Islamic Ethics and the Implications for Business

Author(s): Gillian Rice

Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Feb., 1999), pp. 345-358
Published by: Springer
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Islamic Ethics

and the
for Business Gillian Rice

Implications

As global business operations

expand,
more knowledge
of foreign cultures,
need
managers
on the ethics of doing
in particular,
information
across
The
of this paper
business
borders.
purpose
to
is twofold:
share the Islamic perspective
(1)
on business ethics, little known
in the west, which
stimulate further thinking and debate on the
may
ABSTRACT.

ethics and business,

and (2)
between
relationships
some knowledge
to provide
of Islamic philosophy
in Muslim
in order to help managers
do business
cultures. The case of Egypt illustrates some divergence
Islamic philosophy
and practice in economic
between
life. The paper concludes with managerial
tions and suggestions for further research.
KEYWORDS:
ethics, Muslim

business

ethics, Egypt,

implica

Islamic business

culture

there

in business.

An

is how
task for many managers
important
to integrate
into business
this moral
dimension
across

conducted
appreciation
and

groups

of

and
economists
focused
developed
on
mechanics
economics.
the
of
exclusively
There
is a growing
realization
that value-free
society"

is a misnomer.

Post-modern

thinkers

at
is Associate Professor of Marketing
Inter
The
Graduate
School
American
Thunderbird,
of
national Management. Her research includes study of
Rice

development,

environmental

concerns

and

marketing practices in developing countries. She is a

member of the International Management
founding
Her publications
include
Association.
Development
in International
articles
Review,
Marketing
International Journal of Forecasting,
Information
The International Executive
and Management,
and
of
the
of
Science.
Journal
Academy
Marketing

an
need
Managers
norms
of different

borders.
the

ethical

to gain complete
in
environment

in order

cultures

of the cultural
understanding
which
the firm must
(Al-Khatib
operate
studies
few
1995). Relatively
empirical
addressed

ethical
culturally-related
Becker
and Fritzsche,

1990; Vitell et al., 1993; Nyaw

Based

upon

professionals
world. Amine
the

role

issues
1987;

and Ng,

et al.,
have
(see for

Akaah,

1994).

the results of a study that found some

between
the
differences
significant
American
and
Thai
marketers,

et al.
Singhapakdi
tional corporations

as state and church separated,

the centuries,
western
in
societies,
particularly
religion became
a private
matter.
"value-free
The
so-called

economic

and

dimension

surprising
values
of

Over

Gillian

advocated

example,

Introduction

economics

changes over the past few decades

of a moral
has been a reintroduction

have

that multina
suggest
train their marketing
in different
parts of the

(1995)
should

differently

goes

(1996)

further

of

and urges that

be one of

should

global managers
to pursuing
committed
the
champions,"
best in ethical
and moral
and
decision-making
The definition
behavior.
of "best" is not an easy
one takes into account
when
the
task, however,
"moral

different moral
that exist.
many
philosophies
In recent years there have been a number
of
in the Journal of Business Ethics
articles published
which

have

discussed

faiths

of various
the positions
of religious
ethical

the relevance

regarding
to business
principles

(see for
decision-making
Green,
1993;
1993;
Rossauw,
example, Williams,
The
Centesimus
1994; Gould,
1995).
Pope's
our
Annus
is lacking
in
time is
argues that what
a

moral

economic
humane

culture
life

so

community

of
capable
transforming
in
that it has a context
(Williams,

1999.
Journal of Business Ethics 18: 345-358,
? 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in theNetherlands.

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1993).

346
Gillian Rice
is on
the ethical
paper
are
and which
relate to business

in

focus

My

this

which

principles
contained

in the religion
of Islam. Islam is gen
it is often
misunderstood
and
surprising
erally
an entire socio-economic
to some that it contains
In Islam,
and not

system.
nomics

it is ethics
the other

ficient.

stimulate
may
the relationships
and (2) to provide

further

business,
Islamic
doing
cultural

thinking
ethics

between

ethical

system.
between

Islamic

business

would

eliminated

of

Egypt

the

with

people
as an illustra

is used

before

Resources

in
being
expressed
not be allowed
would

to the production
of luxuries until
was ensured
in suf
of necessities

ficient quantities (Siddiqi, 1981). The definition

of

or

luxurious

extravagant
of consumption

average standards
idea being that large departure
not be permissible.
would

in a society, the
the standards

on

ethical

them whatever

system

derive

Muslims

their

from

ethical

the

system
the
Muslims
believe
(which
Qur'an
teachings
to
God
Muhammad
is a book
revealed
by
from
the
in seventh
and
century
Arabia),
of
and
behavior
sunnah
(the recorded
sayings
are
not pri
The
Muhammad).
goals of Islam
of

are based

materialist.

on

Islamic

They
life
well
and good
of human
concepts
being
stress brotherhood/sisterhood
and socio
which
economic
satisfac
justice and require a balanced
of both

tion

all humans

and

the material
(Chapra,

spiritual

needs

of

1992).

beings may be,

in the sense that
or makes

exists

of resources

to others. Needs
of the
superior
the
desire
for
class, which
superi
satisfy
indeed be insatiable; for the higher
the
ority, may
are
is
But
still
this
the
level,
they.
general
higher
so true of the absolute

not

of necessities

categories

needs."

Islamic

jurists'
conveniences

(daruriyyat),

(hayiyyat) and refinements (tahsiniyyat)would fall

are any
into Keynes'
first class of needs. These
a
or
fulfill
need
reduce
goods and services which
a hardship
a real difference
in human
and make
Thus

"comforts"

are

included

here

second

class

a person's well-being.
Galbraith
(1958)
this second
class of needs as "wants."

refers

of
(the
are
and services derived
however,
needs),
goods
no difference
to
for their snob appeal and make
in most

with

societies

a relative

claims

unlimited

free-market

upon
uses

scarcity
them. A
market

economy
capitalist
as a filtering
to
determined
mechanism
prices
use
resources.
The
of the price system
distribute
can frustrate
of
the realization
alone, however,
socio-economic

ones

lifts us above

satisfaction

second

well-being.

umoral filter^

There

their

human

are relative

us feel

1992).

(Chapra,

subject
"the
though

of our fellow

the situation

and those which

marily

this

that even

stated

the

from

observations

(1972)
Keynes'
may be useful. He

to

is related

seem
to be insa
of human
beings may
?
.
.
.
two
fall
into
classes
those
tiable,"
"they
we
are
sense
in the
that
feel
needs which
absolute

Islamic

The

This means

needs

case.

tive

be

the marketplace.
to be diverted
the production

in

practice
philosophy
forms
ethics. This discussion
business

is

device

and

and

basis for guidelines

in Muslim
cultures.

This

and

some

on doing

resources.

that people would

on
resources
their
claims
pass
potential
through
so that many
claims
the "filter of Islamic values"

as
is organized
The
paper
is a description
of the Islamic
is a discussion
Next
of the dif

ferences

on

claims
filter."

differences.
First

should

be
that the price mechanism
a
that minimizes
device
with

complemented

knowledge
to help managers
in order
philosophy
cultures
deal with
in Muslim
business

follows.

Islamic

unnecessary
the "moral

way
(Naqvi,
is twofold:
1981). My purpose
(1) to share a per
on business
in the
little known
ethics,
spective

west, which
on
debate

implies
but

be maintained,

around

to Chapra
the
(1992),
that the market
system

According

worldview

eco

that dominates

is in the hands
the allocation
of resources
control,
a
is cumbersome
and inef
of
which
bureaucracy,

goals.

Under

a system

of

state

Consumer
the

advocates
of business

critical

been

desire

adverse
1993).
mization,

for
cultural

For

Luxuries

"wants"
and

example,
businesses

in

the U.S.

have

long
increase
practices
have
and subsequently
that

social
effects
(Williams,
in pursuit
of profit maxi
the consumer
often
subject

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

to

IslamicEthics 347
to advertising
and sales promotion
to
the
consumer's
appeal
vanity,
or covertly.
envy, either overtly
to believe

that their actualization

on the
frequency
their purchases.
This
leads in turn

encouraged
social esteem
value

of

are dependent
amount

tremendous
with

campaigns
sex appetite
Consumers

adverse

implications.
Development

of wasteful
as well

environmental

that

The

and
are

guidelines

and

conducting
from the

and

and

According
Program

Human
(UNDP)
the lifestyles of

it consumes

energy,

seventy

percent

of
percent
of its wood.

seventy-five

of

Devel
the rich

the world's

its metals

and

in these
Even
percent
eighty-five
some of the essential needs of the
rich countries,
and high pollution
and
poor remain unfulfilled,
resources
of non-renewable
rapid
depletion
occur.

to implement
or despotism.

The question,
of course,
is how
the "moral filter" without
coercion

of values must be socially

some
to
way has to be devised
agreed upon
consumers
to abide
motivate
and businesspeople
The

filter mechanism
and

values.

these

by
social

change

an Islamic

From
must

be

of view,
point
be
and cannot

gradual
injunction
through force. The Qur'anic
in religion"
is no compulsion
(Qur'an
can occur
is relevant
here. Change
by
or
to
alter
their
ways
by setting
people

achieved
"There
2:256)

inviting
an
example.

this is how Islam rapidly

Historically
a
in the
large part of the world
spread through
seventh and eighth centuries
(Eaton,
1994). For
to
when
Muslim
merchants
traveled
example,
distant

lands,

impressed
conduct
beliefs.
became

by
and

the inhabitants
the traders'
so became

of
Many
Muslims.

these
A

lands were

of those
social
curious

inhabitants
exists

interrelated
which

trusteeship

of unity,
below.

concepts
I explain

specific
and for
derive
justice

Unity (tawhid)

Nations

opment Report
(1994),
nations must
the north has a fifth of the
change;
world's
of its income
and
four-fifths
population
and

contains
ethical
system
for achieving
the moral
filter
business.
These
guidelines

to a

production,
as social

to the United

Islamic

and

business

about

of Islam lies
key to the business
philosophy
in a person's
His
universe
with God,
relationship
In common
and His people.
with
other revealed

The

to humans

is the moral
religions
appeal
to the will
render themselves

of God.

to sur

Islam goes
that all life

this exhortation
and teaches
beyond
a unity because
is essentially
it also provides
to
of human
all
facets
pattern
practical way

the

in accordance

be

with

will.

God's

There

should

life

in a person's
existence
Muslims
believe
1993).

unity of ideas and actions

and consciousness
(Asad,
are accountable
that because
people
their

success

to God,
on
depends

in the hereafter

in this life on earth, this adds a new

to the valuation
of things and deeds

performance
dimension

Islam is simply a

in this life (Siddiqi, 1981).

of

life

program
nature"

decreed

between

fellow

in accord

is a coin

with

definite

two

1976).
faces:

by God.
humans

the

"laws

of

relationship
is thus prescribed.
This
or sisterhood
of brotherhood

is the relationship
and equality
(Abu-Sulayman,
unity
that God

and
their

with

In this sense,
one

implies
the universe
and
are
that
the other
implies
equal partners
people
or that each person
or sister to the
is a brother
other.
is concerned,
As
far as business
this
means
and
of
and
effort
cooperation
equality
is the

sole

creator

of

opportunity.

their

subsequently
today with

parallel
con
to the "green" movement
which
respect
tinues to spread around the globe. The adoption
of environmentally
conscious
is occur
behavior

and edu
encouragement
ring through
example,
as
as
in the
well
cation,
Indeed,
by legislation.
environmental
is insufficient.
context,
legislation
when
will
and
the
support of the
Only
political
are
are
environmental
strong enough,
populace
laws adequately
enforced.

Justice (adalah)
is absolutely
in its objective
unambiguous
from society all traces of inequity,
of eradicating
and
The
injustice,
exploitation
oppression.
or
also
vicarious
condemns
merit
Qur'an
guilt
Islam

and

the greatest
teaches
individualism
possible
no bearer of burdens
can bear the burdens
. . .man
can have
of another;
but what
nothing
.
.
he strives for
." (Qur'an 53:38-9).
This
indi
"...

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348
Gillian Rice
on

outlook

vidualistic

of
destiny
spiritual
con
a
by
rigorous

the

is counterbalanced

humanity

In
and social collaboration.
society
ception
of wealth,
their
however,
acquisition
people
not
must
should
lie or cheat;
they
uphold
and fulfill contracts. Usurious
promises
dealings
of

are

Islam

teaches

that

all wealth

prohibited.
and people may not stop
should be productive
the circulation
of wealth
after they have acquired
nor
momentum
reduce
the
of circulation
it,
1992).
(Chapra,
The
intense
commitment
care

take

of

the

tax comprising

the

They
terms of the

tant of which
The

word

in society, facilitates
rich are
society. The

an

income
redistribution
such,
only
a
means
to
economic
also
but
necessity
spiritual
. . of their wealth
take alms so that
salvation
(".
and sanctify." Qur'an
you might
9:103).
purify
(Naqvi,

consumption
Resources

1992).
(Chapra,
must
also be disposed

way

is effectively

are viewed
This

of private property
tant
implications.

integrated

relevant

environment:

kill

at the free will

individual

is also

trusteeship
Christian

common

to

faiths; Green
(1993)
"The earth is the Lord's

24:1,

the Jewish
and
to Psalms

refers
and

the fullness

thereof."

as trustees
does
but
No

of

not mean

does

have

inhibitions

the

earth
a

on

negation

some

impor
to
attach

of life. There
is a
requirements
a
in
and
margin
person's
personal
existence.
People may be ascetics or, after

socio-economic
wide

their
tax, may
enjoy
fully
resources
are for the
Yet,
remaining
of all and not just a few and everyone
benefit
resources
must
Although
acquire
rightfully.
the wealth
wealth.

need for

balance

Muhammad

are encouraged
and people
enterprise
to avail themselves
available.
of all opportunities
no
the moral
and
is
conflict
between
There

paying

resources

natural

any

do not regard
development
as a free good,
to be plundered
or
of any nation,
any generation
The
notion
of
1994).
(UNDP,

of sustainable

Models

with

economic

very
social

(Al
everyone's
well-being
one is authorized
to destroy
resources.
is very
This
God-given
to ethics
business
and
the
concerning

1981).

Trusteeship (khilafah)

of God.

in such

of

to protect
1976). No

Faruqi,
or waste

The

People
behalf

as

is

or to destroy vegetation
or
indiscriminately
animal life, even in war and on enemy
territory.
Thus
there was no question
of this being allowed
or on home
in peacetime
territory. Trusteeship
is akin to the concept
of sustainable development.

trust, one of the most

impor
is fulfilling
the needs of the poor.
and as
"zakah" means
purification

economics

condemned.

that is, a wealth

for
charitable-giving

is not

Thus,
ethics

(Siddiqi, 1982). Indulgence

living and the desire to show-off

Islam does not tolerate conspicuous

in luxurious

when
Abu Bakr,
the first ruler of
sent someone
state
the Islamic
after Muhammad,
on a war
him not to
he exhorted
assignment,

of their wealth;
they are only
in
it
accordance
with
spend

must

character of worship

poor.
a living and only
the state intervene.

does

compulsory

the real owners

trustees.

society
the

of zakah,

groups
specially designated
the care of all members
of
not

of

needs

to earn

obliged
this is impossible
Islamic institution

The

to justice

Islam

that Muslim

basic

are

Individuals
when

of

demands

and brotherhood

it is not a goal
is desirable,
prosperity
is the motivation,
in itself. What
is crucial
the
of economic
"ends"
Given
the
activity.
right
assumes
the
all economic
motivation,
activity
material

to be moderate

advised Muslims

all their affairs; he described

in human
way." A balance
sary

to ensure

is neces

endeavors

social well-being
of human potential.

development
notes that Islam recognizes
to deny:
the contribution

in

Islam as the "middle

and

continued

Chapra
what Marxism
of

individual

(1992)
sought
self

to
and private
property
through
profit
enter
individual
and
initiative,
drive, efficiency
same
At
the
Islam
condemns
the evils
time,
prise.
of greed, unscrupulousness
and disregard
for the
interest

the secularist,
rights and needs of others, which
of capitalism
short-term,
perspective
this-worldly
sometimes
The
individual
encourages.
profit
is not the chief propelling
force in Islam
motive
(Siddiqi,

1981).

Social

good

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

should

guide

entre

IslamicEthics 349
in

preneurs
relevant

their

profit. A
for your

besides

decisions,
of Muhammad

saying
life as if you were
worldly
going
but work
for the life to come
to die tomorrow."
going
some
like
other
Islam,
on
duties
greater
emphasis

is "work

to live forever,
as if you were

It should

a
religions,
places
than on rights. The

behind this is that if duties (relating to

wisdom

are fulfilled
for example)
justice
trusteeship,
then self-interest
is automatically
by everyone,
held within
bounds
and the rights of all are
and

undoubtedly
institution

is the primary
Society
the state (Cantori
and

safeguarded.
in Islam, not

Lowrie,
1992).
to create
order

argues
between

(1992)
Chapra
an equilibrium
on

that

in

scarce

in a way
that
it is neces
realizes both
and equity,
efficiency
on
to
focus
human
rather
themselves,
sary
beings
or the state. As
than on the market
emphasized

resources

the claims

and

by Cantori
and
the

and Lowrie
Islamic

them

(1992), the Islamic jurists

or "shari'ah"
(literally,

law

limit governmental
sharVah
power. The
"road")
so
is
all encompassing
that there is less need for
issues
of ethics,
social
legislation
regarding
interaction.

and human

responsibility
believe
ular, Muslims
final and unambiguous

that the Qur'an

statement
of

Summary

In partic
a
contains

of a business
of various

is presented
and
Christianity

Judaism,
related, many
trustworthiness

example,
someone

rather
societies

iswith

sion with

the

obscure
human

the

is therefore

on

state power.
their people.

An

Unless

planning
economic

can
goals

the

excessive

obses
can
wealth

objective
enriching
are thus the ends as well
are motivated

humans
within

their self-interest
pursue
economic
well-being
"moral filter"),
neither
the market

The

of

lives. Humans

nor

being
of
real wealth

of material

creation
ultimate

as the means.

the human

(the
the
"visible
in

are morally
systems
to "keep
Christians

(Chapra,

1992).

interest,
trading,
derived

in

As

systems.

economic

he

encourages
ambiguous,
a critical distance
from the
they

are

economic
variables
such as
specific
circulation
of
fair
taxation,
wealth,
and consumption.
Islamic law (shari'ah)
of

the

and

Qur'an

sunnah

also

between

business

relationships
buyers
and sellers, employers
and lenders
and employees
see for example,
and borrowers
(for full details,
Note
is no difference
that
there
Keller,
1994).
between

Muslims

example,
Muslim)
period.

of

buyer

concerning
it is unlawful

any
Islamic

non-Muslims

in

legal
For

dealings.
to undercut
another's

or non
that person
be Muslim
a
to cancel
during
option
stipulated
to tell the
A
is not permitted
seller

(whether

"cancel

cheaper." Also,
article he/she
to

and

commercial

rulings

of

achieving

(1994),
of the

understanding
life cannot be careless

in which
system
Islam
because

from

covers

the

socio

by Rossauw

working."
a
supplies
practical
to
note
it
is
that the
life-program,
important
Islamic socio-economic
system includes detailed
In contrast,

of

central

of

economic

condemn

the constraints

of

as pointed
out
a Christian

religions,
For
codes.

the workplace
about product
and quality
dards that pose a threat to the lives of consumers
or employees.
Rossauw
However,
suggests that it
or
to approve
is not
the role of the church

price

hand"

succeed

among
most
moral

stan

to

application
"invisible
hand"

care

closely
as honesty,
of
the
less

the three

with

value

are

such

taking

among

unconditional

I. Because

in Table
Islam

principles

and

fortunate,
and
indeed,

coverage

emphasis
than on

ethical

are universal

have a profound
horror
Thus, Muslims
message.
as
matters
in
of anything
innovation
of
regarded
what
modern
Christians
religion,
including
as necessary
to
of religion
interpret
adaptations
times (Eaton,
1994).
changing
The

and the code of conduct

enterprise
business
of the
agents. A summary
in Islam which
relate to
principles

key ethical
business practices

economic

to what

in Islam, business
a socially
useful

that
to be

activity
was involved
in trading for
function; Muhammad
to
his
much
of
life. Great
is attached
importance
to consumption,
views
relating
goals
ownership,

the truth,
the
had gone before
(for example,
to
Moses
delivered
and
The
messages
Jesus).
duty
is to preserve
of the Muslim
this
community
added

be emphasized
is considered

the

deal

and

one
sell you
a
in an
of
defect

I'll

whoever

knows

is selling
Muslim

to disclose
is obliged
it,
or non-Muslim.
Both

buyer,
and non-Islamic

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employees

must

be

350

Gillian Rice
TABLE I
of ethical principles

Examples
Ethical

in Islam relating

to business

Relevant

principle

practices

business

practice(s)

Unity
"No

Arab

has

over

superiority

non-Arab

any

no

and

non

Arab has any superiority over an Arab; no dark person has

superiority over a white person and no white person has any
superiority over a dark person. The criterion of honor in the
sight of God
Muhammad

is righteousness
and honest
(Sallam and Hanafy,
1988).

that

a female,

and
you

"...

created from you from a single

We

"O mankind!
male

man

and

know

may

can

have

into

you

other

each

but

nothing

. . ."
(Qur'an

what

'O my

say,

Lord!

increase

International

business.

tribes,

. . ."

for

Rewards

it must be
does anything,
of
Muhammad
(Sallam and
Saying

perfectly well."
1988).
Hanafy,

Teamwork.

49:13).

strives

he

(pair) of a

and

nations

someone

likes that when

done

"...

made

and non-discriminatory
buying and selling.

of

53:39).

(Qur'an
"God

living." Saying

Equal opportunity
in hiring,
behavior

should be received

expending

efforts.

Excellence

and quality

only

after

of work.

"

me

in knowledge.'

of

Importance

(Qur'an 20:114).

scientific

activity,

executive

programs,

training

is a duty incumbent on every

acquisition of knowledge
and
male
female."
Muslim,
(Sallam and
Saying of Muhammad
1988).
Hanafy,
"The

research

knowledge-seeking,

and development,

training,

transfer.

technology

Trusteeship
"God does
to whom

"...

command
are

they

wear

prayer:

and

to render back your

. . ."
(Qur'an

beautiful

your

eat

you

due

drink:

but

apparel
waste

trusts to those

4:58)

at

every

not

time

and

by

place

of

. . ."

excess

". . .to God

Care

and on

all that is in the heavens

belongs

. . ."
(Qur'an

for

but

not

the

environment.

to waste

is no unlimited

There

3:129).

to have wealth

It is acceptable
consume

(Qur'an 7:31).

earth

and trust in business

Fulfilling obligations
and
the
relationships
workplace.

right

and to

resources.

to private

property.

Justice
"...
who

God
are

loves

not

the
enjoin

niggardly,

arrogant,

the

niggardliness

vainglorious
on others

(nor)
. . ."

those

spending,
and

(Qur'an 4:36-7).
"...

and

spend

make

not

your

but do good

Prohibition

of
own

your
hands

substance
contribute

in

the

cause

to your

of God,

and

of hoarding. Encouragement
of
in business enterprise
investment

circulation

Condemnation

of wealth.

of

destruction;

. . ."
(Qur'an 2:195).

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ostentatious

consumption.

351

Islamic Ethics
Table I (continued)
Ethical

Relevant

principle

"...

. . ."
(Qur'an

"...

He

may

are allurements

and children

wealth

world

has

of the life of this

in

you

in the gifts

some

ranks,

that He

above

has given

that He

others:

them their
(God) who portion out between
in the life of this world: and We raise some of
in ranks so that some may command work of others.

it isWe

of your Lord is better

amass."
(Qur'an 43:32).
they

which

of

"...

their

wealth

take

. . ."
(Qur'an

sanctify

alms,

so

give

that

you

people

"He who
(Keller,
"...

and

purify

nor

weight,

don't

withhold

the

from

. . ."
(Qur'an

is not one of us." Saying

one

outbid

into

entered

into

transaction

that

and

make

utterance

your

raise

the

others

have

as brothers

one

when
be

reduced
human

values.

between

workers,

managers,

etc.

professionals,

is

acceptable.

Income

redistribution:

Give

should be

lender

and weight.

knows of a defect
to disclose it.

Fairness

in

contract

in something

negotiation.

already
to

1988).

. . ."
(Qur'an

straightforward

wealth

less fortunate.

full measure

Whoever

price,

and Sallam,

(Hanafy

those

11:85).

of Muhammad

to

in order

another
a transaction

Saying of Muhammad

another."

Distinction

obliged

enter

of

of loans by which
Unlawfulness
obtains benefit.

gain*."

1994).

. . . don't

"...

and

scale

is permitted.

inequality

shared with

that are their due

cheats

might

9:103).

measure

just

the things

the

than the (wealth)

"God permits trade but forbids usurious

(Qur'an 2:275).
"...

in

(Qur'an 6:165).

you"

livelihood

them
But the Mercy

Income

is given

of wealth

Acquisition
consideration

18:46).

raised

try you

"...

practice(s)

. . .

continued.

Justice

business

33:70).

Truthfulness

and

in negotiation.

directness

"On the day of judgment,

the honest Muslim merchant
will stand side by side with the martyrs." Saying of
Muhammad
(Ali, 1992).
".

. . stand

against

it be

out

yourselves,

firmly
or

for
your

justice,
parents,

as witnesses
or

your

to God,
kin,

even

and whether

Non-discriminatory
Protection

(against) rich and poor."

workplace
for

practices.
No

"whistle-blowers."

special privileges

for those with wealth

status.

"...

nor

shallWe

of their works:
(Qur'an
*

(God) deprive them (of the fruit) of aught

(yet) is each individual in pledge for his deeds."

Importance

of individual

responsibility,

52:21).

In the Qur'an,

the Arabic word

used

is "riba" which

lexically means

"increment"

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(Keller,

1994).

or

is

352
Gillian Rice
treated with

same just,

the

approach.
Note
that Islam

is not

to satisfy

allows

people
The
beyond.
a monotonous

an ascetic religion.
all their needs and
not

should

objective

can

be

creativity
lifestyles
alongside
an absence
Neither
does Islam mean
liberalization.
sector

is a different

There

one

alization:

society.
in
attained

and

diversity.
of economic

kind

of

in which

all private
and
are first
decisions

economic

Islam

to go
to create

be

in Muslim

uniformity
in consumption

Simplicity

and honest

equitable

liber
public

passed
are
the filter of moral values before
through
they
to
the
made
the
of
market.
subject
discipline
to implement
the "moral filter"
Undoubtedly,
in practice
the dedication
of a large
requires

cultural

and Delener,

(Moore
system
are a religious
Egyptians
to their religious
culture
growing
Islamic
western

1986).
attached
people
closely
is a
and identity. There

awareness

them
that many
among
are being
by
superseded
institutions
and practices
(Najjar,
traits

cultural
values,

1992; Asad, 1993). Joy and Ross

societal

how, today,
measured
and
to

success

in terms

evaluated

institutions

the

Nevertheless,
will be accepted

(1989) observe

in the

and

values

is

third world
of proximity
of
the west.

new

ideas and values

techniques,
meet
if
the real needs
they
only
ones.
than existing
as liberal democracy,
in solving
the
succeeded

of people more
effectively
such institutions
such

Had

or

capitalism

socialism

participants.
a wide
the philos
gap between
frequently
in
countries
and
of
Islamic
ethics
practice
ophy
The
with
Muslim
predominantly
populations.

of Egyptian
society,
problems
they
not
would
such
have
generated
hostility
probably
seen as
Instead,
1992).
(Najjar,
they have been
the cause of rapid deterioration
of the quality of
Islamic life and the decline
of the Muslim
world.

next

The

There

is there

issue with

reference

of market

number
fore

section

this

examines

to Egypt.

and

Philosophy

the

practice:

example

of

pressing

emphasis
in
changes

of present-day

The

Muslim

life is far from

reality
teach
the ideal possibilities
given in the religious
a
of
Islam
Because
of
number
(Asad, 1993).
ings
in
the dominant
of historical
factors,
ideology
Muslim
is not Islam but rather secu
countries

and
consumption
followed
Sadat's

conspicuous
which
lifestyles

economic
and move
"infitah" (open-door)
policy
to a free market
in the seventies
and
economy
inflation
and
eighties
aggravated
unemployment
in

Egypt

on

Egypt,

social
sharpened
the class of dispossessed

enlarged
The economic
on

trade,

the
of

expansion

and
disparities
and disaffected.

liberalization

concentrated
policy
consumer
items and
of
importance
and hotel
services
such as tourism

management
(Tuma, 1988),
trial projects.
Privatization

rather

than on

efforts

indus

continue,

a mixture
of feudalism,
capi
along with
and socialism
Islam is
1992).
(Chapra,
in the
conspicuous
by its absence,
particularly

rather slowly because

of the govern
although
A
ment's
"new
of
control.
class" has
philosophy
a
as
of
the open-door
arisen
result
policy.

In the Muslim
and economic
fields.
political
and
and
countries,
unjust
oppressive
political
cause
been
the
of
socio-economic
have
systems
the
Islamic
socio-economic
The
resurgence.

it is relatively
it accumulated
small,
Although
economic
the
much
and political
power
during
This
consists
class
mainly
eighties
(Jabber, 1986).

larism

talism

restructuring
governments'

Islam

that

threatens

represents

short-term

(but

not

the

and high
entrepreneurs,
professional
of
the
economy.
private
employees

of

necessarily

interests.

long-term)

Cultural

Impact

salaried

of economic

liberalization

For one

dimension

difficult

to differentiate

the religious

context

of

life

such

between

as business,
it is
the impact of

of the behavior

and the total

dualism

The

artificial

and

"alien"

systems
societies
at

the

has

of
symbiosis
socio-economic
led

promoting
individual

to the

Islamic

beliefs

and
philosophies
of bifurcated

emergence

schizophrenic
and collective

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ethical

behavior
level

both
(Naqvi,

IslamicEthics 353
1981). Ali (1992) discusses the Arab dual identity

also

in detail,
it to two main
factors:
(1)
attributing
of inferiority
colonialism
which
instilled feelings

'future'

in Arab thought and (2) the artificial division of

into

lands
tional

tributed

nation-states.

corporations
to cultural

The
into

influx

the

and social

of multina

also con
region
Because
alienation.

in countries
like
and political
instability
in life
tend to believe
Egypt,
people
everything
is temporary
their way on doubt.
and they make
et al.,
that social

Rawwas

studies

(for example,
et al., 1994) suggest
1994; Al-Khatib
or economic
and political
hardship
instability
cause
indi
and struggling
tense,
may
pessimistic
to sacrifice
for
basic
survival
viduals
ethicality
In

Tuma
identifies
(1988)
particular,
of Egyptian
culture which
three main
features
to
in their behavior
have internalized
Egyptians
needs.

enable them to deal with

in Egyptian

cision,
procrastination
not firmly answer
will

the difficulties of life

are inde

three features

society. These

and
yes

People
to a request,

but will say "insha'Allah (Godwilling). They will

do

will

say "ma'alesh"
the costs may

(it doesn't matter),

be substantial.

name

If God's

even

is therefore
In the words

of

'past.'
hath been

is now;

and

and

though

that

"the

sense, already
"That which

the Bible,
that which

is to be hath
Since

humans
3:15).
(Ecclesiastes,
already
are
see the future,
to time and cannot
subject
an experience
have
of
free
choice.
they
They
make
their choices
and act accordingly;
only
when
the act is past can they say "it was written"
or "it was
time"

for us from

decreed

(Eaton,
achieves

1994).

the beginning
of
a
states
that
Qur'an

The

an
he makes
only that for which
can have nothing
"...
And
but
that man
what he does (good or bad) . . ." (Qur'an 53:39).
to "insha'Allah,"
there appears
With
respect
person
effort:

to be

a tension

the Qur'an's
teaching
in practice.
Tuma

between

occurs

sometimes

and what

to
the deference
(1988) suggests that, in practice,
a higher
mean
to
authority may be understood
"if the boss wills
deci
it." If no-one
will make
will

bear

responsibility.
as all
reduced,
as a way
of avoiding

is therefore

are centralized,
and blame.
responsibility

decisions

but
today what
they can do tomorrow,
no
as
if
time
had
"bukra"
say
(tomorrow),
cost. They
indecision
and procrastination
accept
and
and their effects with
indifference,
apparent

not

"

happen,
in a certain

no-one
then
sions,
initiative
Individual

indifference.
or no

ever

that will

been"

of social

Previous

all

in

experiences
"insha'Allah"

on

Based

this author's

term
the
society,
as
a
used
of
way
It
is
"no."
saying
actually

Egyptian
is also often

meaning
difficult

"no" without

business

and

to

firm

obtain

partners

to plan

commitment

from

accordingly.

et al. (1995) provide the following

Al-Khatib

in every situation and

on the will
if every action depends
of a higher
what
does the
Tuma
role
(1988) asks,
authority,
must
he or
individual
play? What
responsibility
to note
she carry? It is important
that Muslims

one ethical
for this type of behavior:
explanation
standard
is used to handle
while
decisions
daily
is
the other,
influenced
teachings,
by religious
not
because
of the economic
implementable

are exhorted

hardship

will

do

is invoked

never to say that they

in the Qur'an
next
the
also
day without
something
the
This
does not absolve
"insha'Allah."

saying
individual
strong
business
Muslim

of responsibility;
people
to
effort
and work
hard
If these

plans.
would

consider

go

should make
achieve

awry, in hindsight,
this to be the will

Informality

will

a
of

This

and must

make

business)

decisions.

concept

of

empty
knows

the

if humans
not

only

their own
As Eaton

divine
did not

conscious

(1994)
omniscience

life (and
the
explains,
would

be

that God

acknowledge
all that has ever happened

by

the people.

in business

relationships

their

as "predestination
in
may be viewed
reverse." Yet there is no concept
of predestina
tion in terms of the future as humans
have free

God.

faced

but

Social

the traditional
extended
relations,
family
and nepotism
have a strong influence
to do
business
behavior.
Egyptians
prefer

structure
on

business

with

and like and

people
they know
as
are
consider
friends.
they
They
extremely
and generous
and exchange
hospitable
gifts often.
are often with
As business
friends or
relationships

who

family,

are characterized
relationships
by
in the
is subsequently
which
reflected
of time, weights
and measures,
and

these

informality
treatment

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354

Gillian Rice
control

quality

Table

1988).

of goods
I includes

principles

which

example,
between

there

several

counter
should

services

and

Islamic

this

informality.
discrimination

no

be

(Tuma,
ethical
For

they are family

and full weight
to buyers,
along with

beings, whether
or not, full measure

human

members
should

always be given
to be
in products
of any deficiencies
explanation
or
in
and excellence
sold, and hard work
quality
is urged.
work

for doing
with
business
people
cultures:
the case of Egypt

Implications
in Muslim
The

nature

bifurcated

creates

some

executives

interesting
business
and

show

concepts

of

action,

equality
On
the

of

unity

realities

the difficult

and

trusteeship

must

managers
the

play
(1996)

of multinationals
sixty percent
in place
of ethics
(The Economist,
managers
ignore ethical diversity,
About

the

role

suggests?
have codes

1995). Many
and
however,
of ethics around
the

code

and Kara
not

have

(1995)
worked.

argue
Some

be taught to managers
are already formed.
There
numerous
cases that
documented

contend

that ethics

because

their

cannot

values

are, however,
show ethics can be

influenced

by organizational

et
1992). Rogers
in
that, especially
developing
like Egypt, managers
countries
should develop
a balanced
business
and implement
philosophy
the
of
which
integrates
requirements
profitability
pressures
(Smith
state
al. (1995)

multinationals
ecological
those who
For

and Quelch,

with
needs
live

the

Egyptian
A non-profit
1996a).
"Women's
Organization

needy

social,

of

developing
in them.
the U.K.-based

economic
countries
retail

example,
is a joint venture with
"Egyptian House"
for the Productive
Foundation
Families,

and
and
outlet
Egypt's
a gov

U.S.-based
Middle

to make
(Thomas,

cooperative,
East Network"

unites women
from Egypt,
Israel,
(WOMEN),
Its
and
include
Palestine.
training
Jordan
goals
women
in management,
finance
and
technology,
as well as promoting
social
techniques,
are
to
Products
be marketed
regionally

marketing
services.
and

with
the
internationally,
a
franchise
system
developing

ultimate

aim

of

1995).
(Thomas,
a
retailer
is opening
clothing
in the Middle
of outlets
East, with
large number
as
as
to
locate
well
retail
outlets
production
plans
It can be argued
in Egypt.
is pro
that Niclas

Niclas,

a German

moting

fashion

and

"luxurious"

the

Nevertheless,
brand
loyalty

items.
clothing
to
promote
plans

company's
a children's
include
starting
character
club led by eco-friendly
"Niclas" who
will
and ecology. Niclas
give talks about nature
assure
to
has a regional
partner
adapta
regional
tion

also

of business

(Thomas,
1996b).
approaches
a need
is undoubtedly
for genuine
of the ethics
of foreigners
with
understanding
There

an

whom

international

whether

business,

of multinationals
managers
as Amine
of "moral champions"

the same
implement
world.
Vasquez-Parraga
that codes
of ethics

the
and

faith

of everyday
living
ethical
princi

to forgo
tradition.

ples
Can

for

appreciation
(unity of

humans),
other
hand,

lead people
of the Islamic

culture

foreign
in Egypt. On
the one
executive
for a foreign

be useful

Islamic

which

the Egyptian
for
problems

doing

it might
hand,
to understand

justice.
consider

of

set up
cooperative
self-sufficient
families

ernment-funded

consumers

or

these

to do
seeks
manager
are other businesspeople,

government

In

representatives.

this understanding
should
each particular
culture,
as well as to
to people's
ethics
extend
aspirational
not
should
Managers
practices.
at the practices
look merely
of the most
corrupt
et al.,
Al-Khatib
level of society
1988;
(Tuma,

their

everyday

1995).
of Islamic philosophy
discussion
foregoing
in Egypt
of impli
and practice
suggests a number
are
executives.
These
cations
for international
The

in Table

detailed
in the

II. The

culture,
Egyptian
on social
focuses

based

issues
tradition,
for young
and training
health
such as family,
relations
efforts
and
public
people. Marketing
must
therefore emphasize
these issues (Wilkinson,
Islamic

is planning
House
1996). For example,
Egyptian
on annual place
to sponsor Egyptian
students
ments
to learn marketing
In the tele
techniques.
market,
switching
their position
strengthened

phone

agents more
regarding
to closer,

European
in Egypt

firms

have

by visiting
their
and
agents
educating
frequently
new technology.
Such efforts have led

more

successful

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business

relationships

355

Islamic Ethics

TABLE II
Illustrations

of the business

Islamic philosophy

of Islamic philosophy

implications

Egyptian

practice

and practice

in Egypt

for the foreign

Implications

executive

Unity
in the

Non-discrimination

and friendship must be

often slowly, before
developed,
business is possible. Hiring
of

importance of social
in business
relationships

Trust

Nepotism,

workplace

family members/friends
by
Egyptian partner may result in
less than qualified individuals
for

Importance

of knowledge-seeking

place great emphasis

Egyptians

wherever

education,

economic

Trusteeship
Care of the environment

possible,

level of

the country's

given

on

development.

of

being

are

Changes

Environmental

occurring.

Use of wealth for social causes,

to aid less fortunate people.

attitude.

positions.

training as part of contracts;

transfer; visits to foreign
technology
company's home facilities much

Provide

appreciated.

this, in
Egyptians have neglected
part because of more pressing
economic
problems, but also
because

certain

laws

in
opportunities
environmental
technology field.
Marketing
appeals could be made
on the
the
Islamic
using
perspective
Business

environment.

implemented.

The "new" class which benefited

from liberalization
tends to engage
in

conspicuous

Yet,

there

consumption.
are

also

the part of some

develop

opportunity

to be "moral

champions."

E.g.

the

have

success

of

Egyptian

a joint venture with

Foundation
for the
Egypt's
Productive
Families (Thomas,

to

Islamists

welfare

social

managers

House

on

efforts

International

programs.

in UK,

for
1996a). Also, possibilities
cause-related marketing
in Egypt.
Justice
Precision

in business dealings,
to the
full
information
honesty,
etc.
Individual
buyer,
responsibility.

Informality

in treatment

and measures,

weights
on
a "handshake."
procrastination.

Efforts

of time,

business

extremely

Indecision,
Lack

to gain benefits

of

Showing

trust.

from

state^

Foreign

the

executives

need
and

patient

to be

cautious.

commitment,

strong

however, will likely increase the

commitment
of the Egyptian
for local agent/
Need
partner.
partner.

Prohibition
transactions

receipt

of usurious
e.g.

payment

of interest.

and

Some Egyptian businesspeople

observe this ruling; others do
not.

Need

to find out

the views

of the

Egyptian partner. Foreign executives

would be wise to avoid expressing
opinions, but should follow desires of
for
Egyptian partner. Opportunity
innovative financing methods.
Islamic
institutions and instruments
financing
with many major
growing worldwide
western

banks

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involved.

356
Gillian Rice
Innovative
1995).
(Middle East Executive Reports,
on
are
Islamic
methods
based
financing
practice
are
to
western
and
accessible
growing worldwide
For

executives.

business

investment

Islamic
Bahrain.

The

example,
is headquartered
Bank

Islamic Development
Islamic
agency, The

credit
export
for the Insurance

of

in
an

has

there are some differences

While

it should
and practice,
losophy
that the Islamic worldview
has

phi
remembered

an enduring
and
on
common
In
culture.
strong
Egyptian
are
with most
of the world,
Egyptians
peoples
a for
and honored
very favorably
by
impressed
influence

desire

eigner's genuine
to which
they
inner
Egyptians'

the

about

ideal

of
aspire. An
understanding
in business
conflicts
ethics will
At

be

to learn

appreciated.
should demonstrate

executives

all times,

foreign
for Islam and they
respect
will
will find that, in turn, the Egyptians
truly
beliefs
and
ethical
the
respect
religious
foreigners'
ideals.

Conclusion
to the need

In response
discussion

regarding

to the
Egypt

for further

described

in

and

philosophy
not
It is important
practices.
or
to understand
the philosophy
ideal,
in
is
vital
of
ethics
practice
Knowledge
The

shows

manager.
considerable

diversities
diversities

practice;
philosophy
can
a foreign
understood,
provide
to negotiate
with
ideas on how
even what
be

kinds

of products
The
specific

appreciated.
course, has limited

unique
framework

illustration

if

of

research.

is conducted

partners?
of different
North

non-Muslim

comparisons
such as those from
countries,
the Gulf
and Southeast
region,

Muslim

Africa,

what
is the impact of Islamic
Furthermore,
on
functions
such as
different
business
thinking

Asia.

finance

For example, what

kind
and marketing?
not
in
is
Islamic
advertising
only acceptable
and more
effective? The
cultures, but is preferred
most
to research
these issues is
way
appropriate
of

the attitudes
surveys to ascertain
by conducting
in
and consumers
and practices
of managers
some
In
countries.
Muslim
such as
contexts,
and field exper
research,
laboratory
advertising
also be feasible.
iments may
The
Islamic
Islamic ideal is part of a universal
common
to
around
all Muslims
the
culture,
a deeper
of Islam
appreciation
to
executives
conducting
advantageous
to
with
from
Indonesia
any Muslims,
and from the former
Soviet Central

Hence,

to South

Africa.

References

with

as all cultures
the analytical
in any culture.
a culture's
ideal

focus

business

between
which

executive

concern

this kind

they resolve conflicts with

should
include
Research

Morocco,
Asian
republics

and
Egyptians
services might
case, of
Egyptian

could

from

international

of

examine
first
should
Managers
set of ethics,
ethical
the actual
and second,
to
also
should
attempt
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practice. They
reasons for differences
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these two.
Future empirical
research
are the ethical
issues of most

do

how

business

or

generalizability,
traits. Nevertheless,
I use
is applicable

benefit

much

can be

business

international

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world.

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Islamic

and

have

research

ethics

business

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cultures,
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