu = 0.023 x (10868)0.8 x (11.18822)0.3
Nu = 80.40366
ht = Nu x k / dt
ht = 80.40366 x 0.57057 / 0.011
ht = 4170.538W/m2.K
3.2.3. HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS
Heat Conduction through tubes
R =ln(do/di) / 2ktL
Where R = thermal resistance
k = Thermal conductivity of Aluminium
and L = Length of tube
R = ln(11/9) / 2(215)(1.364)
R= 1.08906 E-4 W/K
Overall Heat transfer Coefficient

Overall Heat transfer Coefficient = U
1/U = 1/hs + 1/ht + R
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1/U = 1/42.1722 + 1/4170.538 + 1.08906 E-4

U = 41.75W/m2.K
Surface Area
As = ndtL
Where
n
As= 121 x x 0.011 x 1.364
As = 0.75451m2
number
of
tubes
Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

TLM = [T1 T2] / [ln(T1 / T2)]
Where
T1 = Tsi - Tto
T2 = Tso Tti
Tsi, Tso, Tti, Tto can be assumed as follows
Tsi = Shell inlet temperature = 380 0K (107 0C)
Tso= Shell inlet temperature = 310 0K (37 0C)
Tti= Shell inlet temperature = 278 0K (5 0C)
Tto= Shell inlet temperature = 298 0K (25 0C)
T1 = 380 298
T1 = 82
T2 = 310 278
T2 = 32
TLM = [82 32] / [ln(82/ 32)]
TLM = 53.136 0K
Heat Transfer Rate
.
Q = UAsTLM
.
Q = 41.75 x 0.75451 x 53.136

.
Q = 1672.384 W
Table 2 shows data in the form of initial and computed values used for simulations
in order to observe the heat transfer in shell and tube heat exchanger.
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Table 2: Working fluid properties
PROPERTIES
Inlet Temperature
Absolute Pressure
Inlet Velocity
Density
Dynamic Viscosity
Hydraulic Diameter
Specific Heat
Thermal
Conductivity
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
Turbulence
Intensity
Turbulence Kinetic
Energy
Turbulence
Dissipation Rate
Heat Transfer
Coefficient
3.3.
SYMBOL
SHELL-SIDE
TUBE-SIDE
UNIT
T
P
v
d
Cp
k
380(107)
128851
10
0.74825
1.25037E-5
73
0.05413
0.025875
278(5)
101325
1.5
999.96693
1.51813E-3
11
4.20495
0.57057
K (0C)
Pa
m/s
Kg/m3
kg/m.s
mm
J/kg.K
W/m.K
Re
Pr
Nu
I
43685
0.99527
118.40662
0.0420835
10868
11.18822
80.40366
0.050073
0.63125
8.46206E-3
J/kg
16.12745
0.166114
m2/s3
42.1722
4170.538
W/m2.K
MESHING
By definition, meshing is the process of dividing the geometry into small number of
cells for solving and studying the engineering phenomenon. For appropriate results
high number of cells or fine mesh is preferable. However, if the number of cells is
higher, higher would be the computational memory required for simulations. So it is
a tough decision for a designer to make, by using finest possible mesh supported by
system. [52]
In this project Polyhedral mesh models were used. Polyhedral mesh is a type of
volumetric mesh, it can accumulate larger number of cells as compare to other
meshing models because it generate mesh in polyhedral cells and it is less diffusive
and more stable. For betterment of surface, surface remesher model was used to
retriangulate the surface edges and preserve the original triangulation. The meshed
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model is shown in figure 32. The selected mesh has 1mm base size with relative
minimum size of 25 % and relative target size of 50%. [52]
Figure 32: Meshed model
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4. RESULTS
4.1.
MODEL 1: DEFAULT DESIGN
The first model of heat exchanger has been made according to the calculations
shown in fig 33 and meshed model shown in fig 32. The results obtained for
Temperature and Velocity are shown in figure 34 and 35 respectively. Figure 36
shows the graph of heat transfer between the working fluids.
Figure 33: Default Designed Model
Figure 34: Temperature Distribution for Model 1
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Figure 35: Velocity Distribution for Model 1
Figure 36: Heat Transfer Plot for Model 1
Design optimization has been carried out by varying different components and
parameters, as described below.
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4.2. VELOCITY
4.2.1. MODEL: 2
The second models geometry is the same as the first model (fig 33), the only
difference is; it is simulated on high velocity (20ms-1). Shell inlet velocity has been
doubled to study the effects of heat transfer and temperature change under
modified conditions. Parameters related to velocity also changes by varying the inlet
velocity. Calculated properties for this case are mentioned in table 3.
Table 3: Calculated Properties for Model 2
Properties
Symbol
Value
Unit
Reynolds Number
Nusselt Number
Turbulence Dissipation rate
Re
Nu
h
I
K
87369
207.55387
73.5675
0.03858783
0.8934122
27.154312
W/m2.K
J/kg
m2/s3
The results obtained for Temperature and Velocity are shown in figure 37 and 38
respectively. Figure 39 shows the graph of heat transfer between the working fluids.
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Figure 39: Heat Transfer plot for Model 2
4.2.2. MODEL: 3
The third models geometry is the same as the first and second model (fig 33), the
only difference is; it is simulated on low velocity (5ms-1). Shell inlet velocity has been
reduced to half in order to study the effects of heat transfer and temperature change
under modified conditions. Parameters related to velocity also changes by varying
the inlet velocity. Calculated properties for this case are mentioned in table 4.
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Table 4: Calculated Properties for Model 3
Properties
Symbol
Value
Unit
Reynolds Number
Nusselt Number
Turbulence Dissipation
rate
Re
Nu
h
I
K
21842
68.4673
24.26825
0.045888915
0.07896722
0.71358123
W/m2.K
J/kg
m2/s3
respectively. Figure 42 shows the graph of heat transfer between the working fluids.
Figure 35: Themperature Distribution for Model 3

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4.3. MATERIALS
4.3.1. MODEL: 4
The fourth models geometry is the same as the first model (fig 33), the only
difference is; Aluminium tubes and baffles are replaced with Stainless steel
(UNSS30200) tubes and baffles. Material has been changed to study the effects of
heat transfer and temperature change under modified conditions. Material
properties for stainless steel (UNSS30200) are mentioned in table 5.
Table 5: Material Properties for Model 4
Properties
Symbol
Value
Unit
Density
Specific Heat
Cp
k
7944
490
16
kg/m3
J/kg.K
W/m.K
respectively. Figure 45 shows the graph of the heat transfer between the working
fluids.
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4.3.2. MODEL: 5
The fifth models geometry is the same as the first model (fig 33), the only difference
is; Aluminium tubes and baffles are replaced with Stainless Copper tubes and
baffles. Material has been changed to study the effects of heat transfer and
temperature change under modified conditions. The material properties of Copper
(Cu) are mentioned in table 6.
Table 6: Material Properties for Model 5
Properties
Symbol
Value
Unit
Density
Specific Heat
Cp
k
8940
390
400
kg/m3
J/kg.K
W/m.K
fluids.
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Figure 43: Heat transfer plot for Model 5
4.4. MODEL 6: SUMMER

As stated earlier, the cooling water was drawn from rivers. In summer the
temperature of rivers and open streams rises by an average of 12-13 degrees [51].
The research was carried out on the conditions of summer i.e. water temperature in
tubes are 2910K (180C) in order to determine the reduction in heat transfer and state
of condensate (shell outlet). While shell inlet conditions remain unchanged.
Properties of the coolant (water) are listed in table 7
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Table 7: Tubular fluid properties for Model 6
Properties
Symbol
Value
Unit
Density
Specific Heat
Dynamic Viscosity
Velocity
Reynolds number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
Turbulence Kinetic
Energy
Turbulence Dissipation
Rate
Cp
k
v
Re
Pr
Nu
h
I
K
998.5973
4.186317E-3
0.594865
1.05267E-3
1.5
15652
7.408
95.127
5144.352
0.047841
7.7245161E-3
kg/m3
J/kg.K
W/m.K
kg/m.s
m/s
W/m2.K
J/kg
0.021831
m2/s3
fluids
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4.5. MODEL 7: BAFFLES

Baffle spacing plays an important part in heat transfer. In this model number of
baffles has been increased from 6 to 11. And baffle spacing is been reduced from
200mm to 100mm.as shown in figure 52. Rest all the initial conditions are same as
for the default model.
fluids
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Figure 46: Modified Geometery for Model 7
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4.6. MODEL 8: TUBES LAYOUT

Geometrical arrangement of tubes in the tube bundle also affects the flow properties
of the shell fluid and net heat transfer. For visualizing the heat transfer square pitch
tubes are replaced with triangular pitch tube bundle. Tubes were having 16mm
diameter, and their centres are 22 mm apart from each other so there is a gap of
6mm in between the tubular surfaces for the passage of shell fluid. Tubes are
arranged on 600 angle, making an equilateral triangle. . Rest all the initial conditions
are the same as for the default model. The geometry for this model is shown in
figure 56The results obtained for Temperature and Velocity are shown in figure 57
and 58 respectively. Figure 59 shows the graph of the heat transfer between the
working fluids
Figure 50: Figure 50: Modified Geometry for Model 8 (Hidden Outer Shell)
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DISCUSSION
The results of heat transfer and temperature of condensate steam obtained at shell
outlet is given in table 8. It is observed that varying designs, materials and inlet
properties increases or decreases the heat transfer and the shell outlet temperature
significantly.
Model
Description
1
2
3
4
Outlet
temperature
0
K(0C)
Default
320(47)
v =20ms-1
340(67)
-1
v =5ms
305(32)
Stainless Steel
325(52)
(UNSS30200)
Copper (Cu)
310(37)
Summer
320(47)
Baffles
290(17)
Tubes Layout
300(27)
Table 8: Results of Model 1-8
5
6
7
8
Heat Transfer in
kW
1.749976
2.5844
1.185894
1.527283
1.929292
1.556012
1.420365
2.0718
Heat transfer was first calculated manually (section 3.2) and then compared with the
simulated model. In mathematical calculations the value of rate of heat transfer was
1.6724 kW while in the end of simulation in Star CCM+ the value of heat transfer
was 1.75 kW. The small difference of 77.6 W was because in the calculations,
turbulence properties such as Turbulence kinetic energy and Turbulence dissipation
rate were not taken into account and pressure drop across each stage of baffle was
not computed. Also by using LMTD method, the outlet temperature of Shell and
tubes were roughly assumed. While the simulations give real time accurate values
of heat transfer.
Table 9: Heat Transfer Model 1-8
Heat Transfer (kW)

Heat Transfer (kW)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Model Model Model Model Model Model Model Model
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Heat transfer of different models was computed by simulating them in Star CCM+
and compared with the initial default model. Table 9 gives the comparison of heat
transfer in kilo-Watts for each model. In comparison of varying the velocities,
increasing velocity up to double of its initial value (Model 2) gives almost 48%
increase in heat transfer (2.5844 kW) while when velocity was reduced to its half i.e.
5ms-1, the heat transfer decreased by 32%. (1.185894). When the material of tubes
and baffles was changed from aluminium (Al) to Stainless steel (UNSS30200), it
was observed that the heat transfer was decreased by 12%, however an increment
of 11% is noticed when Copper (Cu) is used instead of Aluminium (Al). Results
shows that weather conditions do not affect heat transfer that much, as in the
summers less than 10% reduction in heat transfer is observed as compared to that
of the winter. Increasing number of baffles or reducing baffle space makes it difficult
for the shell fluid to flow in baffle chambers; hence a remarkable reduction of 19% is
noticed. As a triangular pitched tube bundle is arranged in hexagonal pattern inside
the shell, it occupies more space than a square pitched tube bundle, so the
experiment shows that by using triangular pitch tubes, the heat transfer is
considerably increases by 18%
Table 10: Outlet temperate Model 1-8
Outlet Temperature (0C)

80
Tempereture 0C
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8
After heat is exchanged and operation of the heat exchanger is completed, outlet
temperature of the concerned fluid is also scrutinized. Table 10 shows the
comparisons of outlet temperatures of various models. In comparison of altering
velocities, if velocity is increased up to its double, then it was observed that the
decision was not favourable regarding to the temperature of the condensate, as fluid
temperature received at the outlet of shell was 670C, 20 degrees more than the one
received at initial default conditions. On the other hand, if velocity is reduced to its
half, outlet temperature decreases by 15 degrees as compared to the original.
When the material of tubes and baffles was changed from aluminium (Al) to
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Stainless steel (UNSS30200), condensate temperature rose by 5 degrees, however

a favourable decrement of 10 degrees is noticed when copper (Cu) is used instead
of aluminium (Al). Weather conditions do not affect that much, as the temperature of
condensate obtained in warm season is almost equal to that of obtained in chilly
season. Increasing the number of baffles and decreasing the baffle spacing causes
outstanding contrast with the initial value of outlet fluid. Condensate temperature
drops by 30 degrees by making a change in baffle arrangement. Results show that
triangular tube arrangement also prompts a remarkable depletion in condensate
temperature; it differs with that of the initial default model by 20 degrees.
It has been observed that changes in material cause changes in heat transfer and
condensate temperature; this is because of thermal conductivity of the material, as
copper has the highest value of k Aluminium holds smaller value, while Stainless
steel has the lowest. Their heat transfer chart shows a trend in the same order table
9. If the weight of heat exchanger is not an issue than copper is the recommended
material, but it has a disadvantage; because of higher density it is heavier than
Aluminium. Aluminium is a light material and it gives high strength against stresses,
it would be useful where mechanical properties are concerned. Stainless steel is
recommended where the main concern is with durability. It gives high level of
protections from rust and fouling.
Is it observed from the results that increasing velocity results in higher heat transfer
and also gives higher condensate temperature, and if velocity is reduced,
condensate temperature decreases as well as the heat transfer so if condensate
temperature is not concerned, high velocity stream of inlet jet is recommended
because it gives the highest value of heat transfer as compared to the other models.
On the other hand if the sole concern is a low condensate temperature, low inlet
velocity would be a favourable option.
Increment in the number of baffles and reduction in baffle spacing would be a good
option in those facilities where low condensate temperature is more than the
amount of heat transferred. Because this arrangement of baffles gives the lowest
condensate temperature, exchanging heat between steam and coolant in several
chambers makes it possible.
Besides model 5 (Copper) Model 8 is the only model in which higher heat transfer
rate and lower condensate temperature is achieved. Triangular tube layout helps
the steam to travel in zigzag path between the tube bundles and hence more heat is
exchanged.
It has been observed by the experimental results that velocity profile in Shell and
tube heat exchanger is more dependent on geometry than inlet conditions. However
the magnitude of velocity depends on the initial conditions. It is obvious that
changes in the environmental conditions and material properties can affect the
velocity imperceptibly. However if the inlet velocity is doubled to its original, the
velocity obtained at first two baffle cuts was 6-8 ms-1, which was 3-4 ms-1in default
settings. On the other hand if inlet velocity is reduced to its half as depicted in model
3, velocity obtained at the same position was 1.5-2ms-1. It would not be wrong if one
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had to say that the velocity at first and second baffle cuts is 30-40% of inlet velocity.
As shown from the results, Placing baffles too close, in arranging tubes in triangular
pitch causes hindrance in the shell flow to pass, and hence reduces velocity
noticeably, thats why velocity vectors nearly disappears while approaching the
other end.
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS
The analysis of Shell and Tube heat exchanger was carried out in Star CCM+. The
results obtained by initial simulation at default input conditions were compared to
the seven modified models in order to observe the variation in heat exchange,
velocity profile and condensate temperature.
The heat transfer between the working fluids changed significantly by changing
input conditions, materials and geometry whilst maintaining the vapour temperature
constant. Although heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature
difference but still temperature gradient is not the only thing on which heat transfer
is dependent, that is why in some models rate of heat transfer increases and
condensate temperature decreases or vice versa. It has been observed that if heat
transfer is the concern than Model 2,5 and 8 are recommended on the other hand if
condensate temperature is the sole concern regardless of the amount of the heat
transferred, Model 3,7 and 8 will be useful. Nevertheless overall best results have
been obtained by using copper tubes and baffles and triangular tube pitch, (Model 5
and 8) as it gives cooler condensate and high heat transfer.
Hence it is concluded that the aims and objectives of this research are successfully
accomplished. The effect of varying design parameters and geometrical
components were investigated and results were compared with each other.
However due to limitation of time scale, the research lacks some further
advancement, as there is always a window for improvement, further research can
be carried out by using double segmented, disc and doughnut or helical baffles,
analysing pressure drop, flow directions and increase in the number of tube passes.
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Exchanger Design. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
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APPENDIX A
62

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