Chapter 1

Topographic Surveying

CHAPTER 1
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING
1.1. Introduction
Topographic surveying is the process of determining the positions, on the earth's surface,
of the natural and artificial features of a given locality, and of determining the
configuration of the terrain. The location of the features is known as planimetry and the
configuration of the terrain is known as topography. The purpose of the survey is to
gather data necessary for the preparation of the topographic map that displays both the
planimetric and topographic features.
The topographic map shows by means of suitable symbols
1. The spatial configuration of the earth's surface, which includes such features as
hills and valleys;
2. Other natural features such as trees, streams, oceans, seas, etc. and
3. Man-made features such as buildings, roads, canals, cultivation, etc.
The distinguishing feature of topographic map is that it represents terrestrial relief.
The principal data required for topographic mapping are elevation and distance. Several
ground methods that require the use of transit, theodolite, plane table and alidade, level,
hand level, tape leveling rod in various combinations are available for furnishing data
necessary for topographic mapping total station EDMs and photogrametric methods are
also employed where available.
Use of Topographic Maps
1. They are necessary aids in the design of any engineering project that requires
consideration of landforms, elevations, or gradients.
2. They furnish necessary data for economists, geologists, and others interested in
the general development of natural resources.
Representation of Topography
Topography may be represented on a map by relief models, shading color gradients,
hachures, form lines, or contour lines. Of these representation techniques, only contour
lines indicate elevations directly and quantitatively. The rest of the chapter is mainly
devoted to representation of topography by contour lines and conventional symbols. But
first the uses of the plane table instrument will be discussed, as it is the most versatile
instrument used in compiling topographic map by any or the field methods.

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1.2 Plane table surveys

The plane table and alidade combination can be used for various surveying operations
such as traversing leveling and compilation of topographic maps. The combination
consists of a drawing board mounted on a tripod in such a manner that the board can be
leveled and rotated in azimuth without disturbing the tripod. This condition is realized by
the Johnson head tripod which has two nuts that control leveling and rotation of the board
independently of one another. The alidade is mounted on top of the board, and is the
device used for sighting. Standard board sizes are 18 x 18in, 18 x24 in and 24 x31 in.
During sighting the board provides the lower motion for the alidade, and the movement
of the alidade over the face of the board can be considered as the upper motion. The
rotation of the board is used in back sighting whereas the rotation of the alidade over the
face of the board is used in fore sighting.
The plane table and alidade is more versatile than the theodolite for map compiling. the
drawing sheet fitted on top of the table should be of good quality to withstand adverse
weather effects and repeated erasures. It should have a reasonable roughness to take
pencils without undue grooving.
1.2.1 Plane-table Traverse
Horizontal control for compiling maps can be established by plane table traversing rather
than by a more precise theodolite tape traverse. If high quality, durable drawing sheet is
used, and if the plane table operator exercises care in taking stadia readings and in
plotting the points, a highly satisfactory traversing can be accomplished by using the
plane table. The operation can be carried out during map compiling or before the
commencement of the work. The latter has the advantage of adjusting the traverse before
starting mapping and eliminates much erasing and map revision in the event there is a
relatively large closure. The following general techniques are used in orienting the
instrument in plane table traverses.
1.Orienting by backsighting
This method is applicable to large-scale mapping. Each traverse station is occupied and
the board is oriented by backsighting at the previous station. Each line in the traverse is
observed from both ends, thus providing checks on observations. Set up and observation
procedures for this method are as follows: 1. Select the traverse stations (A, B and C). Set up the instrument over one of them
(A) and level it. Measure the H.I by holding a rod alongside the alidade.
2. Measure the distance from the instrument station to rear station (C) and forward
station (B) with the stadia method. Then measure the DE between the instrument
station and the rear and forward stations respectively.
3. Using the blade of the alidade, draw a line parallel to the line of sight on the
drawing sheet. To the chosen scale mark the respective positions of the rear and
forward stations (c and b) on the drawing sheet.
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4. Move the instrument to the next station (B) and level it. Orient the board by
backsighting to the previous station (A). Then take observations to the rear (A)
and forward (C) stations by repeating (2) and (3) above.
Note: The position of each station is plotted after taking observations from both ends of a
line.
a

b
b

a
b

Fig.1.1 Orienting by backsighting

Any misclosure is adjusted by the graphical method. Let aa be the closure at stations b
and c, draw a line parallel to aa'. Locate adjusted stations b' and c' on the line bb' and cc'
respectively in proportion to their partial distance from a.
bb=(lab/L)*aa

The adjusted traverse is shown as abc.

2. Orienting by Compass needle:

cc=((lab+lbc)/L)*aa
a

c
b

The figure below shows a traverse to be carried out by plane table. The positions of the
stations A through F are to be located by using the compass needle of the alidade. Station
A is occupied and the board is so oriented that the entire traverse will fall on the sheet
The compass needle is unclamped and the alidade is rotated in azimuth until the compass
needlepoints to the magnetic north on the compass. A line representing the magnetic
meridian is drawn the full length of the blade. The alidade is then pivoted in turn to F and
B and the rays af and ab are drawn to scale representing the distances AF and AB.
Differences in elevation are computed for determining elevations of F and B.

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E
d
b

f
D
A

a
f
b
a
B

d
b

Fig . 1.2 Orienting by compass needle

The plane table is next set up at station C and leveled. The compass needle is released
and the blade is aligned with the line representing the magnetic meridian. The board is
rotated in azimuth until the compass needle points to the magnetic north of the compass.
The board is now oriented. The alidade is rotated in turn to Band D and the rays obtained
are drawn to scale representing CB and CD. The procedure for the set up at E is the same
as that of C.
3. Method of Radiation
In this method, the plane table is set up at only one station and various points are located
by radiating (drawing) a ray from the instrument station to each of the points and plotting
a scale along the ray the distance measured from the station to the point sighted.
The radiation method is suitable for surveys of small areas, which are likely to be
commanded from a single station. It is useful in large-scale works, if used in combination
with other methods.
The procedure of plane tabling by radiation method is as follows:

Fig 1.3 Orienting by method of radiation

*Select an instrument station O such that all points to be located re visible from it;
*Setup and level the table and clamp the board;
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*Mark the point o on the sheet exactly over the station O on the ground by means of
plumb bob;
*Mark out the direction of the magnetic meridian with the help of trough or circular box
compass on the top right hand corner of the sheet.
*With the alidade touching o, sight the various points A,B,etc to be located and draw
the radial lines towards them along the fiducial edge of the alidade lightly with a sharp
pointed pencil.
*Measure the distance OA, OBetc from station to the various points with a chain tape
or by stadia hairs;
*Plot the distance to scale along the corresponding ray and then join the points a ,b ,etc
to give the outline of the survey.
Notes
(1) Care should be taken to see that the fiducial edge of the alidade should touch the
station point o on
the paper while taking the sights on different points. This can be best done by
erecting a pin on the point o on the sheet and keeping the alidades ruling edge
just touching it.
(2) To avoid the confusion, the various rays should be referenced.
(3) The fieldwork can be satisfactorily checked by measuring the distances AB, BC,
etc on paper.
Intersection or triangulation method of plane tabling
This method is widely employed for plotting the details on the maps. It can also be used
for plotting the position of points to be used at subsequent stations. The various points
can be located by the intersection of rays drawn from two different stations P and Q
forming a base line
The only linear measurement required is that of the base line the distant and inaccessible
objects, the rivers, in survey of hilly country (where distances cannot be measured
easily), and for checking the distant objects.
B
A
C

Fig 1.4 Orienting by intersection

Procedure

P
D

The procedure of plane tabling by the method of intersection is as follows:

1Choose two instrument stations P and Q such that all the points may be
commanded from both the stations.
2Set up and level the plane table at station P and mark the point P on paper
so that it is vertically over station P on the ground.
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3456789-

Mark the direction of the magnetic meridian by means of the trough

compass.
With the alidade centred on point P, sight towards Q and then all other
objects A, B, C and D (to be located) and draw rays towards them along
the fiducial edge of the alidade.
Mark all the lines by letters a1,b1,c1,q1 , d1 while sighting towards A,B,C,Q,
and D for reference and avoiding any confusion.
Measure the distance from P to Q accurately with a steel tape and set it off
to scale along the ray drawn to Q, thus fixing the position of point Q on
the paper as q (at the first station P only).
Shift the table, set it up at another chosen station of the base line Q.
Center the table so that point q is directly over the station point Q on the
ground, and then level it.
Place the alidade along qp and turn the table to sight the ranging rod at P.
This is called the orientation of the table by backsighting. Clamp the
board.
With the alidade centered at q, sight the same points A, B, C, and D to
intersect the rays a1, b1, c1 and d1, respectively. The points of intersection
will be a, b,c, and d on the paper as shown in fig which will represent the
corresponding points A,B,C and D on the ground.

Note
The intersection method of plane tabling is termed as graphic triangulation. Care
should be taken that intersection angles are not very acute or obtuse. The angles of
intersection should be possibly within the limits of 30oand 120o.
1.3 Contour and Contour Lines
A contour is an imaginary level line that connects points of equal elevation. It may be
defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the surface of the ground. Thus,
every point on a contour line has the same elevation as that of the intersecting surface. If
the contour lines determined by several equidistant level surfaces are imagined to be
traced out on the surface of the ground and surveyed, the resulting plan will indicate the
contours in their relative positions and thus give information on the character of the
ground. So, the configuration of the ground and the elevations of points are most
commonly represented by means of contour lines.
The contour interval of a map is the vertical distance between contour lines. The interval
is determined by the purpose of the map and by the terrain being mapped (hilly or level).
1.3.1 Characteristics of contour Lines
The principal characteristics of contour lines are:
1. Horizontal distance between contours is inversely proportional to the ground
slope. Hence, on a steep slope, contour lines run close to each other.
2. On uniform slopes the contour lines are spaced uniformly.

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3. Along plane surfaces such as embankments, the contour lines are straight and
parallel.
4. As contour line represent level surfaces, they are perpendicular to lines of the
steepest slope. Thus, they are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they
cross such features.
5. Contour lines do not simply end. They must close on themselves. Therefore, a
closed contour line on a map always indicates either a summit or a depression.
6. As contour lines represent contours of different elevation on the ground, they
cannot merge or cross one another on the map except in the case of vertical
surfaces (e.g. retaining wall) or overhanging ground (e.g. a cave).
7. A single control line cannot lie between two contours of higher or lower elevation.
8. When a contour line crosses gully/stream/ ravine on other drainage structures, it
forms a modified V pointing upstream. For ridges, the V points downstream. The
forms of the V's depend on the type of bed material. For clay bed the V is smooth
and rounded; for coarse, granular bed, it is sharp.

1.3.2 Scale and Contour Interval

The scale of a map is the ratio of distance on the map to the corresponding distance on
the ground. It can be stated as a ratio (e.g. 1cm= 100m) or a representative fraction (e.g.
1:10000).
The following factors are to be considered while selecting scale for a map
Purpose of the map (the desired accuracy)
The cost of the work
Clarity/legibility
Correlation of map data with related maps
Desired size of the map sheet
Physical factors to be show on the map
Factors to be considered while selecting a contour interval for a map are:
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Desired accuracy of elevations read from the map

Characteristic features of the terrain-coarse or fine textures
Legibility/ clarity of the map
Cost of the work
In general the following scales and contour intervals are recommended.
Large scale
1:100 to 1: 2000
Contour interval
0.1 to 2m
Intermediate scale
1:2000 to 1:10000
Contour interval
0.2 to 5m
Small scale
1:10000 to 1: 1000000
Contour interval
5 to 2000m

1.4 Field Methods for compilation of topographic maps

Factors that influence the selection of field methods to be used in the compilation of
topographic maps are the scale of the map, the contour interval, the type of terrain, the
nature of the project, the equipment available, the required accuracy, the type of existing
control and the extent of the area to be mapped.
There are four field methods for compiling topographic maps. Examples under which
each method is suitable are given below.
1. Direct method of contouring:
i.

For study of drainage, irrigation or water impounding structures, each contour has
to be carefully located in its correct horizontal position on the map by following it
along the ground. This is the Method of radial lines (trace contour method.)

2. Indirect type of contouring:

i.

For highway/railway/ canal construction, a strip (30 to 300m wide) needs to be

mapped. Control lines are the sides of a traverse which has been established by a
previous survey and which has been stationed and profiled. Vertical control is
provided by profile leveling along the centerline. The method of locating the
topography most commonly used is the cross section method.

ii.

For an area of limited extent with many constant slopes, the grid method is
employed. Points forming grids are located on the ground and their elevations are
determined.

iii.

For an extensive area mapping, the contour lines are located by determining the
elevations of well chosen points from which the position of points on the contours are
determined by interpolation. This is the controlling point method.

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Direct method of contouring

In this method various points are located on each contour by using a level or hand level
and these are surveyed and fixed up on the plan. This method is very slow and tedious as
a lot of time is wasted in searching points on the same contour. But this is the most
accurate method and is suitable for small areas where great accuracy is required.
i. Method of radial lines
The method of radial lines can be very conveniently adopted when the area to be
surveyed is not very large and when all the points may be commanded by the same
position of the instrument. A point is selected some where at the center of the area to be
surveyed and various radial lines are laid out from this point. The relative positions of
these lines are fixed up by the measurement of horizontal angles or by bearings.
Temporary benchmarks are first established near the radial lines and the staff readings to
get the various contours are calculated. Contour points are located along these radial lines
by pegs and the positions of the various pegs may be determined by measuring their
distances from the center.
It is most effectively run by the use of plane table and alidade, although the transit stadia
can be employed. Control is provided by a suitable traverse, which is computed, adjusted
and plotted on the plane table sheet. The elevations of the control points are directly
entered on the sheet. The positions of the control points S and R have been plotted on the
sheet as s and r, respectively. The ground elevation of S is 995. 2m. The plane table is set
up over S and is oriented by backsighting at R. It is desired to plot contour lines on the
sheet at whole 1-m interval. The H.I at S is established by holding the rod alongside the
alidade, and the alidade is, say 1.4m above the station. The H.I is 995.2+1.4=996.6m. If a
995-m contour is desired the rodman backs off until a reading of 1.6m is obtained
through the telescope. At the point the foot of the rod is on the 995-m contour. The
topographer reads the interval, draws a ray from s to the direction of the rod using the
blade and scales the distance along this ray to plot the point. The rodman walks along this
contour, and the topographer reads intervals to successive points along the contour.
When the 995-m contour is traced out as far as practicable from this set up, the
topographer locates the 994-m contour by guiding the rodman until he obtains rod
reading of 2.6m through the telescope. Then he traces out this contour in the same
manner as the 995-m contour. All points on the same contour are joined by sketching on
the sheet. When the ground is beyond the limit of the rod the topographer runs a short
traverse to a new set up, from which additional contours are traced. This method is the
most accurate and also the costliest and most time consuming.
Application the high water level of an impounding reservoir or a dam may be obtained by
a combination of plane table traversing and trace contouring. The desired contour is at the
elevation of the top of the spillway of the reservoir dam. It is determined by traversing
along the water line.

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When the theodolite is used for trace-contouring the instrument is set up over the control
point and the H.I is determined. The azimuth of the backsight line set on the horizontal
circle and backsight is taken to the other control point. This orients the horizontal circle.
All subsequent sighting is done by the upper motion. With the telescope leveled, he
directs the rodman to a contour by getting the proper reading of the middle cross hair,
reads the interval and the azimuth to the point, and roads these data along with the rod
reading. The sketching may be done in the field or in the office using a 360 0 protractor to
plot the azimuths.
Indirect type of contouring
This metod is known as contouring by spot levels or heights and is less laborious,
cheaper and is quicker than the direct method. Spot level or spot height may be defined
as the reduced level of a point on the ground.
i Cross-section Method
In the cross section method cross section lines are established along the center line at
intervals of 100-m or ft (full station), 50-m or ft (half station), 30-m or ft, 20-m or 10-m
and additionally at all points where prominent features occur (e.g. change in direction of
the center line or slope). The cross section method can be carried out by any one of transit
and tapes, transit stadia level and tape, hand level and tape, plane table and tape or plane
table stadia. Horizontal control is established by a theodolite tape traverse; vertical
control by profile leveling.
When transit and tape is used, each station or plus station is occupied. The H.I is
determined by holding the staff against the instrument. A right angle is turned off the
center line, and the rod man, holding one end of the tape, proceeds along this cross line
until a break in the slope occurs. If possible the instrument man takes a level, a sight on
the rod and the distance is taped. If the rod cannot be sighted with the telescope level, a
vertical angle is read and the slope distance is recorded. The rise or fall of the line of sight
equals the slope distance times the sine of the vertical angle. The rod man proceeds along
the same cross line to the next break in the topography and the process of observation is
repeated.
The stadia method is used for measuring distances and elevations to cross-sections. When
the stadia method is used only to obtain elevations, two persons can measure the
distances to the left and to the right of the centerline with a tape. Perpendicularity is
estimated by rodman. This avoids setting up the theodolite at every station.
When the level and tape or EDM are used for cross section the H.I is determined by
backsighting to a point of know elevation. The distances are observed and recorded with
station elevations. When the rod is out of sight, a new set up is needed and the H.I is
determined by backsighting to another point of known elevation or to a turning point. Be
careful of collimation errors.
The operation with plane table and tape is similar to that with the theodolite and tape,
except that the plotting is carried out in the field directly on the plane table sheet in the
former case. Control points can be prepared beforehand or concurrently with the
mapping.
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Once cross section data are produced by field operation, contour lines can be plotted at
desired contour intervals and scale by interpolation. Linear interpolation between values
is the most commonly used mathematical method to locate a missing contour line on a
map. Many mechanical methods are also available. All desired details could also be
shown on the map.
In compiling topography by the cross section method, the position of all planimetric
features, such as buildings, fences, streams and property corners must be located with
respect to the control line and plotted on the topographic map. The positions of the
features can be located by transit stadia or plane table methods by observing the interval
and azimuth to the various points.
ii. Grid Method
The grid method may be used for mapping of areas of limited extent with a fairly regular
topography. A level is usually used for determining the elevations of the grid points. The
following steps are used in running the grid method.
1. Establish the boundary of the area to be surveyed by running a traverse around the
area. Establish control points at the corners.
2. Divide the area into uniform rectangles or squares. The dimensions of these
divisions are governed by the required accuracy and the regularity of the
topography. The size of the divisions will be such that, for the most part, the
ground slopes can be considered uniform between the grid points at the corners of
the divisions.
The point of intersection of the grid lines is defined by a letter and a figure of the
respective intersecting grid lines as shown is figure 3.3. Data are entered into notebooks
against these respective designations of the grid points.
It is not usually necessary to mark all grid intersections, but enough points should be
marked by stakes to permit the remaining points to be located easily and quickly by
ranging them from the points that are marked. The rougher and more irregular the
surface, the more stakes must be set.
Levels are taken at all points and at all intermediate points where the slopes change
abruptly. Such intermediate points are generally located in a direct line between two
intersections by its distance from the intersection having the lower letter or figure. The
distance may be measured or estimated.
After the fieldwork is completed, the control points, the boundary and the grid are plotted
to the desired scale. The elevations of the grid points are then written at the
corresponding map positions of the intersections. The positions of the desired contour
lines are located by interpolation between the grid intersections.
Exercise: The elevations of grid points for an area as follows:
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F
E
D
C
B
A

690
696
702
707
709
711

709
715
723
726
725
721

726
729
733
732
723
715

732
736
742
732
722
715

735
740
737
729
730
732

740
737
737
740
738
730

743
739
745
740
731
719

747
740
747
730
727
722

6
7
8
The elevations are in m. The readings are taken at 15-m intervals. Plot a 5-m interval
contour lines for the area. Use a scale of 1: 200. On your map locate the intermediate
point B+3.5m, 3+2m with a spot elevation of 720m.
3. Controlling- point Method
The compilation of a topographic map by determining the positions and elevations of
carefully selected controlling points is applicable to nearly every condition economy
realized. It can be used for mapping of a strip of land for route location studies.
The experience and judgment of the topographer determines the accuracy of the map, the
speed of progress and the faithful delineation of the true shapes of the contour lines. The
method is the most difficult to master, but it is also the most valuable method due to its
universal application. In addition to the accuracy of the technical operations of making
observations on the controlling points, the topographer's knowledge of land shapes,
slopes and stream gradients, his facility for making maximum use of equipment, and his
ability to decide where to select points so that he takes neither too many nor too few
observations, all affect the success of the mapping operation.
Various combinations, of instruments can be used for this method although the plane
table and alidade is most desirable. The horizontal control for an area to be mapped by
this method can be established by making a simple traverse which is computed adjusted
and plotted on the plane table sheet. Vertical control is established by leveling. The
accuracy of control depends on the scale to which the map is to be plotted, the contour
interval and the required map accuracy. In general horizontal positions on basic control
points should be located to within 1/200 in. (0.10m). The basic vertical control should be
established to within one-tenth of the contour interval.
Once the horizontal and vertical controls are plotted on the sheet, the topographer sets the
plane table over a control point and orients the board. He determines the H.I points are
selected along ridges, draws, streams and drainage channels, at tops and bottoms of lines
with constant slopes, and at points between which the topographer can estimate the
crossing of the contour lines. For a topographer, drainage has more influence on land
shape than any other feature. Hence, drainage lines have to be located fairly accurately.
The positions of the desired contour lines as they cross the drainage lines are obtained by
interpolation and are sketched in. The elevations of the points at the changes in slopes
will allow the positions and elevations of the controlling points by the plane table and
alidade.
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1.5 Map Finishing

In addition to contours, the positions of other natural features (e.g. trees, streams, lakes,
etc.) and man made features (e.g. buildings, dams, roads, etc.) should appear on
topographic maps. For this, their positions are observed in the field. Symbols are used to
represent these features on the map. Most of the symbols used for object representation
on a map are conventional. Where feasible colored symbols are used. The following list
gives various colors and objects they represent.
Black- for man made or cultural features: roads, buildings, names and boundaries.
Blue-for hydrographic features: lakes, seas, oceans, rivers, canals, glaciers, etc.
Brown-for relief configuration of ground in terms of contour lines, hachures, etc.
Green-for wooded or vegetative covers, with typical patterns to show such features as
scrub, vineyards or orchards.
Red- to emphasize important roads and public and division lines, and shows built-up
areas. Nature and source of data used in the mapping ought to be known.
Other information to be shown on the finished map includes.
1. The direction of the meridian and the basis for directions (grid, magnetic, true
meridian).
2. A graphical scale of the map with a corresponding note stating the scale at which
the map is drawn.
3. A legend or key to symbols other than the common conventional signs. This
should be brief but should not leave doubt to the map users.
4. An appropriate title.
5. On topographic maps, a statement of the contour interval.
6. A statement giving the datum to which horizontal and vertical control are
referenced.
7. A statement giving the mapping projection.
8. A statement giving the co-ordinate systems for which grid lines are published on
the map.

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